ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR_524

THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY IN THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR

Box 17
Which dairy breeds for tropical smallholders?

Smallholder dairy development in Kenya promotes and a failure to breed a heifer replacement during
the use of exotic dairy cattle. A recent study shows the cow’s productive life, which was shortened to less
that these animals are of higher milk potential than than four years by stress and under nutrition. This
tropical climates and feed resources can support. resulted in a high total cost per litre and a decline in
herd size. The energy deficit faced by high-yielding
Models of nutrition and energy balance in Friesians explains why their average annual milk yield
Friesians and their Zebu cross-breeds in zero-grazing in smallholder zero-grazing units is only 1 500 litres
units showed that daily milk yields greater than 18 in the highlands and 1 000 litres at the coast, and
litres cannot be supported by the energy density of the replacement rate is one heifer bred for every two
available feed. Improving feed quality would raise cows leaving the herd.
daily yields above 22 litres, but would generate more
heat than the cow could dissipate, even in the cool The annual milk yields for these Friesian are no
highlands. The cow’s appetite would, therefore, be better than those of dairy Boran, Nandi and Jiddu
depressed and she would draw on her energy reserves cows under improved management 50 years ago, and
to support higher yields. In coastal areas, nutrition is their fecundity and longevity are considerably worse.
worse and cows producing as little as 11 litres per day The performance of indigenous cows was illustrated
suffer continuous, moderate stress in the hot season. by a Zebu cross-bred in the study. Her annual milk
To avoid these adverse effects, daily yield should not yield of 1 570 litres from a maximum daily yield of
exceed 20 litres in the highlands and 14 litres at the 11 litres incurred high direct costs, but these were
coast, giving annual maxima of 4 500 litres and 3 000 offset by the birth of two heifer calves at an interval
litres respectively. of 317 days, to give the lowest total cost per litre. This
example demonstrates that in a low-output system,
The drawback to exceeding these ceilings was not cow productivity should be redefined as efficient
apparent at the start of lactation, when a cow with use of low inputs, increased herd life and number of
a daily yield of, for example, 35 litres had the lowest calves, with less emphasis on maximum daily yield.
direct cost per litre, and provided sufficient milk for
sale, home consumption, and reimbursement of family Provided by John Michael King.
labour. However, a steep decline in lactation revealed For further information see: King et al. (2006).
the energy deficit, which also caused infertility
and extended the calving interval to 460 days. The
outcome of poor reproduction was reduced cull sales

The above-mentioned threat posed by exotic germplasm by breeding companies from
indiscriminate cross-breeding may also be developed countries; in some cases this is supported
exacerbated by policy measures. Food security at by development agencies seeking to promote use
the national level is a strong motivating factor of their national products (Rege and Gibson, 2003).
for livestock development policies in developing In the absence of measures to ensure that the use
countries. The desire to achieve rapid progress has of exotic genetic material is well planned, the
meant that the use of genetic material from high- impacts on local breeds can be serious. Moreover,
producing exotic breeds has often been favoured. indiscriminate cross-breeding with animals not
Policies promoting the use of AI increase the rate adapted to the local environment may not achieve
with which exotic germplasm can be disseminated. the desired effect in terms of increased production,
An exacerbating factor can be the promotion of and may leave the small-scale producer in a more

119

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 1

vulnerable position (for example with regard to 3 Disasters and emergencies5
animal health problems). The problem is succinctly
described in CR Botswana (2003): Disasters such as droughts, floods, hurricanes,
tsunamis, earthquakes, war and civil unrest have
“The Animal Breeding Section of the devastating impacts on lives and livelihoods around
DAHP [Department of Animal Health and the world. Moreover, the frequency of many types
Production] facilitates the importation of of disaster is increasing. Hydrometeorological
cattle semen for farmers that do AI. The and geophysical disasters became, respectively,
semen is also subsidized to help farmers 68 percent and 62 percent more frequent over
afford improve genetic materials of fast the decade between 1994 and 2003 (IFRCS, 2004).
growing breeds. There is no monitoring The numbers of people affected by disasters
in terms of how the progeny of AI bulls also shows an upward trend over this period,
do in terms of their survival and growth with an average of 213 million per year affected
rates in communal production system. The during the first five years of the decade and an
importation of semen and live bulls has average of 303 million per year during the second
resulted in uncontrolled cross breeding of five years. During these ten years, drought and
beef cattle and as a result the indigenous famine were the most deadly “natural” disasters
Tswana cattle are under threat.” accounting for at least 275 000 human deaths
As noted above, the livelihoods of pastoralist (ibid.). Subsequently, the Indian Ocean tsunami
livestock keepers in semi-arid areas are of December 2004 which killed over 100 000
increasingly disrupted, which in turn threatens people showed the massive destructive potential
pastoral livestock breeds. These problems are of geophysical disasters. Figure 36 illustrates the
often exacerbated by policy measures. Access to frequency of various classes of disaster over three
grazing resources is a key issue. Crop production, decades.
wildlife parks, and mineral extraction often take
precedence in policy decisions about land use Despite a vast output of literature on disasters,
(FAO, 2001a). Such developments often impede emergencies and recovery efforts, the impact of
traditional grazing strategies, which enabled the such events on the livestock sector has received
pastoralists to make effective use of rangeland relatively little attention. Accurate data are vital
vegetation. Inappropriate water developments for identifying trends in disaster impacts, and for
can also have adverse effects. The mobile nature prioritizing risk reduction strategies (IFRCS, 2005).
of traditional pastoral livestock keeping does not Useful disaster-related data are increasingly
make for easy relationships with the state; the available, but coverage of the livestock sector
focus of development efforts has often been on remains quite limited. Publicly available sources
promoting sedentary livelihoods, and pastoralists of data include the Emergency Disasters Data
are rarely well represented at policy level or well Base (EM-DAT), maintained by the Brussels-based
served by livestock services. Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of
Another area of policy that can have a major Disasters (CRED) (www.em-dat.net/index.htm) and
impact on AnGR is the relief and rehabilitation DesInventar, a database managed by a coalition
measures that are implemented in response to of non-governmental actors, which covers 16
disasters and emergencies. This aspect of policy is countries in Latin America and the Caribbean
discussed in the following chapter. (http://206.191.28.107/DesInventar/index.jsp).
Interestingly, the latter resource includes figures

5 For a more detailed discussion of the impact of disasters and
emergencies on AnGR, see FAO (2006c).

120

THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY IN THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR

for the numbers of livestock dying in disasters. and the consequent state of emergencies which
However, only a limited number of countries are they engender.
covered, and the heavy dependence on media
sources means that details of losses may not be Historically, disasters have been categorized
completely reliable. Figures that break down into two types: natural and human-made (ADB,
livestock deaths by breed are even more difficult 2005; Duffield, 1994). Within this typology,
to obtain. It is, therefore, rarely possible to assess both forms of disasters were largely conceived
in detail the impacts of specific disasters on AnGR. as distinct and discreet events. In recent years,
Similarly, it is difficult to estimate the overall however, the division has been recognized as
significance of disasters and emergencies as a too rigid. Both natural and human-made events
threat to AnGR diversity on a global scale. can have inter-related impacts. For example,
severe drought in pastoralist rangelands often
The literature on disasters and emergencies is creates situations of social instability and unrest.
filled with a variety of competing terms: natural Human-driven crises can be exacerbated by
disasters, geophysical hazards, climatic hazards, natural phenomenon. For example, civil unrest
complex emergency, complex political emergency, and the subsequent breakdown of disease
crisis, etc. (Oxfam, 1995; PAHO, 2000; Von Braun control strategies can set up conditions for
et al., 2002; Shaluf et al., 2003). There is, however, livestock epidemics. Moreover, primary events
generally a distinction made between disasters can set up secondary hazards such as fires and

FIGURE 36
Number of disasters by type and year

180
160
140
120
100

80
60
40
20

0
1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Drought Earthquake Flood Slides
Volcano Wild Fires Wind Storm

Source: EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database – www.em-dat.net – Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels,
Belgium. Criteria for the inclusion of a disaster in the EM-DAT database are ten or more people reported killed, 100 or more reported
affected, a call for international assistance OR a declaration of a state of emergency.

121

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 1

pollution. A further important consideration is Conversely, the response to chronic emergencies
that disasters do not exist in isolation from the (such as the effect of HIV/AIDS or intermittent,
conditions under which they occur. For example, low-level drought) tends to be much more
disaster impacts will frequently be more severe sporadic, small-scale, and takes place over a
when they occur against a background of severe longer duration. For example, restocking activities
poverty, environmental degradation and/or weak among subsistence farmers are often designed to
institutional structures. “pass on the gift” i.e. transferring young stock to
new beneficiaries (Heffernan et al., 2004). Some
In contrast to “disasters” which are defined projects of this nature have been up to a decade
by the inciting event, the term “emergencies” is or more in length. Hence, the initial impact on
used to describe societal impacts, and in relation AnGR under such conditions may be lower than
to the need for external intervention. Given this in an acute emergency, simply because of the
definition, it is clear that an assessment of the smaller numbers of animal involved. However, the
effects of emergencies on AnGR has to consider long-term effects should not be underestimated.
not only the immediate physical impact on The introduction of relatively small numbers of
livestock populations, but also how social changes exotic animals can have a large effect on the
induced by the emergency may affect livestock genetic composition of the population over the
production, and importantly, the effects of the longer term, particularly if they are favoured
interventions which take place in response to the by the livestock keepers. Further, secondary
emergency. In particular, responses that involve impacts of chronic emergencies such as changes
the provision of livestock to a household or to the livestock sector labour force also have
community by external agents – a process referred implications for AnGR and therefore, must be
to as “restocking” (Heffernan et al., 2004) have to taken into account. HIV/AIDS, for example, can
be carefully assessed. In this context, it is useful to lead to the loss of family labour. The nature and
draw a distinction between “acute” and “chronic” extent of the impact of the disease on livestock
emergencies. In the following discussion, the management and breeding practices in countries
importance of the distinction relates to the with high incidence rates is, however, still not
intensity of impacts. For example, following an well understood (FAO, 2005b; FAO, 2005c).
acute emergency, restocking activities tend to be
large-scale and, in terms of population dynamics, The first question to consider with respect to
the influx of new genetic material into the impacts on AnGR, is the extent to which livestock
livestock population can be viewed as a single, populations are affected by the various types
discreet event, occurring over a limited time of disasters and emergencies. Within the wider
period. Restocking activities after the Balkan wars agricultural sector, there is a notion that geological
of the 1990s were largely concentrated during a natural disasters are of lesser importance
three-year period (Box 18). Similarly, after the than those created by adverse climatic events
super-cyclone that hit coastal Orissa, India in 1999, (ECLAC 2000). However, in the case of livestock
large-scale restocking activities were generally it is important not to dismiss the potential of
completed within a few years. As such, the short- geological events such as earthquakes, volcanic
term impacts of these acute events on AnGR are eruptions and tsunamis to kill large numbers of
high. Longer-term effects are largely dependent animals.
on how well the introduced animals survive in
their new environment and on the breeding A further issue is whether raw figures for
strategies farmers pursue (whether the restocked livestock mortality can be differentiated in
animals are preferentially selected for breeding). any way that is useful with respect to assessing
potential impacts on AnGR diversity. There
is little evidence for differential impacts on

122

THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY IN THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR

different breeds or types of animal. Quantitative of damage and/or loss of life. At a later stage,
data for disaster impacts at the breed level are, efforts are made to restore and rebuild damaged
perhaps unsurprisingly, very hard to come by. It is infrastructure and economies. Historically,
possible to speculate that different management preparedness and risk-management activities
practices could differentially expose animals to were often created for the wider agricultural
risks (FAO, 2006a; RamaKumar, 2000), or that sector, but with few specific recommendations
for some types of emergencies animals with for livestock. In recent years, there have been
specific adaptations could have greater survival efforts to redress this deficiency by a variety of
capacities, but drawing any conclusions regarding international agencies (FAO, 2004b; Oxfam, 2005).
the significance of such effects is difficult. Aside However, the influence of this work on policy is not
from any such potential differences in terms of yet clear. Further, emergency response activities
susceptibility, the size and the distribution of in developing countries are generally geared
breed populations is a factor to be considered. toward saving human lives, while animal medical
Small populations, and particularly those emergency teams are restricted to wealthier
concentrated within a limited geographical area, countries. Conversely, rehabilitation activities
would seem to be the most threatened. Further, generally do include livestock-related activities
if the small populations happen to be located – mainly restocking. Historically, therefore, this
in disaster-prone areas, the risk will be greater. has been the phase with the greatest potential
FAO (2006a), for example, notes that Yucatan, impact with respect to AnGR.
Mexico where many backyard pigs were lost as
a result of Hurricane Isodara in 2001, is home to Without external interventions, recovery of
the endangered Box Keken pig. While in the case the livestock sector is a slow process, with the
of disease epidemics, there is some evidence of restoration of herds taking place over many
adverse impacts on small breed populations, it years. Where restocking is undertaken by external
is difficult to find comparable accounts for other agents such as donors and NGOs, recovery of the
types of disaster. Given that for much of the world, livestock economy is rapidly accelerated. While
information on the geographical distribution of farmers generally cannot obtain animals from
livestock breeds is limited, assessing the extent of outside the locality, external agents can and
such risks, and taking any measures to alleviate do. Local livestock economies destroyed by the
them is problematic. catastrophe can, thus, be rapidly jump-started.
However, the unintentional consequence may be
Where emergency response interventions are large-scale and irreversible changes to the genetic
concerned, safeguarding AnGR will rarely be a make-up of local livestock populations.
high priority. Nonetheless, it is likely that informed
decisions on the part of the livestock practitioners The question of AnGR diversity is not widely
involved in such actions could greatly obviate discussed in the literature on restocking. However,
negative effects on AnGR without disrupting it is often argued that effects are minimal with
humanitarian objectives. It is, therefore, important regard to the overall size of the local livestock
that the potential impacts of such actions with population, as animals used for restocking
respect to breed diversity are explored. are purchased locally (Kelly, 1993; Oxby, 1994;
Toulmin, 1994). If animals are sourced locally, then
Actions to alleviate the effects of disasters impacts on the genetic constitution of the livestock
generally consist of a number of phases. Prior to an population will also be small. However, it is far
emergency, preparedness and risk-management from clear that this is always the case. Restocking
strategies may be implemented. During and projects require large numbers of breeding-age
immediately after the event, the focus is on females, which are often unavailable in a post-
providing relief to the victims and assessing levels disaster situation (Heffernan and Rushton, 1998).

123

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 1

For example, Hogg (1985) describing a restocking the inputs stop or the economic scenario
project in northern Kenya, notes that there was changes, keeping ‘improved’ animals
an inability to fulfil project quotas using only local is no longer technically feasible and
sources. Livestock traders from nearby districts economically viable.”
were required. In other cases, livestock may be If the introduced animals are unable to survive
imported from neighbouring countries or from or are immediately unpopular with the local
further afield. Restocking projects carried out in livestock keepers, this may reduce the impacts of
the countries of former-Yugoslavia following the the restocking projects in genetic terms. However,
wars of the 1990s relied heavily on Simmental there is a danger that such problems may not be
and other exotic cattle breeds imported from immediately evident, and that indigenous breeds,
other parts of Europe (Box 18). Similarly, Hanks well adapted to the needs of the local population
(1998) describes the use of cattle from Zimbabwe may be lost (ibid.). As such, inappropriate decisions
for restocking projects in Mozambique. regarding the breeds used for restocking can
have negative impacts both in terms of genetic
The next question that has to be considered, is diversity and on the well-being of the human
whether the introduction of exotic animals through populations affected.
restocking projects has an important impact on The importance of well-designed measures
the genetic composition of the local population. for the management of AnGR in the context of
Using a simple population model tracing the disasters and emergencies is therefore clear. As
progeny of the restocked animals, it can be shown the previous discussion illustrates, activities are
that even a relatively small initial population of required in three phases: preparedness (prior to
restocked animals can have a considerable impact the emergency); salvage operations during the
on the indigenous gene pool, with the proportion emergency; and rehabilitation (in the recovery
of pure-bred indigenous animals in the local phases).
population declining markedly within a relatively Disaster preparedness activities can focus on
short period of time (FAO, 2006c). The extent of several areas. First, an appropriate legislative
the effect is heavily dependent on the breeding environment for saving threatened AnGR under
strategies adopted following the restocking, being disaster conditions should be fostered. This can
greater if the restocked animals are favoured by be particularly valuable in the case of disasters
the livestock keepers involved (ibid.). that unfold over an extended period of time such
as drought or epidemic diseases (see following
Aside from potential impacts on AnGR diversity, chapter) and where there is sufficient time to
there can be other reasons why choosing exotic implement conservation measures during the
animals for restocking projects may not be emergency. Second, a variety of risk mitigation
appropriate. In the case of the above-mentioned strategies can be undertaken such as the creation
restocking projects in Mozambique, efforts were and support of fodder banks in areas affected by
seriously disrupted by high mortality rates among climatic hazards such as drought or severe winter
the imported animals (Hanks, 1998). Longer- snows – see, for example, CR Mongolia (2004). A
term socio-economic outcomes may also not be further key activity is the characterization of the
desirable. As Köhler-Rollefson (2000) notes: genetic resources in potentially affected areas. In
many countries rare or priority AnGR have not
“There are many cases where the been sufficiently identified – making informed
substitution of native breeds through choices during the emergency and during any
high-input-dependent exotic breeds or subsequent restocking activities difficult. Finally,
their dilution through cross-breeding has pre-emptive measures can be undertaken to
rendered communities dependent upon
outside supplies and subsidies, as well as
vulnerable to ecological calamities. Once

124

THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY IN THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR

establish ex situ conservation programmes, likely to present many of the restocked households
thereby seeking to ensure that some genetic with considerable problems (Etienne, 2004).
material from the local breeds is maintained
outside the areas affected by the emergency. Conversely, in a chronic emergency there is
more leeway for a change in the role of livestock.
During an emergency, genetic salvage Indeed, there have been many cases of restocking
operations may be appropriate if rare AnGR are projects that have introduced dairying to support
affected and there is a continuing threat to the local livelihoods with much success (HPI, 2002).
animals that have survived the initial catastrophe. Nevertheless, insufficient labour and access to
Operations of this kind are, however, likely to be inputs can remain important limitations. Hence,
logistically almost impossible in many countries. decisions regarding the appropriate genetic
The most feasible approach is probably the resources for such projects require careful
collection of genetic material for cryoconservation. consideration of the constraints and potentials of
Effective action at this stage is only possible if the local production environment. Additionally,
accurate information is available regarding the an understanding of farmer perceptions regarding
characteristics of the affected animals and the the breed and/or species to be utilized is required.
extent of the threat faced. In the absence of This is an important consideration not only for the
such information it may still be feasible to collect success of the project in livelihood terms, but also
genetic material for conservation, but measures with respect to the impact of restocking on AnGR,
will be less well targeted, and can be regarded as as the latter will be affected by the breeding
a last-resort attempt to reduce the impact of the strategies that farmers pursue (FAO, 2006c).
emergency on AnGR.
An additional issue in an acute emergency is the
The task of repopulating herds post-disaster is quantification of livestock losses. Estimations of
likely to require a commitment of several years losses after disasters are often extrapolated from
on the part of the donor agency to establish a limited field surveys, and the reliability of the
viable support programme for the intended figures is often uncertain. An accurate estimation
beneficiaries. A first step for decision-makers of livestock losses enables the scope of the required
is to consider the role of livestock within the restocking to be determined. Further, the extent
production system in question. In the wake of of the losses will determine whether animals can
an acute emergency it is generally not advisable be sourced locally, or whether regional, national
to initiate a restocking project that changes the or even international populations have to be
production orientation of the livestock keepers tapped. Also important is the identification of a
involved. For example, introducing dairy breeds population base-line against which future changes
in a post-disaster situation among households in the livestock population can be measured.
not previously involved in dairying is not likely Consequently, within the potential project area,
to be successful. Many of the inputs required to the existing breeds should be catalogued and any
support such a change are usually unavailable at-risk breeds identified prior to restocking. These
in a post-disaster situation. Thus, the objective arguments, however, have to be balanced against
of restocking in an acute emergency should, the pressing demands on time and resources
generally, be to restore previous production levels, that prevail in an acute emergency situation.
rather than dramatically to alter the production Information will never be completely accurate,
system or livelihoods of the affected households. and less formal methods of assessing losses will at
This should be done using breeds that are suitable times be the most appropriate.
for the local environment and existing levels of
management. A failure to match the restocked
animals to the prevailing production conditions is

125

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 1

Box 18
War and rehabilitation in Bosnia and Herzegovina

During the 1992–1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina Semen was also imported. Farmers who had lost
the livestock sector was seriously affected. Cattle over 50 percent of their farms’ production assets
numbers are thought to have declined by 60 percent, and who had sufficient land to keep animals, could
sheep by 75 percent, pigs by 90 percent, poultry by obtain soft loans from the government. In general,
68 percent and horses by 65 percent. A nucleus herd the policy was to supply one cow per family, but
of pure-bred Busa cattle near Sarajevo was destroyed later more commercially oriented units with three
along with the herd book and other documentation. to five cows were preferred. While the imported
The breeding and conservation programme for the breeds clearly have the potential to increase milk and
Bosnian Mountain Horse was also severely disrupted. meat production, insufficient feed resources, poor
Additionally, a number of flocks of pure-bred Sjenicka management practices and a lack of animal health
sheep were completely eradicated. and milk collection services have in some cases
limited the success of the restocking projects.
In 1996, a three-year programme for the
rehabilitation of the animal production sector was Numerous organizations have been involved in
adopted. It envisaged the import of 60 000 high- the distribution of animals in Bosnia and Herzegovina
quality cows, 100 000 sheep and 20 000 goats. during the years following the war, and imports by the
During the first year of the programme (1997) private sector have also sought to meet demand. The
around 10 000 heifers were imported, 6 500 of full extent of these imports and the breeds involved
which were financed by the International Fund for is not well recorded. Nonetheless, it is clear that the
Agricultural Development (IFAD) and coordinated war and the subsequent rehabilitation efforts have led
by the Project Implementation Unit of the Federal to considerable changes in to the composition of the
Ministry of Agriculture. The remaining numbers were livestock population over recent years. The population
made up of donations from various governments and of Busa cattle, for example, estimated to be above
humanitarian organizations. Heifers were imported 80 000 in 1991, fell to below 100 by 2003.
from Hungary, Austria, Germany and the Netherlands.
Seventy-five percent were Simmental, 10 percent For further information see: CR Bosnia and Herzegovina
Holstein-Friesian, 10 percent Montafona (Alpine (2003); FAO (2006c); SVABH. (2003).
Brown) and 5 percent Oberinntal (Grey Tyrolean).

4 Epidemics and disease control
measures

Throughout the world, and in all production terms of livestock deaths in the affected locations.
systems, livestock diseases lead to mortality and Diseases posing a severe threat to the livestock
reduced productivity in farm animals, necessitate economy provoke concerted control efforts, which
expenditures for prevention and control, constrain may include large-scale slaughter programmes, in
the objectives of livestock keepers, limit economic addition to other measures such as surveillance,
development, and threaten human public health. vaccination and controls on the movement of
Animal health constraints greatly influence animals. The diseases in question are, in many
decision-making with respect to livestock keeping cases, transboundary diseases, outbreaks of which
and the utilization of genetic resources. Some have severe consequences for international trade.
disease epidemics have a devastating impact in Serious threats to human health from zoonotic

126

THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY IN THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR

diseases, particularly on an international scale, An outbreak of classical swine fever (CSF) in the
also motivate strong disease control measures. In Netherlands in 1997 resulted in the slaughter of
recent years, numerous economically disastrous almost 7 million pigs (OIE, 2005). The 2001 foot-
livestock disease epidemics, and particularly the and-mouth disease (FMD) epidemic in the United
emergence of highly pathogenic avian influenza Kingdom resulted in the slaughter of around 6.5
(HPAI), have focused attention on the need for million sheep, cattle and pigs (Anderson, 2002).
better control and prevention of transboundary The 1997 outbreak of African swine fever (ASF) in
diseases (FAO/OIE, 2004). Benin resulted in the deaths of 376 000 pigs, with
a further 19 000 slaughtered for disease control
Epidemics potentially threaten AnGR as a result purposes (OIE, 2005) – this in a country where the
of livestock deaths from disease or slaughter total pig population at the time was only around
policies. Alternatively, the effects of diseases may 470 000 (FAOSTAT). Other recent epidemics
be less direct. Livestock breeds are often adapted causing high levels of mortality have included an
to providing a particular set of products or services outbreak of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia
within a particular production environment. (CBPP) in Angola in 1997; outbreaks of CSF in
If conditions change – for example because of the Dominican Republic in 1998 and in Cuba in
emerging animal health problems or the burdens 2001/2002; ASF epidemics in a number of African
imposed by disease control measures – existing countries, such as Madagascar in 1998 and Togo
livestock keeping practices may be adapted, replaced in 2001; and FMD outbreaks in Ireland and the
or abandoned, and the associated livestock breeds Netherlands in 2001, and in the Republic of Korea
may be placed at risk. Additional costs or restrictions in 2002 (OIE, 2005). Table 40 shows the impacts, in
related to disease control may arise as a result of terms of deaths and culls, of recent major disease
trade or food hygiene-related requirements, in epidemics. Unfortunately, the effects on genetic
addition to the immediate effects of disease on resources are often difficult to assess, as breed-
livestock productivity. Although the discussion here specific information is unavailable. Other things
focuses on the threat of genetic erosion as a result being equal, impacts are likely to be high where
of livestock diseases, it should be recognized that a large proportion of the animal population dies.
in many circumstances, the presence of diseases To give some indication of the relative impact
inhibits the introduction of susceptible exotic of different epidemics in this respect, Table 40
animals, and thereby necessitates the continued presents the figures for deaths and culls as a
utilization of locally adapted breeds. proportion of national animal population figures
for the species and year in question in addition to
Recent years have seen a number of serious the raw mortality figures. The most serious recent
epidemics, which have led to the death or outbreaks in terms of number of deaths relative
preventive slaughter of millions of animals. The to national population sizes for the affected
HPAI outbreak in 2003/2004 in Thailand resulted species are shown.
in the loss of around 30 million birds (Ministry
of Agriculture and Cooperatives, 2005). Between The impact on genetic resources cannot be
January and June 2004, 18 million native chickens quantified simply in terms of the numbers of dead
were slaughtered in an effort to control the animals. The risk of erosion is likely to be greatest
disease, a figure which amounted to approximately where rare breeds are confined to areas severely
29 percent of the country’s native chicken affected by a disease outbreak, or where a disease
population (ibid.). Approximately 43 million birds disproportionally affects production systems
were destroyed in Viet Nam in 2003/2004, and 16 where rare genetic resources or those with specific
million in Indonesia – roughly equivalent to 17 adaptations are to be found. The extent to which
percent and 6 percent of the respective national epidemics have an impact on genetic resources is
populations (Rushton et al., 2005). also likely to be influenced by the nature of the

127

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 1

restocking policies implemented in the wake of had a marked adverse impact on specific genetic
the outbreak (see previous section). resources.

The extent to which diseases have affected CR Japan (2003) mentions that in 2000
AnGR is often difficult to assess fully because of approximately two-thirds of the population of the
a lack of data differentiating or characterizing rare Kuchinoshima cattle breed on Kuchinoshima
the animals affected. For example, in Ngamiland, Island died as the result of a disease epidemic.
Botswana more than 340 000 uncharacterized Cattle populations in Zambia, particularly the
cattle were slaughtered in 1995 because of an indigenous Tonga breed, are reported to have
outbreak of CBPP (CR Botswana, 2003). However, been badly affected by corridor disease (a tick-
there are some cases where there is evidence borne disease) during the last ten years, with the
that disease mortality, slaughter programmes number of cattle in Southern Province reduced
and/or subsequent restocking programmes have by 30 percent (Lungu, 2003). Details of the

TABLE 40
Impact of recent disease epidemics

Disease Year Country Number of animals Proportion of the total
[1 000s] population size [%]

Culls Deaths Culls Deaths

African Swine Fever 1997 Benin 18.9 375.9 4 80
African Swine Fever 1998 Madagascar 0 7
African Swine Fever 2001 Togo 0 107.3 1 5
African Swine Fever 2000 Togo 3 0
Avian Influenza 2003 Netherlands 2.2 15 30 0
Avian Influenza 2003/4 Viet Nam 17 -
Avian Influenza 2003/4 Thailand 10 0
Avian Influenza 2003/4 Indonesia 15** -
Avian Influenza 2000 Italy 30 569 76.2 6 0
Avian Influenza 2004 Canada 9 0
CBPP (cattle) 1997 Angola 43 000* - 8 0
Classical Swine Fever 2002 Luxembourg 12 0
Classical Swine Fever 1997 Netherlands 29 000** 20 0
Classical Swine Fever 2002 Cuba 4 0
Classical Swine Fever 2001 Cuba 16 000* - 4 0
Classical Swine Fever 1998 Dominican Republic 4 1
FMD (cattle) 2001 United Kingdom 11 000 0 1 0
FMD (pigs) 2001 United Kingdom 7 0
FMD (sheep) 2001 United Kingdom 13 700 0 8 0
FMD (sheep) 2001 Netherlands 14 0
FMD (cattle) 2002 Republic of Korea 435.2 0.2 3 0
8
16.2 0.04

681.8 0

65.5 0.7

45.8 1.5

8.7 13.7

758*** 0

449*** 0

5 249*** 0

32.6 0

158.7 0

Sources: OIE (2005) for mortality figures; FAOSTAT for population figures.
*Rushton et al. (2005) – number of culls only, no figures for deaths from the disease.
** FAO (2005d) – figure includes both culls and deaths from the disease.
***Anderson (2002) – figures exclude newborn lambs and calves slaughtered along with the mother, for which accurate figures are
not available (ibid.) so actual number of culls would have been higher.

128

THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY IN THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR

TABLE 41 elimination of the local Creole pigs. The country
Examples of breeds affected by the FMD outbreak was first restocked with Yorkshire, Hampshire
in the United Kingdom in 2001 and Duroc breeds brought in from the United
States of America. Attempts to establish large
Breed Total number Estimated peri-urban piggeries proved unsustainable, and
of breeding reduction the breeds were not suited to the management
of breeding conditions found in local small-scale production.
females females in 2001 Later, Gascon × Chinese × Guadeloupe Creole pigs,
in 2002 more appropriate to the local conditions, were
[%] introduced (CR Haiti, 2004).

Cattle 1 400 approx. 30 With respect to the potential for disease
Belted Galloway 3 500 25 epidemics to have differential impacts on
Galloway 21 production systems where indigenous breeds
Whitebred Shorthorn 120 are kept, the case of the HPAI emergency in
Sheep < 40 Southeast Asia may offer an example. Village or
British Milksheep 1 232 39 backyard poultry flocks are generally comprised of
Cheviot (South Country) 43 000 35 indigenous breeds, in contrast to the commercial
Herdwick 45 000 23 hybrid birds found in large-scale poultry units.
Hill Radnor 1 893 31 Efforts to control the disease could lead to the
Rough Fell 12 000 30 establishment of “poultry free zones” around
Swaledale 750 000 23 large-scale production units (FAO, 2004a). The
Whitefaced Woodland sustainability of backyard poultry production may
Source: Roper (2005). 656 also be constrained by changes to management
practices and cultural activities enforced with the
impact of disease on genetic resources tend to aim of minimizing the threat of HPAI. For example,
be best recorded in countries such as the United the raising of multiple species, such as keeping
Kingdom where there are well-established ducks or geese alongside chickens has been
NGOs active in the conservation of rare breeds. prohibited in some countries in the wake of HPAI
The slaughter programmes enacted at the time outbreaks. Cultural and social events involving
of the FMD epidemic in the United Kingdom the mixing of birds (for example cock fighting
in 2001, threatened breed populations that were or the exhibition of songbirds) may be banned.
largely confined to the affected areas. Affected Traditional mobile duck keeping on rice paddies,
populations included endangered breeds such as which involve the movement of flocks over
the Whitefaced Woodland sheep and Whitebred considerable distances, is also being discouraged.
Shorthorn cattle (see Table 41). Similarly, during In short, the ongoing threat of HPAI is likely to
the FMD outbreak in the Netherlands, flocks result in a future Southeast Asian poultry sector
of rare breeds such as the Schoonebeker sheep which has “fewer backyard producers … [and] no
were culled in the Veluwe National Park (CR more ranging, herded [duck] flocks” (FAO, 2005d).
Netherlands, 2002). Small-scale commercial poultry producers also
face great difficulties in responding to the threat
An extreme example is presented by the of HPAI, and their future may also be in doubt.
case of the Haitian Creole pig. During the late However, these producers largely keep imported
1970s there were outbreaks of ASF in several breeds.
Caribbean countries (FAO, 2001b). In Haiti,
slaughter programmes to eradicate the disease, In the case of ASF, CR Madagascar (2003)
implemented between 1979 and 1982, led to the indicates that the appearance of the disease in

129

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 1

the country in 1998, and subsequent regulations Following recent severe disease epidemics, the
imposed on pig keeping, has accelerated a trend need to address potential conflicts between
towards more intensive pig production and the veterinary and conservation objectives has begun
disappearance of scavenging systems based to be recognized. For example the EU’s 2003
on indigenous breeds. Similarly, CR Sri Lanka FMD Directive provides for exemptions to the
(2002) mentions that scavenging pig production regulations requiring the immediate slaughter
may be threatened because of concerns about of infected animals, at sites such as laboratories,
outbreaks of Japanese encephalitis in humans. A zoos, wildlife parks or other fenced areas, which
contrasting example of how the threat of disease have been identified in advance as the location of
may influence the nature of production systems, a breeding nucleus indispensable to the survival of
and hence the utilization of genetic resources, is a breed (EU, 2003b). During the 2001 epidemic in
an increase in the population of general-purpose the United Kingdom measures were introduced to
sheep breeds in the United Kingdom, as a result allow the owners of flocks of rare sheep or goats to
of an increased number of self-contained flocks apply for exemption to the slaughter programmes
following the 2001 FMD epidemic (CR United affecting animals on farms within 3 km of a site
Kingdom, 2002). of infection, provided strict biosecurity measures
were observed (MAFF, 2001). With regard to the
Genetic resources may also be threatened by avian influenza situation in Asia, the protection
efforts undertaken to eradicate diseases that of valuable genetic material is regarded as a
have a genetic dimension to their causation. possible justification for pre-emptive vaccination
For example, the EU’s regulations (EU, 2003a) of poultry populations against HPAI (FAO, 2004a).
related to the elimination of scrapie have raised In the case of scrapie control programmes,
concerns regarding rare breeds that lack or further research is being undertaken to assess the
have low frequency of the resistant genotypes. probable impacts on specific rare breeds, in order
Having been present in European flocks for at to devise appropriate conservation strategies in
least 250 years, scrapie is a rather different case the context of efforts to eradicate the disease
to the acute epidemics described elsewhere (Townsend et al., 2005).
in this chapter. However, because of concerns
about human health, there is a strong motivation A number of precautionary measures aimed at
to act rapidly to introduce rigorous control minimizing the risks to valuable livestock genetic
measures. Participation in breeding schemes will resources in the event of disease epidemics have
be compulsory for all flocks of “high genetic been advocated. For example, the prospect of rare
merit”. In the United Kingdom, for example, the breed populations being wiped out by an epidemic
regulations will apply to “all purebred breeding can be seen as a justification for cryoconservation
flocks and, in addition, any other flock that programmes. Further preventive actions could
produces and sells homebred rams for breeding.” include ensuring that sites conserving important
(DEFRA, 2005). Slaughter or castration of rams genetic resources are established in more than
and ram lambs found to be carrying the scrapie- one location and preferably in regions with low
susceptible VRQ allele will be compulsory. The livestock density; in the case of farms keeping
immediate removal of these genotypes would be multiple breeds, ensuring the isolation of rare
likely to present problems for the conservation of breeds from other livestock; and maintaining
a number of rare British sheep breeds (Townsend up-to-date lists of sites keeping rare breeds (CR
et al., 2005). Germany, 2003).

Although the picture is far from complete, the It is important to note that all such measures
evidence indicates that in many cases it is the are to a very large extent dependent on the
control measures rather than the disease itself availability of accurate information regarding the
which pose the greatest threat to AnGR diversity. characteristics, and risk status of the threatened

130

THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY IN THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR

breeds and, importantly, of their distribution it is clear that large numbers of animals can be
by geographical location and/or production lost, and that it is often culling rather than the
system within the affected countries. This, again, disease itself that accounts for the largest number
underlines the need for effective characterization of deaths. It is only recently that threats to AnGR
of AnGR if conservation goals are to be achieved. have been given any consideration in the planning
A further point to highlight is the need for of disease control measures, and they continue to
advanced planning of any conservation actions to be largely ignored. The FMD epidemics of 2001
be implemented in the event of livestock disease showed that even in European countries with a
epidemics. Trying to formulate and implement strong tradition of breed conservation activities,
responses once an outbreak has started is far steps to protect AnGR had to be taken on an ad
more difficult. hoc basis, and that several rare breeds were quite
seriously threatened by the culling campaign.
5 Conclusions Disease control often operates within legal
frameworks that reduce the scope for flexibility
Many of the underlying factors threatening in emergency response measures to account for
AnGR cannot easily be influenced. Change is an threats to AnGR. Limited steps to address this issue
inevitable feature of livestock production systems, have been taken in Europe (see Part 3 – Section E:
and “catastrophic” events will never be fully 3), but the potential for conflict between animal
preventable or even predictable. Moreover, it is health and breed conservation objectives remains
neither possiblenordesirablethattheconservation considerable. Preparedness is essential if rare
of AnGR per se should take precedence over other breeds are to be protected. Drawing up effective
objectives such as food security, humanitarian plans is, however, again hampered by a lack of
response to disasters, or the control of serious relevant information regarding what breeds to
animal diseases. Nonetheless, there are a number prioritize and how to target them.
of measures that could be put in place to alleviate
the effects of these threatening forces. Too The impact of disasters and emergencies on
often, however, threats to AnGR, as well as the AnGR is also not well documented. In the initial
potential contribution of local breeds to wider aftermath of a disaster collecting data on losses
development objectives, are overlooked at the and protecting local AnGR will never be of high
policy level. This tends to translate into policies priority. Nevertheless, experience shows that post-
that promote the increased use of a limited range disaster restocking activities need to be carefully
of AnGR, and that fail to put measures in place to considered if they are not to have an adverse
protect threatened breeds. effect on AnGR diversity, and to ensure that the
breeds used are appropriate to the needs of the
In many cases, a fundamental problem is a lack of intended beneficiaries.
sufficient knowledge regarding the characteristics
of AnGR; their distribution geographically and by To conclude, it is clear that the management of
production system; their roles in the livelihoods of threats to AnGR, needs to be better integrated
their keepers; and the ways in which their utilization into many aspects of livestock sector development.
is affected by changing management practices and Concrete steps towards meeting this objective
broader trends in the livestock sector. This often include:
means that emerging threats are not identified or
that their significance is not appreciated. • better characterization of AnGR and their
locations;
It is generally difficult to quantify the impact of
disease epidemics on AnGR diversity – mortality • providing tools for the ex ante assessment
data are rarely broken down by breed. However, of the genetic impact of development
interventions, including post-emergency
restocking measures; and

• the elaboration, in advance, of plans to

131

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 1

protect unique AnGR in the event of disease Delgado, C., Rosegrant, M., Steinfeld, H., Ehui S. &
outbreaks or other acute threats (including Courbois, C. 1999. Livestock to 2020: the next food
where necessary a re-examination of revolution. Food Agriculture and the Environment
relevant legislation). Discussion Paper 28. IFPRI/FAO/ILRI.
It is likely that in many cases such measures
would not only help to reduce the risk of genetic Donahoe, B. & Plumley, D. 2001 Requiem or recovery:
erosion, but would also promote efficient the 21st-century fate of the reindeer-herding peo-
utilization of existing AnGR, and hence would be ples of Inner Asia. Cultural Survival Quarterly, 25(2):
complementary to wider livestock development 75–77. (also available at http://209.200.101.189/
objectives. publications/csq/csq-article.cfm?id=570).

6 References Donahoe, B. & Plumley, D. (eds.). 2003. The troubled
taiga: survival on the move for the last nomadic rein-
deer herders of South Siberia, Mongolia, and China.
Special Issue of Cultural Survival Quarterly, 27(1).

ACI/ASPS. 2002. Commercialization of livestock Drucker, A., Bergeron, E., Lemke, U., Thuy, L.T. &
production in Viet Nam. Policy Brief for Viet Nam. Valle Zárate, A. 2006. Identification and quantifica-
Agriculture Sector Programme Support (ASPS); tion of subsidies relevant to the production of local
Hanoi. Agrifood Consulting International (ACI). and imported pig breeds in Vietnam. Tropical Animal
Health and Production, 38(4): 305–322.

ADB. 2005. Country Environmental Analysis: Mongolia. Duffield, M. 1994. Complex emergencies and the
Mandaluyong City, the Philippines. Asian crisis of developmentalism. In Linking Relief and
Development Bank. Development, IDS Bulletin. Vol. 25(4): 37–45.

Anderson, I. 2002. Foot and mouth disease 2001: Dýrmundsson, Ó.R. 2002. Leadersheep. the unique
lessons to be learned inquiry report. Presented strain of Iceland sheep. Animal Genetic Resources
to the Prime Minister and the Secretary of State Information, 32: 45–48.
for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, and the
devolved administrations in Scotland and Wales. ECLAC. 2000. Handbook for estimating the socio-
London. The Stationery Office. economic and environmental effects of disasters.
Santiago, Chile, Economic Commission for Latin
CR (Country name). Year. Country report on the state of American and the Caribbean.
animal genetic resources. (available in DAD-IS library
at www.fao.org/dad-is/). Etienne, C. 2004. From a chaotic emergency aid-to
a sustainable self-help programme. BeraterInnen
Daniel, V.A.S. 2000. Strategies for effective community News, 2: 25–28.
based biodiversity programs interlocking develop-
ment and biodiversity mandates. Paper presented EU. 2003a. Council Directive 2003/85/EC of 29
at the Global Biodiversity Forum, held 12–14 May September 2003 on Community measures for
2000, Nairobi, Kenya. (available at www.gbf. the control of foot-and-mouth disease repealing
ch/Session_Administration/upload/paper_daniel. Directive 85/511/ EEC and Decisions 89/531/EEC
pdf#search=%22loss%20migration%20urban%20l and 91/665/EEC and amending Directive 92/46/EEC.
ivestock%20%22loss%20of%20traditional%20kno Official Journal of the European Union, 22.11.2003.
wledge%22%22).
EU. 2003b. Commission Decision of 13 February 2003
DEFRA. 2005. NSP Update, Issue 7. National Scrapie laying down minimum requirements for the estab-
Plan, Worcester, UK. Department for Environment lishment of breeding programmes for resistance to
Food and Rural Affairs. transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in sheep.
Official Journal of the European Union, 14.02.2003.

132

THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY IN THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR

FAO. 1996. Livestock - environment interactions. Issues FAO. 2006c. The impact of disasters and emergencies on
and options, by H. Steinfeld, C. de Haan & animal genetic resources: a scoping document, by C.
H. Blackburn, Rome. Heffernan & M. Goe. Rome.

FAO. 2001a. Pastoralism in the new millennium. Animal FAO/OIE. 2004. The global framework for the progres-
Production and Health Paper 150. Rome. sive control of transboundary animal diseases.
FAO/OIE. Paris/Rome.
FAO. 2001b. Manual on the preparation of African
swine fever contingency plans. Animal Production FAOSTAT. (available at http://faostat.fao.org).
and Health Paper 11. Rome.
Farooquee, N.A., Majila, B.S. & Kala, C.P. 2004.
FAO. 2002. Valuing animal genetic resources: some basic Indigenous knowledge systems and sustainable
issues, by H. Steinfeld. Unpublished Report. Rome. management of natural resources in a high altitude
society in Kamaun Himalaya, India. Journal of
FAO. 2004a. FAO recommendations on the prevention, Human Ecology, 16(1): 33–42.
control and eradication of highly pathogenic avian
influenza (HPAI) in Asia, September 2004. Rome. Goe, M.R. & Stranzinger, G. 2002. Developing appro-
priate strategies for the prevention and mitigation
FAO. 2004b. A step forward in the preparation of the of natural and human-induced disasters on livestock
first report. Animal Genetic Resources Information, production. Internal Working Document. Breeding
34: 1. Biology Group, Institute of Animal Sciences, Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich.
FAO. 2004c. Conservation strategies for animal genetic
resources, by D.R. Notter. Background Study Paper Haag, A.L. 2004. Future of ancient culture rides
No. 22. Commission on Genetic Resources for Food on herd’s little hoofbeats, New York Times,
and Agriculture. Rome. December 21, 2004 (also available at http://query.
nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B11FE38540
FAO. 2005a. The globalizing livestock sector: impact C728EDDAB0994DC404482).
of changing markets. Committee on Agriculture,
Nineteenth Session, Provisional Agenda Item 6. Hanks, J. 1998. The development of a decision sup-
Rome. port system for restocking in Mozambique. Field
Report. Reading, UK. Veterinary Epidemiology and
FAO. 2005b. Livestock production and HIV/AIDS in East Economics Research Unit, University of Reading.
and Southern Africa, by M. Goe. Working Paper.
Animal Production and Health. Rome. Heffernan, C., Nielsen, L. & Misturelli, F. 2004.
Restocking pastoralists: a manual of best practice
FAO. 2005c. Linkages between HIV/AIDS and the and decision-support tools. Rugby, UK. ITDG.
livestock sector in East and Southern Africa, by M.
Goe & S. Mack. Technical Workshop, Addis Ababa, Heffernan, C. & Rushton, J. 1998. Restocking: a critical
Ethiopia, 8-10 March 2005. Animal Production and evaluation. Nomadic Peoples 4(1).
Health Proceedings No. 8. Rome.
Hiemstra, S.J., Drucker, A.G., Tvedt, M.W., Louwaars,
FAO. 2005d. Economic and social impacts of avian N., Oldenbroek, J.K., Awgichew, K., Bhat, P.N.
influenza, by A. McLeod, N. Morgan, A. Prakash & J. & da Silva Mariante, A. 2006. Exchange, use and
Hinrichs. FAO Emergency Centre for Transboundary conservation of farm animal genetic resources.
Animal Disease Operations (ECTAD). Rome. identification of policy and regulatory options.
Wageningen, the Netherlands. Centre for Genetic
FAO. 2006a. A review of environmental effects on ani- Resources, the Netherlands (CGN), Wageningen
mal genetic resources, by S. Anderson. Rome. University and Research Centre.

FAO. 2006b. Underneath the livestock revolution, by A.
Costales, P. Gerber & H. Steinfeld. In Livestock report
2006, pp. 15–27. Rome.

133

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 1

Hogg, R. 1985. Restocking pastoralists in Kenya: a MAFF. 2001. Exemptions for rare breeds and hefted
strategy for relief and rehabilitation. ODI Pastoral sheep from contiguous cull. MAFF News Release,
Development Network Paper 19c. London. Overseas 4 May 2001. London. United Kingdom Ministry of
Development Institute. Agriculture Fisheries and Food.

HPI. 2002. Project Profiles: Helping people around the Matalon, L. 2004. Reindeer decline threatens Mongolian
world fight hunger and become self-reliant. Little nomads, National Geographic News, October 12,
Rock, Arkansas, USA. Heifer Project International. 2004. (also available at http://news.nationalgeo-
graphic.com/news/2004/10/1012_041012_mongo-
IFRCS. 2004. World disasters report 2004. Geneva. lia_reindeer.html).
International Federation of Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies. Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 2005.
Socio-economic impact assessment for the avian
IFRCS. 2005. World disasters report 2005. Geneva. influenza crisis: gaps and links between poul-
International Federation of Red Cross and Red try and poverty in smallholders. Department of
Crescent Societies. Livestock Development, Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperatives, The Kingdom of Thailand.
Iñiguez, L. 2005. Sheep and goats in West Asia and (FAO/TCP/RAS/3010e).
North Africa: an Overview, In L. Iñiguez, ed.
Characterization of small ruminant breeds in West OIE. 2005. Handistatus II. (available at www.oie.int).
Asia and North Africa, Aleppo, Syria. International
Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas Owen, J. 2004. “Reindeer people” resort to eating their
(ICARDA). herds. National Geographic News, November 4,
2004. (also available at http://news.nationalgeo-
Kelly, K. 1993. Taking stock: Oxfam’s experience of graphic.com/news/2004/11/1104_041104_rein-
restocking in Kenya. Report for Oxfam. Nairobi. deer_people.html).

King, J.M., Parsons, D.J., Turnpenny, J.R., Nyangaga, Oxby, C. 1994. Restocking: a guide. Midlothian, UK.
J., Bakari, P. & Wathes, C.M. 2006. Modelling VETAID.
energy metabolism of Friesians in Kenya smallhold-
ings shows how heat stress and energy deficit con- Oxfam. 1995. The Oxfam handbook of development
strain milk yield and cow replacement rate. Animal and relief. Oxford, UK. Oxfam.
Science, 82(5): 705–716.
Oxfam. 2005. Predictable funding for humanitarian
Köhler-Rollefson, I. 2000. Management of animal emergencies: a challenge to donors. Oxfam Briefing
genetic diversity at community level. Eschborn, Note October 24, 2005. Oxfam International. (avail-
Germany. GTZ. able at www.oxfam.org.uk/what_we_do/issues/con-
flict_disasters/downloads/bn_cerf.pdf).
Köhler-Rollefson, I. 2005. Building an international
legal framework on animal genetic resources: can it PAHO. 2000. Natural disasters: protecting the public’s
help the drylands and food insecure countries. Bonn, health. Scientific Publication No. 575. Washington
Germany. League for Pastoral Peoples, German NGO DC. Pan American Health Organisation, WHO.
Forum on Environment and Development.
RamaKumar, V. 2000. Role of livestock and other
Lungu, J.C.N. 2003. Animal Genetic Resources Policy animals in disaster management. (available at www.
Issues in Zambia. Paper presented at a Workshop vethelplineindia.com/ProfRamKumar-article.doc).
Meeting to Strengthen Capacity for Developing
Policies Affecting Genetic Resources, 5–7 September, Rege, J.E.O. 1999. The state of African cattle genetic re-
2003, Rome, Italy. sources I. Classification framework and identification
of threatened and extinct breeds. Animal Genetic
Resources Information, 25: 1–25.

134

THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY IN THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR

Rege, J.E.O. & Gibson, J.P. 2003. Animal genetic
resources and economic development: issues in rela-
tion to economic valuation. Ecological Economics,
45(3): 319–330.

Roper, M. 2005. Effects of disease on diversity. Paper
presented at the International Conference on
Options and strategies for the conservation of farm
animal genetic resources, Agropolis, Montpellier,
7–10 November 2005. (also available at www.ipgri.
cgiar.org/AnimalGR/Papers.asp).

Rushton, J., Viscarra, R., Guerne-Bleiche, E. &
McLeod, A. 2005. Impact of avian influenza out-
breaks in the poultry sectors of five South East Asian
countries (Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Thailand,
Viet Nam) outbreak costs, responses and potential
long term control. World’s Poultry Science Journal,
61(3): 491–514.

Shaluf, I., Ahmadu, F. & Said, A. 2003. A review
of disaster and crisis. Disaster Prevention and
Management, 12(1): 24–32.

SVABH. 2003. Animal genetic resources in Bosnia
and Herzegovina. Sarajevo. State Veterinary
Administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Tisdell, C. 2003. Socioeconomic causes of loss of animal
genetic diversity: analysis and assessment. Ecological
Economics, 45(3): 365–376.

Toulmin, C. 1994. Tracking through drought: Options
for destocking and restocking. In I. Scoones, ed.
Living with uncertainty, pp. 95–115. London.
Intermediate Technology Publications.

Townsend, S.J., Warner, R. & Dawson, M. 2005. PrP
genotypes of rare sheep breeds in Great Britain.
Veterinary Record, 156(5): 131–134.

Von Braun, J., Vlek, P. & Wimmer, A. 2002. Disasters,
conflicts and natural resources degradation: multi-
disciplinary perspectives on complex emergencies.
Annual Report (2001–2002). Bonn, Germany. ZEF
Bonn Centre for Development Research, University
of Bonn.

135

Part 2

LIVESTOCK SECTOR
TRENDS

PART 2

Introduction

In the context of pre-industrial agriculture, livestock breeds had to be adapted to local
environments, and fulfilled multiple functions, they were thus very diverse. However,
driven by a growing demand for animal products, the livestock sector is rapidly moving
towards intensive and specialized systems, in which the production environment is
controlled and production traits are central criteria for the selection of species and
breeds. The industrialized sector’s demands for animal genetic resources (AnGR) have
been met by a limited number of high-output breeds, and this has tended to narrow
genetic diversity between and within breeds.

Despite the economic importance and rapid growth of intensive production systems,
the world’s livestock sector continues to be characterized by a high degree of diversity.
Intensive and industrialized production systems contribute to meeting most of the
growing demand for livestock-derived food. However, livestock keeping is also an
important element in the livelihoods of many small-scale producers. Enabling poorer
livestock keepers to improve their livelihoods remains an important objective. Achieving
these food security and livelihood-related goals while also preserving natural resources,
such as water, soil fertility and biodiversity, and addressing problems such as the
emission of greenhouse gases, is a major challenge. This challenge demands a critical
review of the current choice and use of AnGR, which may not always be optimal for
the production conditions, and in which information deficits hinder the emergence of
rational management strategies.

This section reviews drivers of change in the livestock sector and corresponding
trends in production systems. It also introduces some of the most significant interactions
between livestock keeping and the environment. Finally it highlights implications for the
use of AnGR.

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

Box 19 23 percent in the case of cattle production in upland
The concept of productivity mixed farming systems Indonesia (Ifar, 1996), and
11 percent in smallholder dairy goat production
When discussing the relative merits of particular in the Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia (Ayalew et
breeds or production systems, the use of the term al., 2002). Manure is another important product in
“productivity” can be misleading if it is not carefully mixed farming systems that is often not accounted
defined. A distinction must be drawn between high for in calculations of the total benefits derived from
productivity and high levels of production or output. livestock. The Ethiopia study showed that manure
Strictly speaking, “productivity” or “efficiency” is a production accounted for 39 percent of gross benefits
measure of the output obtained per unit of input. For derived from goat keeping in this system (ibid.). The
example, it can be defined in terms of the ratio of significance of manure production is also highlighted
the output of a product such as milk relative to costs by the findings of Abegaz (2005) which show that in
in monetary terms. Animals fed on crop residues like mixed farming communities in the Northern Highlands
straws produce little, but as they do so at little cost, of Ethiopia, animal manure and draught power are
their productivity, so defined, is not necessarily low. the major production targets, and account for the high
livestock densities observed.
A broader view of the costs of production can
yield very different results in terms of productivity It is important to emphasize that it is not only in
estimates. For example, if environmental costs are tropical and/or poorer societies that livestock have
counted, then the productivity of high-yielding multiple values and costs. The arguments about
animals kept under industrial production systems may productivity are also valid in wealthier societies
not be as impressive as it otherwise appears. (Van De Ven, 1996; Schiere et al., 2006a). The fact
that they are overlooked is the very reason for the
A more comprehensive consideration of the environmental problems often encountered. This again
outputs of livestock production is also relevant. underlines the need to assess the value of biodiversity
Frequently overlooked functions of livestock include in broader terms and not only with respect to
their role in the provision of financing and insurance. potential milk or meat yield.
This is particularly important to livestock keepers
who are unable to access these services from Provided by Hans Schiere.
other sources. Several attempts have been made
to quantify the value of financing and insurance
functions and include them in calculations of the net
benefits of livestock production. For example, studies
have indicated that these functions account for 81
percent of net benefits from meat goat production
in southwestern Nigeria (Bosman et al., 1997),

140

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

Section A

Drivers of change in
the livestock sector

1 Changes in demand

Consumption of meat and milk worldwide has In 1980, the human population of developing
been rapidly growing since the early 1980s. countries made up three-quarters of the world’s
Developing countries have accounted for a population, and consumed one-third of the
large share of this increase (Figure 37); growth world’s meat and milk (Tables 42 and 43). It is
in poultry and pork consumption in developing estimated that by 2030, developing countries may
countries has been particularly striking. Between account for 85 percent of the world’s population,
the early 1980s and the late 1990s, total meat and and two-thirds of direct consumption of meat
milk consumption in the developing world grew and milk. Increasing demand strongly stimulates
at 6 and 4 percent per annum, respectively.1 production. For the 1999-2001 to 2030 period, FAO
(2006a) estimates that production growth rates of
1 Compound annual growth rates were estimated between 1983 meat and milk will be 2.4 percent per annum and
and 1997.

Figure 37
Changes in the meat consumption of developing and developed countries

kg/person/year

100

Developing
Developed

80

60

40

20

0 1990 2000 2015 2030
1980

Sources: 1980, 1990 and 2000 figures from FAOSTAT; 2015 and 2030 figures from FAO (2002a). 141

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

2.5 percent per annum, respectively, in developing the world as a whole, poultry consumption is
countries; while the growth rates for the whole projected to grow at 2.5 percent per annum to
world will be 1.7 percent for meat and 1.4 percent 2030, with other meats growing at 1.7 percent
for milk. Growth of per capita consumption is, or less. Growth rates have been particularly high
however, predicted to be weaker, especially in in China, India and Brazil, and the sheer size
sub-Saharan Africa, the Near and Middle East and and vigour of these countries will mean that
North Africa, and in places where consumption is they will continue to increase their dominance
already high, such as developed countries or Latin of world markets for livestock products. High
America (particularly for meat). Except for Africa, growth in consumption is spread throughout the
consumption per capita is projected to grow at a developing world, but it is important to consider
lower pace after 2030, with consumers achieving regional and between-country differences in
better-balanced diets. This, in turn, may reduce the extent of the “livestock revolution”. For
production growth: over the 2030 to 2050 period, example, consumption levels for meat, milk and
meat and milk production in developing countries eggs in sub-Saharan Africa have remained static
are expected to develop at 1.3 percent per annum over the last decade (FAO, 2006f). Furthermore,
and 1.4 percent per annum respectively. trends in demand for individual commodities will
vary widely in different parts of the developing
In developing countries, 70 percent of the world, with China leading the way in meat, with
additional meat consumption is of pork and a near doubling of the total quantity consumed
poultry; in developed countries, the comparable – the increase being primarily in poultry and pork
figure is 81 percent. Poultry consumption in consumption. India and the other countries of
developing countries is projected to grow at South Asia will drive a large increase in total milk
3.4 percent per annum to 2030, followed by beef consumption.
at 2.2 percent and ovine meat at 2.1 percent. In

TABLE 42
Projected trends in meat consumption from 2000 to 2050

Region Production Consumption per capita

1999-2001 Growth rate Growth rate 1999-2001 Growth rate Growth rate
1999-2001 to 2030 1999-2001 to 2030

2030 to 2050 2030 to 2050

Sub-Saharan Africa [1 000 tonnes [% p.a.] [% p.a.] [kg p.a.] [% p.a.] [% p.a.]
Near East/North Africa p.a.]
Latin America & 3.3 2.8 9.5 1.2 1.4
the Caribbean 5 564 3.3 2.1 21.9 1.6 1.1
South Asia 7 382 2.2 1.1 59.5 0.9 0.7
East Asia 31 608
Developing world 3.9 2.5 5.5 2.7 1.9
7 662 2.1 0.9 39.8 1.5 0.9
World 73 251 2.4 1.3 26.7 1.2 0.7
125 466 1.7 1.0 37.6 0.7 0.5
Source: FAO (2006a).
229 713

142

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

TABLE 43
Projected trends in milk consumption from 2000 to 2050

Region Production Consumption per capita

1999-2001 Growth rate Growth rate 1999-2001 Growth rate Growth rate
1999-2001 to 2030 1999-2001 to 2030

2030 to 2050 2030 to 2050

Sub-Saharan Africa [1 000 tonnes [% p.a.] [% p.a.] [kg p.a.] [% p.a.] [% p.a.]
Near East/North Africa p.a.]
Latin America & 2.6 2.1 30.6 0.5 0.6
the Caribbean 16 722 2.3 1.5 88.5 0.6 0.6
South Asia 29 278 1.9 122.4 0.7 0.5
East Asia 58 203 1
Developing world 2.8 82.3 1.5 0.9
109 533 3.0 1.5 13.1 2.1 0.7
World 17 652 2.5 0.6 53.1 1.3 0.7
231 385 1.4 1.4 94.2 0.4 0.4
Source: FAO (2006a). 0.9
577 494

The rationale on the basis of which people select the globe – the former are concentrated in OECD
their food is complex: it is multi-objective, and countries, while the latter are mostly found in
decisions are influenced by individual and societal locations that have rapidly growing economies,
capacity and preferences. Food preference is also such as Southeast Asia, costal provinces of China,
changing rapidly. The pace of dietary change, the states of Kerala and Gujarat in India, and São
both qualitative and quantitative, accelerates as Paolo State in Brazil. The two groups coincide in
countries become richer and populations become the urban centres of rapidly growing economies.
more urbanized.
1.2 Urbanization
1.1 Purchasing power
Urbanization is recognized to be the second
Among the various drivers of change in animal main factor influencing per capita consumption
production, the literature concurs in identifying of animal products (Rae, 1998; Delgado et al.,
purchasing power as the most influential 1999). Urbanization is accompanied by changes in
(Delgado et al., 1999; Zhou et al., 2003). Animal habitual food consumption patterns and dramatic
product consumption rises with purchasing lifestyle changes – including a marked reduction in
power. However, the effect of increased income levels of physical activity. In developing countries
on diets is greatest among lower and middle- that are urbanizing, quantitative changes in
income populations (Delgado et al. 2002). dietary intake have been accompanied by
This observation is true at individual level as qualitative changes in the diet. Changes include
well as at national level (Devine, 2003). Per shifts from cereal-based diets to energy-dense
capita consumption of animal-derived foods is, diets with high animal protein and fat contents,
therefore, generally greatest among high-income as well as increased consumption of sugars and
groups, and most dynamic among lower and sugar-based products. Explanation for this trend
middle-income groups under conditions of strong may lie in the wider food choices and dietary
economic growth. It goes without saying, that influences found in urban centres, as well as a
these groups are not evenly distributed across preference for convenience and taste (Delgado

143

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

Box 20
Sustainable utilization of the Iberian pig in Spain – a success story

The Iberian pig was once the most widely kept lack of demand, but the limited range of the breed’s
pig breed in Spain. The breed’s hardiness, foraging traditional habitat.
abilities, capacity to endure periods without much
food, and its tolerance of extreme temperatures, Technological innovations have also been
make it ideal for extensive production under local introduced to the traditional production systems
conditions. Traditional pig keeping contributes to the – improvements to the quality of the pasture, and the
maintenance of the dehesa, a wooded pastureland more efficient use of crop residues. Many studies have
ecosystem recognized as a Natural Habitat of been undertaken to increase knowledge of the breed’s
Community Interest by the EU, part of which has been nutrition, handling, behaviour, morphology, genetic
declared a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO. Keeping characteristics and meat quality.
the Iberian pig has long been of great economic and
social importance in these areas. By 2002 the number of sows had reached
approximately 193 000. Most of this population
However, from the 1960s onwards, the large-scale increase has taken place under more intensive
introduction of exotic breeds contributed to the production conditions outside the breed’s traditional
decline of many Spanish livestock breeds including home areas. However, 16.3 percent of the population
the Iberian pig. Traditional pig production systems is still being raised under the extensive system.
declined as a result of low levels of yield, and
problems related to disease control. By 1982, the Provided by Manuel Luque Cuesta and Vicente Rodríguez-
number of sows of the Iberian breed had fallen to Estévez.
around 66 000.
Photo credit: Vicente Rodríguez-Estévez
Since that time, a very successful marketing
infrastructure has been developed, focusing on
the quality of meat from pigs fattened under
the traditional system where the animals are
free to forage for grass and acorns without any
additional feeding. The resulting products are high
in unsaturated fatty acids and are of excellent
eating quality. The meat is in great demand: pigs
fattened under the traditional system fetch prices
up to 160 percent higher than conventionally raised
animals, and dry cured hams fetch between 350 and
500 percent higher. Indeed, the main constraint to
further increasing the output of these products is not

et al., 1999). The organization of food markets Rae (1998) shows that in China, for a given
and the opportunity cost of the time of the main level of expenditure, urbanization has a positive
food preparers in the household both point to the effect on per capita consumption levels, and
consumption of more processed and pre-prepared also on the magnitude of the consumption
foods, including street foods. Pre-packaged, pre- response to a marginal increase in expenditure.
seasoned cooked meats, for example, tend to be Urbanization and income-increase effects
appealing to urban consumers (King et al., 2000). coincide in the urban centres of rapidly growing

144

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

economies, creating hotspots of demand for or to opt for certified products, such a free range
animal products. or organic meat, milk or eggs (Krystallis and
Arvanitoyannis, 2006). Government promotion
1.3 Consumer taste and preference campaigns are also identified as potential drivers
of change in consumption patterns (Morrison et
If purchasing power and urbanization are the most al., 2003).
important factors contributing to patterns of per
capita consumption, other factors are significant 2 Trade and retailing
and can have great influence locally. For example,
Brazil has a slightly higher income per capita Increasing international trade as well as the rise
than Thailand, and Thailand has a higher level of large retailers and integrated food chains are
of urbanization than Brazil, but animal product other important drivers of change in the livestock
consumption in Brazil is roughly twice as high sector. More precisely, they influence the relative
as it is in Thailand. Conversely, countries with competitiveness of producers and production
contrasting per capita incomes can have similar systems in supplying the rising demand for
levels of animal-derived food consumption (e.g. animal-derived foods.
the Russian Federation and Japan).
2.1 Flows of livestock and their
A number of factors are at play, including natural products
endowment. Access to marine resources on the
one hand, and to natural resources for livestock Livestock production traded across international
production on the other, have drawn consumption borders has increased from 4 percent in the
trends in opposite directions. Lactose-intolerance, early 1980s to approximately 10 percent at the
found particularly in East Asia, has limited milk present time. A number of developing countries
consumption. Cultural reasons, including religion, are among the top 20 exporters and importers
have further influenced consumption habits in value terms (FAOSTAT). The main developing-
(Harris, 1985). This is, for example the case in country export products are live animals and the
South Asia, where meat consumption per capita meat of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, chickens
is lower than income alone would predict. This and ducks, fresh and condensed cow milk, as well
influence is also seen in preferences for certain as pig and cattle feed. Products imported in large
species and types of product. Examples include quantities include the meat of cattle, sheep,
the exclusion of pork by Muslims, and the high chickens and ducks, fresh and dried cow milk,
preference for red meat among the Maasai. These ghee, animal feeds, and live cattle, goats, sheep,
various factors have given rise to a rich pattern of buffaloes and chickens.
consumer preference, and also influence the way
consumers assess the quality of animal products Four structural developments in livestock
(Krystallis and Arvanitoyannis, 2006). markets can be discerned (FAO, 2005b):

More recently, other institutional factors have v

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

supplying a domestic, mainly urban market. chains and restaurants have developed,
Typically, they are controlled by large and increased the diversity of products on
retailers such as international or national the market, but are not part of vertically
supermarkets or fast food companies. integrated chains.
v

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

With globalization, international and domestic 2.2 The rise of large retailers and
markets can become connected. Within poultry vertical coordination along
markets, for example, not all cuts are exported; the food chain
those not required for export are sold in the
domestic market. Pig producers in some Southeast The rapid expansion in supermarket penetration
Asian countries switch from national to regional in developing countries is a fairly recent
markets depending on relative prices at different phenomenon. It has become significant only
times of year. Although these markets are not over the last five to ten years, and has proceeded
identical, there are some common features in at different rates in the various regions of
their requirements and their impacts. the developing world. Reardon and Timmer
(2005) describe the diffusion of supermarkets
Increased and long-distance trade requires in developing countries as having occurred in
standards and regulation to ensure safety and three successive waves. The first, in the early
reduce transaction costs. Food control and 1990s, covered much of Latin America and East
certification systems must be of a high standard. Asia (except China), north-central Europe, and
In addition to the health and safety standards and South Africa, with supermarkets accounting for
regulations agreed by international bodies (such only 5 to 10 percent of agrifood retail sales on
as the World Organisation for animal Health (OIE) average these areas at that time. The second
and Codex Alimentarius), technical requirements wave of supermarket diffusion took place in the
may be imposed by retailers. These may include mid-1990s, covering parts of Central America
demands for particular meat cuts, carcass size and and Mexico, Southeast Asia, and south-central
weight, leanness of meat, fat levels in milk, egg Europe, with the share of supermarkets in total
colour, or labelling with particular information food retail reaching about 30 to 50 percent by
or in specified languages. There may be demands the early 2000s. The take-off of supermarkets in
for organic production or high animal welfare the third wave of diffusion started only in the late
standards. In interconnected markets, the 1990s. Countries affected included China, India,
standards of the higher-value market may be the Russian Federation, and some countries in
adopted by the lower-value market, although in Central and South America, Southeast Asia and
general they will be less strictly monitored. Africa. By the mid-2000s, supermarkets’ share of
food retail had already reached 10 to 20 percent
Globalized markets have the potential to in the countries included in the third wave.
increase national income and create employment.
For producers and traders, developing domestic The entry of transnationals into the agrifood
markets can offer flexibility and a greater diversity chain in developing countries, particularly in the
of livelihood options. However, globalized retail and processing sectors, has transformed the
markets are exclusive. Only some producers manner in which agrifood products are purchased
meet the requirements necessary to access them, from suppliers, processed into differentiated
and small producers can find it hard to acquire products, and distributed to consumers. As these
knowledge of these requirements or make large new distribution and retail units have to
the necessary investments. For example, many compete for market share, between themselves,
African-produced food products fail to meet and even with traditional suppliers and
international food safety and quality standards. wholesalers in the domestic market, they must
This hampers the continent’s efforts to increase offer competitive prices. They can only maintain
agricultural trade both intraregionally and or expand market share by cutting costs. At the
internationally, and locks many farmers out of a same time, they must compete in delivering the
chance to improve their economic well-being (De consistent product quality that is demanded by
Haen, 2005). their main market. The concept of “quality” from
the producers’ perspective is complex, and its

147

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

TABLE 44
Standards in the livestock market and implications for small-scale producers

Positive factors Negative factors

Process standards Clearly specified process. Administration costs of inspection. Investment
in equipment and training may exclude
UHT treatment of milk, government smallholders.
requirement.
Probably neutral for small producers.
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point in abattoir, Clearly specified process.
required by importers and supermarkets. Certifying bodies, harder to establish in
developing countries. High costs of certification.
Organic produce, standards set by certifying Premium price. Can be carried out on a small Difficult to achieve by unorganized smallholders.
bodies. scale. Favours labour-intensive systems.
Standards usually set to stringent developed-
Performance standards country consumer requirements. No guaranteed
method to meet required standards. Cost of
Salmonella levels in meat, with financial penalty tests may be prohibitive unless subsidized.
for poor performance.
Risk of total market loss if there is failure to
Combined standards Premium price. Support with investment and produce the required quality. Not all producers
Contract farming requirements for timing of cash flow. May be assisted to overcome risk, meet requirements. Social stigma if there is
activities and quality of product. e.g. restocking after HPAI outbreaks. Technical failure to “make the grade”.
support.
Source: adapted from FAO (2006d).

attributes evolve over time. Its definition varies higher prices for quality products, but with
according to retailers’ strategies on the one hand, increased risk if contracts are not met or the
and to cultural influences on the other. It includes retailer closes down. This applies particularly
food safety, nutrition, and attributes related to the where the farmer must specialize to satisfy volume,
commercial differentiation of the products (Farina safety and quality requirements (Table 44).
et al., 2005), as well as characteristics related to the Typically, smallholders use enterprise diversity
mode of production (e.g. niche products). Large to hedge against risk, and make relatively small
retailers require a reliable supply of agricultural investments in several enterprises. This becomes
products from their suppliers (producers) with harder if they are required to invest more heavily
consistency in volume and in quality. in one enterprise to meet the needs of a retailer.
Globalized markets, with higher safety and
In vertically integrated chains controlled by quality requirements, are typically riskier, as the
large retailers, procurement processes tend to entire market can close down with the outbreak
shift towards centralized procurement systems, of a disease or the discovery of a quality problem.
including the use of wholesalers specialized in Smallholder producers and small traders have
a product category or dedicated to the market limited scope and ability to insure themselves
chain. Large supermarket chains may use against loss.
preferred-supplier systems to select producers
who meet quality and safety standards, and to
reduce transaction costs.

Producers who become part of an integrated
chain may face a change in contractual
arrangements (e.g. becoming dedicated contract
farmers) with increased levels of assistance and

148

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

3 Changing natural environment will vary considerably. The livestock sector will
also be affected. Livestock products will become
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment2 costlier if agricultural disruption leads to higher
concludes that the degradation of ecosystems grain prices. In general, it seems that intensively
could become significantly worse during the managed livestock systems will more easily adapt
first half of this century, and be a barrier to to climate change than crop systems. This may not
achieving the Millennium Development Goals. be the case for pastoral systems where livestock
Recent changes in climate, especially warmer depend to a greater extent on the productivity and
regional temperatures, have already affected quality of the rangelands – which are predicted
biodiversity and ecosystems, particularly in to decline and become more erratic. Extensive
dryland environments such as the African Sahel. systems are also more susceptible to changes in
Global climate change is likely to have significant the severity and distribution of livestock diseases
impact on the world’s environment. In general, and parasites. Negative effects of climate change
the faster the changes, the greater will be the on extensive systems in the drylands are therefore
risk of adverse effects. Mean sea level is expected predicted to be substantial.
to rise by 9 to 88 cm by the year 2100, causing
flooding of low-lying areas, and other damage. The effectiveness of adaptation to climate
Climatic zones could shift towards the poles, and change will depend critically on regional resource
vertically – affecting forests, deserts, rangelands endowments (IPCC, 2001). This has significant
and other ecosystems. Many habitats will decline implications for the distribution of impacts within
or become fragmented, and individual species developing countries, as well as between more and
could become extinct (IPCC, 2001). Climate less-developed countries. Developed countries will
change is taking place against the background probably be more effective in adapting to climate
of a natural environment that is already stressed change than developing countries and countries in
by resource degradation – often exacerbated by transition, especially in the tropics and subtropics.
existing agricultural practices. Climate change is likely to have its greatest adverse
effects on areas where resource endowments are
Societies will face new risks and pressures. Food poorest and the ability of farmers to respond and
security is unlikely to be threatened at the global adapt is most limited (ibid.).
level, but some regions are likely to experience
food shortages and hunger. Water resources will be 4 Advances in technology
affected as precipitation and evaporation patterns
change around the world. Physical infrastructure Technological developments are another driver of
will be damaged, particularly by rising sea levels change. Advances in transport and communication
and by extreme weather events. There will be many have promoted the expansion of global markets,
direct and indirect effects on economic activities, and have facilitated the spread of production
human settlements and human health. The poor systems in which livestock are kept at a distance
and disadvantaged are the most vulnerable to the from sources of feed. Technological advances have
negative consequences of climate change. also enabled increasing levels of control over the
production environments in which animals are
A warming of more than 2.5°C could reduce kept. Examples include improvements in building
global food supplies and contribute to higher technology and cooling systems, but progress
food prices. Some agricultural regions will be in breeding and nutrition have played the most
threatened by climate change, while others may critical roles.
benefit. The impact on crop yields and productivity

2 http://www.maweb.org/en/index.aspx

149

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

Feed most countries. The main question to be addressed
Advances in feed technology allowing the is not what is technically possible, but where and
preparation of “near ideal” rations to match the how life sciences and biotechnology can contribute
nutritional demands of pigs, poultry and dairy to achieving a more sustainable agriculture.
cows at different stages in their lives/production
cycles, have had an important effect on livestock 5 Policy environment
production. In addition to technological
developments, declining grain prices, a trend that Public policies can be seen as forces that add
has prevailed since the 1950s, has been one of to the drivers described above, and influence
the factors driving changes in livestock feeding changes in the sector with the aim of achieving
practices. Despite growing demand over this a particular set of societal objectives. Policies
period, supply has not lagged behind. The total are designed and adjusted, taking into account
supply of cereals increased by 46 percent over the state of markets, available technologies
the 24 years from 1980 to 2004. In real terms and natural resources (the drivers previously
(constant US$) international prices for grains have described), and the current status of the sector.
halved since 1961. Expanding supply at declining Experience in both developed and developing
prices has been brought about predominantly countries confirms that a laissez-faire approach,
by intensification of the existing cropped area, simply standing back and allowing market forces
and to a lesser extent by area expansion in some to play out, is not a viable option3. In the absence
regions (globally, the areas of cereal harvested of effective policies, many of the hidden costs of
shrank by 5.2 percent over the same period). expanding livestock production – environmental
degradation, disruption of the livelihoods of
Genetics and reproductive and poor traditional livestock keepers, and threats
biotechnologies to veterinary and human public health, are
New biotechnologies in combination with increased eventually borne by governments and the public.
computing capacity enable rapid genetic advances, It is important that the attention of policy-makers
especially in the commercial pig and poultry sectors is not exclusively focused on the role of large-scale
where AnGR are tailored to achieve high efficiency production. Some systems remain little affected
of feed conversion. Reproductive biotechnologies by trends towards industrialization. These systems
such as artificial insemination (AI) and embryo do not account for the bulk of production growth.
transfer (ET) greatly facilitate the dissemination They do, however, affect the livelihoods of many
of genetic material. These technologies are widely people, and involve a wide range economic
used in the developed world, and to a lesser extent objectives and production practices. They are
in developing countries. Advances in molecular mostly oriented towards household consumption,
genetics have given rise to new techniques in local markets, niche markets or the delivery of
animal breeding such as gene-based selection environmental services.
(mainly against diseases and genetic defects), and
marker assisted selection and introgression of Public policies are both drivers of, and
genes. Newer biotechnologies including cloning, responses to, changes in the livestock sector. At
transgenesis and transfer of somatic material any point in time, policies that are in existence
may have significant impacts in the future. With
regard to the application of biotechnologies, the 3 The following paragraphs of this section draw on the FAO
scientific, political, economic and institutional basis Livestock Policy Brief Responding to the livestock revolution –
to provide adequate safeguards and to ensure that the case for livestock public policies.
potential benefits are realized is not yet in place in http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/resources/en/pubs_sap.html

150

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

and enforced are drivers of change, while policies Box 22
in preparations are part of the public response to Facts and trends in the emerging
changes. This subchapter summarizes the broad world food economy
policies that have affected the livestock sector.
Slowdown in population growth: The growth
Policies for institutional and technological rate of 1.35 percent per annum in the second half
change are initiated at both national and local of the 1990s is expected to decline to 1.1 percent in
levels, and not only by national governments. 2010–2015 and to 0.5 percent by 2045–2050 (UN
Other stakeholders, including farmer associations, Habitat, 2001).
development agencies and non-governmental
organizations have often played an important Income growth and reductions in poverty*:
role in strengthening institutions and promoting Per capita income growth in developing countries
technologies that increase productivity, is predicted to increase from 2.4 percent per annum
compliance with standards, or market access for for the period from 2001 to 2005 to 3.5 percent for
small producers. the period between 2006 and 2015. The incidence of
poverty is predicted to fall from 23.2 percent in 1999
Policy-makers have generally utilized three to 13.3 percent in 2015.
main instruments to influence change in the
sector: prices, institutions and promotion of Average food intake will increase but hunger will
technological change. Environmental objectives remain widespread: Daily per capita calorific intake
may be pursued using a combination of measures in developing countries will increase from an average
such as regulations, public support to extension of 2 681 kcal in 1997-1999 to 2 850 in 2015. Under
and research, incentives or taxation, so as to “business as usual”, undernourishment will decline
make prices reflect real costs and encourage from 20 percent in 1992 to 11 percent in 2015, but
compliance with standards. In the absence of reductions in absolute numbers of undernourished
policy interventions and other measures, inputs people will be modest – from 776 million in 1990-1992
such as land and water are often underpriced to 610 million in 2015 – far from meeting the World
and the prices of livestock products often fail to Food Summit target.
reflect the cost of environmental damage.
Slower rate of agricultural production growth:
The main regulatory and policy frameworks Growth of demand for agricultural products, and
that have influenced the sector include: therefore of production, will slow as a result of
slower population growth and reduced scope
v

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

Box 22 cont.
Facts and trends in the emerging world food economy

Changes in product composition: Between 1997 Diet transitions: The pace of dietary change, both
and 2015, wheat and rice production in developing qualitative and quantitative, accelerates as countries
countries will grow modestly (by 28 and 21 percent become richer and populations become increasingly
respectively). However, significant increases are urbanized, with a shift in diet structure towards a
expected in coarse grains (45 percent), vegetable oils higher energy density diet in developing countries,
and oilseeds (61 percent), beef and veal (47 percent), and a dramatic increase in the contribution to food
mutton and lamb (51 percent), pig meat (41 percent), calories from livestock products (meat, milk and eggs),
poultry meat (88 percent), and milk and dairy vegetable oils, and, to a lesser extent, sugar. Average
production (58 percent) (FAO, 2002a). developing-country per capita meat consumption
increased from 11 kg per annum in the mid-1970s
Production growth based mostly on yield to around 26 kg in 2003, and oil-crop products from
growth: Yield improvements will account for about 70 5.3 kg to 9.9 kg. Increases in saturated fat intake from
percent of production growth, land expansion for 20 animal sources, a greater amount of added sugar
percent, and increased cropping intensity for the rest. in foods, reduced intakes of complex carbohydrates
Nevertheless, FAO projections show that the arable and fibre, and reduced fruit and vegetable intakes
area in developing countries will increase by almost have been shown to be responsible for an increased
13 percent (120 million ha) and water withdrawals incidence of non-communicable diseases (e.g.
for irrigation by 14 percent by 2030. One in five cardiovascular diseases and diabetes).
developing countries will face water shortages
(FAO 2002a). Market structures: Agrifood systems are evolving
from an industry dominated by family-based farms
Growing agricultural trade deficits: Agricultural and small-scale, relatively independent firms, to one
trade surpluses in developing countries are shrinking of larger firms that are more tightly aligned across
and by 2030 will have become a deficit of about the production and distribution chain. Food retailing
US$31 billion, with a rapid rise in imports of cereals is increasingly customer responsive, more service
and livestock products, and a decline in surpluses in focused and more global in ownership; in parallel,
vegetable oils and sugar. the input supply and product processing sectors are
becoming more consolidated, more concentrated,
Urbanization: Virtually all of the world’s anticipated and more integrated. Tangible evidence of this is the
population growth between 2000 and 2030 will be rise of supermarkets and changing patterns of food
concentrated in urban areas (UN Habitat, 2001). At procurement in urban areas in many parts of the
the present rate of urbanization, the urban population world, especially in Latin America (see Reardon and
will equal the rural population as early as 2007 and Berdegué, 2002).
will exceed it from that point on.

Source: FAO (2005c).

v

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

Section B

Livestock
sector’s response

The livestock sector is responding to the above- on the motivations of the individuals involved
described drivers by undergoing a series of regarding their future lives. It is beyond the
changes, which are described below, production scope of this section to consider all these factors
system by production system. While there is a and how they influence specific development
broad trend towards industrialization of the strategies. A generalized discussion of responses
sector, the importance of the driving forces to the driving factors is, therefore, presented at
and the pace of particular developments differ the level of livestock production systems.
between countries and regions. Furthermore,
the development pathway of a given production The grouping of livestock production units
system is influenced by the interaction of many on the basis of shared characteristics is a means
factors, both external and internal to the system. of understanding common elements within
the overall variety. Approaches to classifying
There are five broad farm or farm-household livestock production systems vary according to
strategies that livestock producers may adopt in the purpose of the classification, the scale, and
response to changing conditions: the availability of relevant data. An important
criterion is the dependence on, and linkage to,
v

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

(1991) distinguishes systems first by market the emergence of mixed (= diverse) production
versus subsistence orientation, and at the next systems (Schiere et al., 2006a).
level on the basis of the scarcity of production
factors (Doppler, 1991). Schiere and De Wit (1995) The livestock production system classification
proposed a classification of farming systems on the developed by Seré and Steinfeld (FAO, 1996a),
basis of a two dimensional matrix. One dimension which is largely followed in this section, initially
relates to the relative importance of livestock and distinguishes two broad categories: solely
crops, and distinguishes predominately livestock, livestock systems and mixed farming systems.
mixed, and predominately crop-based systems. Solely livestock systems are differentiated from
The second dimension is defined by the mode of mixed farming systems in that more than 90
farming, and distinguishes between expansion percent of the total value of production comes
of the farm area, LEIA (low external input from livestock farming activities and that less
agriculture), new conservation (organic farming, than 10 percent of the dry matter fed to animals
etc.) and HEIA (high external input agriculture). is obtained from crop residues or stubbles. Within
This classification eventually evolved into a more the solely livestock systems, landless livestock
elaborate understanding of the interaction production systems are distinguished from
between drivers and people’s preferences in grassland-based systems on the basis of having a
stocking rate above ten livestock units (LU) per

FIGURE 38
Distribution of livestock production systems

Livestock production systems

Mixed, irrigated Grazing Area dominated by landless production National boundaries
Boreal and arctic climates
Mixed, rainfed Other type

Source: Steinfeld et al. (2006).

154

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

hectare of agricultural land and obtaining less are described in a separate chapter. Where
than 10 percent of the dry matter fed to animals relevant, differences between the three agro-
from within the farm. The mixed system is further ecological zones as defined above are highlighted
differentiated into mixed rainfed and mixed for land-based systems. Environmental impacts
irrigated systems. In mixed irrigated systems more of the different systems are presented, with a
than 10 percent of the value of non-livestock view to understanding potential implications
farm production comes from irrigated land. The for longer-term sustainability. Negative
land-based systems (the grassland-based and environmental impacts can be considered as
mixed systems) are further defined on the basis longer-term internal drivers as they reinforce or
of agro-ecological zone (arid/semi-arid, humid/ counteract the dynamics in the systems.
subhumid and temperate/tropical highland).
Figure 38 illustrates the spatial distribution of 1 Landless industrialized
the three major land-based systems and indicates production systems
areas that have a high concentration of landless
production. 1.1 Overview and trends

The following chapters describe the three A description of industrialized production
main livestock production system categories systems inevitably involves a discussion of the
– landless, grassland-based and mixed farming, strong trend towards this type of livestock
focusing on their characteristics, trends and their production. Industrialization of the livestock
requirements for AnGR. Within landless systems, sector in response to the growing demands
industrialized production systems, and small- for animal products – the so-called “livestock
scale peri-urban/urban and rural landless systems revolution” – has received great public and
are distinguished4. Within mixed farming systems scientific attention and is, in economic terms,
special characteristics of mixed irrigated systems the most important current development within
the livestock sector and within agriculture as a
4 This distinction is not in line with the FAO (1996a) classification, whole. The industrialization of farming has been
in which landless monogastric and ruminant systems are ongoing in developed countries since the 1960s.
differentiated within landless livestock production systems. It In the mid-1980s, the trend started to affect
should also be noted that some small scale peri-urban and urban developing countries, and it has accelerated in
livestock keepers are actually mixed farmers as they also cultivate
crops and more than 10 percent of the total value of their
production comes from non-livestock farming activities.

TABLE 45
Trends in production of meat and milk in developing and developed countries

Production Developing countries Developed countries
1980 1990 2000 1980 1990 2000
1970 2002 1970 2002

Annual per capita meat production (kg) 12 14 19 27 28 28 40 60 99 105
82
Annual per capita milk production (kg) 31 34 40 49 51 65 77 83 80 108
353
Total meat production (million tonnes) 31 47 75 130 139 70 90 105 105 44
59
Total milk production (million tonnes) 80 112 160 232 249 311 353 383 346

Shares of meat production 31 34 42 55 56 69 66 58 45

Shares of milk production 21 24 29 40 41 79 76 71 60

Source: FAOSTAT.

155

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

FIGURE 39
Meat production from ruminants versus monogastrics in developing and developed countries

Million tonnes
200

175

150 Ruminants
Monogastrics

125

100

75

50

25

0

1988 1998 2015 2030 1988 1998 2015 2030

Developing Countries Developed Countries

Source: FAO (2002a).
Note: Ruminant meat = bovine and ovine meat production; monogastric meat = pig and poultry meat production.

the last decade (Table 45). The trend has been technological advances in animal husbandry, food
particularly significant in monogastric meat processing and transport. The development of
production (Figure 39). poultry production, in particular, is “discontinuous”,
i.e. there is typically no “organic” growth through
On a global scale, industrial production which small poultry farmers gradually expand and
systems now account for an estimated 67 percent intensify their production. Rather, as soon as urban
of poultry meat production, 42 percent of pig markets, transport infrastructure and services
meat production, 50 percent of egg production, develop, investors, often having no previous
7 percent of beef and veal production, and association with livestock production, step in
1 percent of sheep and goat meat production and establish large-scale industrial-type units,
(Table 46). integrated with modern processing and marketing
methods (FAO, 2006f).
In countries undergoing rapid economic
development and demographic changes, new The emergence of industrial livestock production
markets for animal products emerge. Supplying is dependent on the availability of a ready market
vertically integrated food chains and large for animal products, and the availability of the
retailers requires meeting certain food quality and required inputs, in particular feed, at relatively low
safety standards. The demands of these emerging cost. A favourable policy environment, including
markets favour industrial production, which can for example, public investment in the livestock
take full advantage of economies of scale and

156

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

TABLE 46
Livestock numbers and production of the world’s livestock production systems – averages for 2001-2003

Livestock production system Total

grazing rainfed irrigated industrial
mixed mixed

Livestock numbers (million head) 406.0 618.0 305.4 29.1 1 358.5
cattle 53.2 118.7 59.7 - 231.6
dairy cows 22.7 144.4 - 167.1
buffaloes 0 631.6 546
sheep and goats 589.5 9.2 1 776.3

Production (million tonnes) 0

total beef and veal 14.6 29 10.1 3.9 57.6

total sheep and goat meat 3.8 4.0 4.0 0.09 11.8

total pork 0.9 12.5 42.1 39.8 95.3

total poultry meat 1.2 8.1 14.9 49.7 73.9

total eggs 0.5 5.6 23.3 29.5 58.9

total milk 71.6 319.2 203.7 - 594.5

Source: FAO (1996a) updated by FAO (2004).

sector, trade liberalization, and the imposition of and more than half of the milk (Table 47). They
higher food safety standards, contributes to the also account for almost three-quarters of the
speed of this development. China, India and Brazil production growth in developing countries for
– three very large developing countries which both commodity groups (FAO, 2006f). Landless
play a leading role of in their respective regions, industrialized systems in these countries mainly
but which have different economic structures and contribute to the production of meat from poultry
livestock sectors, are the largest contributors to and pigs, while beef, mutton and milk production
the trend towards industrialization. These three are mainly concentrated in grassland-based and
countries now account for almost two-thirds of mixed systems.
total meat production in developing countries

TABLE 47
The developing countries with the highest meat and milk production (2004)

Country Group/Country Meat Milk Meat Milk

[million tonnes] [%]

Developing Countries 148.2 262.7 100 100
China
India 70.8 22.5 47.8 8.6
Brazil
“Big three” 6.0 90.4 4.0 34.4
Source: FAO (2006f).
19.9 23.5 13.4 8.9

96.7 136.4 65.2 51.9

157

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

The process of industrialization can be food. Concentrate feeds, which are traded both
characterized as a combination of three major domestically and internationally, are increasingly
trends: intensification, scaling up, and regional important. In 2004, a total of 690 million tonnes
concentration. of cereals were fed to livestock (34 percent of
the global cereal harvest) and another 18 million
Intensification tonnes of oilseeds (mainly soya). These figures
Intensification of livestock production is taking are projected to increase further (see Figure 40
place with respect to most inputs. In particular, for cereals). In addition, 295 million tonnes of
feed efficiency has been greatly improved over protein-rich agricultural or food processing by-
recent decades. Traditional fibrous and energy-rich products were used as feed (mainly bran, oilcakes
feed stuffs are in relative decline, and protein-rich and fishmeal). Pigs and poultry make the most
feeds and sophisticated additives which enhance efficient use of these concentrate feeds. The
feed conversion are on the rise. As livestock most favourable feed conversion rates have been
production intensifies, it depends less and less achieved in the poultry sector. Ruminants are only
on locally available feed resources, such as local fed with concentrates in countries with low grain/
fodder, crop residues and unconsumed household meat price ratios. Where these ratios are high,

FIGURE 40
Changes in the quantity of cereals used as feed (1992-1994 and 2020)

Million tonnes
1 000

1992-94
800 2001-03

2020

600

400

200

0 China World
Developed Countries Developing Countries

Sources: FAOSTAT for the1992-1994 and 2001-2003 figures; and FAO (2002a) for the 2020 figures.

158

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

FIGURE 41
Changes in the distribution of the size of pig farms in Brazil (1985 to 1996)

Share 1985
50 1996
40
30
20
10
0

<10 10-19 20-49 50-99 100-199 >200

Scale of operation (number of sows)

Source: De Camargo Barros et al. (2003).

typically in grain or cereal-deficit developing specialization of production. This is accompanied
countries, feeding grain to ruminants is not by a substantial shift from backyard and mixed
profitable. systems to commercial, single-product operations.
As a result, natural resource-use efficiency and
Intensification also draws on technical output per animal has increased substantially.
improvements in other fields, such as genetics, Over the 24 years between 1980 and 2004,
animal health and farm management. The offtake of pig meat, chicken meat and milk per
use of high levels of external inputs to alter unit of stock increased by 61 percent, 32 percent
the production environment, including the and 21 percent respectively (FAO, 2006d).
control of pathogens, feed quantity and quality,
temperature, humidity, light, and the amount Intensification of production may, however,
of space available, creates conditions where the make use of the full set of available technologies
genetic potential of high-output livestock breeds for improvement without necessarily leading
can be fully realized. A narrow range of breeds to industrialization. It can also be an effective
are used, and the focus is on maximizing the strategy for smallholders to improve their
production of a single product. Technical advances livelihoods, if supported by favourable policies
are being diffused as a result of increasing and infrastructure. For example, milk production
support from external service providers and the in India continues to be largely smallholder

159

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

based. Cooperative movements, supported by countries. In the case of pig production in Asia, the
the National Dairy Development Board have potentials for economies of scale are greater in
successfully linked smallholders to the growing finished-pig production than in piglet production
urban markets, and have supplied the feed (Poapongsakorn et al., 2003). Dairy production
and animal health inputs, and basic knowledge continues to be dominated by family-based
needed for intensification (FAO, 2006f). These production because of high labour requirements,
developments can be contrasted to the situation usually met by the use of family labour below the
in Brazil, for example, where the number of small- level of minimum wages. However, the expansion
scale dairy producers has decreased as national of smallholder production beyond a semi-
production has increased (FAO, 2006e). subsistence level is constrained by a number of
barriers, lack of competitiveness and risk factors.
Scaling up
Besides intensification, the industrialization process Geographical concentration
is accompanied by a scaling up of production. The geographical distribution of livestock
Economies of scale – cost reductions realized production shows a common pattern in most
through expanding the scale of operations – at developing countries. Traditionally, livestock
various stages of the production process trigger production is based on locally available feed
the creation of large production units. As a result, resources, particularly those of limited or no other
the number of producers rapidly diminishes even value, such as natural pasture and crop residues.
though the sector as a whole may expand. In The distribution of ruminant livestock can be
many fast-growing economies, the average size of explained by the availability of such resources,
operations is rapidly increasing and the number of while the distribution of pigs and poultry follows
livestock producers is in sharp decline. For example, closely that of humans, because of their role as
Figure 41 shows that in Brazil, between 1985 and converters of waste.
1996, there was a large increase in the proportion
of pig farms keeping more than 200 sows. When urbanization and economic growth give
rise to “bulk” demand for animal food products,
Where alternative employment opportunities large-scale operators emerge which, at the initial
are limited, the opportunity cost of family stage, are located close to towns and cities.
labour is low, and livestock keeping is likely to Livestock products are highly perishable, and
remain an economically attractive option for their preservation without chilling and processing
poorer households. However, where employment poses serious problems. In order to reduce
opportunities in other sectors improve, the transport costs, animals are therefore raised close
opportunity cost of labour rises, and small family to centres of demand. Livestock production is,
farm operations become increasingly unprofitable. thus, physically separated from the production
Tenant farmers and landless livestock keepers will of the feed resources. In a subsequent phase,
gradually find other employment, often in urban infrastructure and technology develop sufficiently
areas. Small landowners will, likewise, find it more to make it possible to keep livestock further away
profitable to sell or lease their holdings rather from the markets where the products are sold.
than to cultivate them. Livestock production moves away from urban
centres, driven by a series of factors such as lower
Different commodities and different stages in land and labour prices, easier access to feed,
the production process show different potential lower environmental standards, tax incentives
for economies of scale. They tend to be high in and fewer disease problems.
post-harvest sectors (e.g. slaughterhouse, dairy
plants). Poultry production is the most easily
mechanized sector, and shows a trend towards
industrial forms even in the least-developed

160

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

FIGURE 42
Estimated contribution of livestock to total phosphate supply on agricultural land in areas presenting
a phosphate mass balance of more than 10 kg per hectare in selected Asian countries (1998 to 2000)

Percentage Kilometers

0 to 20
21 to 40
41 to 60
61 to 80
81 to 100
No overload

0 500 1,000 2,000

Source: Gerber et al. (2005).

1.2 Environmental issues The decoupling of crop and livestock production
through the geographical concentration of
In many respects, large-scale industrial systems livestock in areas with little or no agricultural
are the main focus of concerns with regard to the land leads to high levels of environmental
environmental impacts of livestock production. This impact – mainly related to manure and waste-
is particularly the case where development occurs water mismanagement (Naylor et al., 2005).
very rapidly, without an appropriate regulatory Nutrient overloads can arise from several sources
framework. Although, as the following discussion including over-fertilization of crops, over-feeding
will outline, there are numerous problems with of fish ponds, and improper waste disposal of
this type of farming, industrial production can agricultural or industrial wastes. In the case of
have certain advantages from the environmental livestock production, nutrient overloads mainly
perspective. Intensive production methods are at a occur when the nutrients present in manure are
particular advantage with regards to the efficiency not properly removed or recycled, which is often
of feed conversion (FAO, 2005a). Commercial the case close to urban centres (Figure 42).
livestock producers will tend to favour efficient
use of priced resources. However, the potential of Heavy application of manure to fields can
this motivation to promote more environmentally result in nitrates and phosphates leaching
friendly intensive production is hampered by into waterways. Excessive nutrient loading of
inadequate pricing of natural resources. waterways leads to the phenomenon known as

161

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

eutrophication – the build up of algal growths if they enter the food chain. Copper and zinc
which deny oxygen to other forms of aquatic are nutrients that are added to concentrate
life. In parts of the world, fragile ecosystems, feed, while cadmium enters livestock feed as
important reservoirs of biodiversity, such as a contaminant. Inappropriate management of
wetlands, mangrove swamps and coral reefs are manure can also lead to the pollution of soil and
threatened. In the South China Sea, pollution water resources with pathogens (ibid).
from livestock production has been identified
as a major cause of massive algal “blooms”, Another way in which industrial livestock
including one in 1998 which killed more than 80 production contributes to the production of
percent of the fish in a 100 km2 area of coastal greenhouse gases (in this case carbon dioxide)
water (FAO, 2005a). Industrial production systems is through the associated transportation of feed
often necessitate the storing of manure. At this over long distances, which requires the use of
stage, nitrogen loss is mainly in the form of fossil fuels. In the case of methane, however,
ammonia emitted from the surface of the manure emissions arising from ruminant digestion are
(FAO, 1996b). The volatilization of ammonia can greater where the feed energy supplied to the
lead to the acidification and eutrophication of the animals takes the form of low-quality forages. As
local environment and damage fragile ecosystems such, industrial production, with its greater use
such as forests. Nitrous oxide, a particularly of concentrate feed, and breeds that are more
active greenhouse, gas is also produced from efficient converters of feed, has advantages with
livestock manure (17 percent of global emissions respect to the amount of methane produced
are estimated to come from livestock including relative to the output of livestock products.
manure applied to farmland) (Table 48). Another
problem associated with the spreading of manure The environmental effects of feed production
derived from industrial livestock production is also need to be considered. Thirty-three percent
the contamination of pastures and cropland with of arable land is used for the production of animal
heavy metals, which can cause health problems feeds, mostly concentrates (FAO, 2006c). Much
of this production takes place under conditions
of high pesticide and fertilizer use. Expansion

TABLE 48
Agriculture’s contribution to global greenhouse gas and other emissions

Carbon dioxide Methane Nitrous oxide Nitric oxides Ammonia

Main effects Climate change Climate change Climate change Acidification Acidification and
Ruminants (15) Biomass burning (13) eutrophication
Agricultural source Land use change, Livestock (including
(estimated % especially Rice production (11) manure applied to Manure and Mineral Livestock (including
contribution to deforestation Biomass burning (7) farmland) (17) fertilizers (2) manure applied to
total global emissions) Mineral fertilizers (8) farmland (44)

Biomass burning (3) Mineral fertilizers (17)

Biomass burning (11)

Agricultural emissions 15 49 66 27 93
as % of total Stable or declining
anthropogenic From rice: stable 35–60% increase From livestock: rising
sources or declining by 60%

Expected changes in From livestock: rising
agricultural emissions by 60%
to 2030

Source: FAO (2002a).

162

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

of the land area used for crop production can This lack of knowledge is even greater in the case
threaten biodiversity. In parts of Latin America, of rural landless livestock production.
for example, large areas of rainforest are being
destroyed as land is given over to the production Small-scale landless livestock keepers are
of livestock feed (particularly soybeans). Increased characterized by having no croplands of their
demand has driven increased exports of feed own, and no access to large communal grazing
from countries such as Brazil for use in intensive areas. Often poor, these livestock keepers are
livestock production in countries where land is found both in urban and peri-urban zones, and in
scarcer (FAO, 2006g). rural areas dominated by mixed farming systems,
particularly where population density is high or
A further feature of industrial production units the distribution of land ownership is unequal.
is the concentration of large numbers of animals
within confined spaces. Crowded conditions Rural landless livestock keepers are often
provide an environment in which disease can easily highly dependent on off-farm employment,
spread unless preventive measures are taken. frequently in the form of casual labour. Feed for
Industrial units, therefore tend to be heavy users the livestock is obtained from a variety of sources
of livestock drugs, which if not used appropriately including scavenging, grazing on marginal lands,
can enter the food chain and have adverse effects utilization of waste food and by-products, cutting
on human health. Similarly, hygiene requirements and carrying, and purchasing. Compared to their
in large livestock units demand the heavy use of land-owning neighbours, rural landless livestock
chemical cleaning agents, and other inputs such keepers tend to face greater problems providing
as fungicides, which if not carefully managed feed for their animals. Their production objectives
are a further potential source of pollution in for livestock may also differ, given their reduced
neighbouring environments. ability to make immediate use of some products
such as manure and draught power. In general,
2 Small-scale landless systems small-scale rural landless farmers keep the local
breeds or cross-breeds common in the area.
2.1 Overview However, if they engage in more commercial
activities, higher-output breeds may be kept.
In economic terms, the contribution to food
production of small-scale landless systems is The most distinctive feature of urban
nowhere near as significant as that of the production systems is the close vicinity of large
industrialized systems. In fact, their contribution numbers of consumers, which reduces the
has never been evaluated at a global scale. necessity of transporting perishable products over
However, small-scale peri-urban/urban livestock long distances. To benefit from this advantage,
keeping is now being (re)discovered by officials, livestock keeping in and around towns and cities
and research and development workers in many has been practised since ancient times. Reasons
poor and wealthy countries. Surveys in some for engaging in urban livestock keeping are
African, Asian and Latin American cities have diverse and include, gaining income through
revealed surprisingly large number of urban sales; the pleasure of keeping livestock and the
livestock keepers, even including some better-off opportunity to continue practising a traditional
citizens (Waters-Bayer, 1996; FAO 2001b). Overall, livelihood activity; the accumulation of capital
neither the scale of economic benefits which embodied in livestock as a form of insurance or to
urban livestock provide for their keepers nor their finance future projects; dietary supplementation
contribution to wider food security is well known. with home-produced milk, eggs or meat; and the
opportunity to make use of available resources
such as waste food. Animals can also provide
inputs such as manure and draught power for
urban crop production. However, the urban

163

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

environment presents livestock keepers with a As in urban environments, some rural landless
number of constraints. Particularly if larger animals livestock keepers may also face health problems
are involved, limited space can be a problem, as arising from the need to keep the animals close
can obtaining sufficient feed at a cost that is not to (or in) human dwellings, and limited access to
prohibitive. Urban production systems often have veterinary inputs. Given the proximity of cropland
multiple connections to the surrounding rural the disposal of manure is likely to be less of a
areas, whether in the form of feed provision, the problem. Indeed, manure may be a product that
supply of animals, or the flow of traditions and can be sold. Increasing livestock numbers may put
knowledge related to livestock keeping. Relatives pressure on the marginal grazing areas utilized
or paid herders in rural areas may take care of by landless livestock keepers and contribute to
part of the herd owned by urban residents. the degradation of these resources, although the
Animals such as dairy cows or buffaloes may be areas involved are, by definition, limited in scale.
transferred to rural areas during unproductive
phases of their production cycle in order to take 2.3 Trends
advantage of cheaper feed (Schiere et al., 2006b).
The type of livestock breeds kept in these systems In general, small-scale landless production offers
depends on the species, the marketed product, relatively limited options for development.
and the strength of rural-urban linkages. However, the numbers of urban poor are still
expanding as result of ongoing rural–urban
2.2 Environmental issues migration in search of work. As employment
opportunities are often limited and insecure, the
Small-scale livestock production in peri-urban potential numbers engaging in small-scale urban
or urban areas faces some of the same basic livestock keeping or agriculture will tend to
environmental problems as industrialized systems increase. Close rural–urban linkages are important
(e.g. problems of waste disposal and contamination to overcome constraints of feed scarcity, and to
of water sources). The scale of the problems may be use the comparative advantages of each location.
as significant as for large-scale operations if a large Poor urban livestock keepers are generally not
number of small production units are concentrated well served by veterinary and other services,
within a limited area. In addition, the operation of and in many towns and cities livestock keeping
environmental control regulations may be weak, activities run into conflict with the law. Access
and infrastructure for waste management poorly to formal markets may be limited by quality or
developed. Another feature of these systems tends hygiene-related issues. There is, however, an
to be that humans and animals live in close vicinity to increasing recognition of the significance of small-
each other. This poses hazards related to the spread scale urban production and the need to develop
of zoonoses such as avian influenza. Problems are appropriate policies to minimize adverse effects
often exacerbated by poor standards of animal and to support the livestock keepers’ livelihoods.
health control and the absence of management
skills adapted to the urban environment. Livestock The growing demand for animal products seems
can also cause nuisance problems such as noise, to offer opportunities for some smaller-scale urban
dirt, clogged sewage systems, traffic congestion or peri-urban livestock keepers to intensify their
and damage to property. The problems of urban production. India, for example, has been successful
livestock keeping tend to be greatest close to the in integrating small-scale landless buffalo and
centre of the city, as concentrations of animals and cattle keepers into milk collection schemes around
people are high, possibilities to use wasteland for urban centres. Other instances of intensification
grazing are low, and the distance to surrounding outside the large-scale industrial system are found
croplands or pastures is high (Schiere et al., 2006b). in poultry production. For example, in Burkina
Faso, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic,
Myanmar and Cambodia, poultry meat production

164

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

increased by 169 percent, 84 percent, 1530 percent have to be well adapted to the environment and
and 106 percent, respectively, over the period the objectives and management practices of the
from 1984 to 2004; this corresponded to 17, 8, 153 livestock keepers. Harsh environments mean that
and 17 thousand tonnes, respectively (FAOSTAT). livelihoods are often precarious, and livestock
The growth took place in small-scale intensified management practices have to be adapted to
systems in peri-urban settings utilizing improved cope with climatic extremes, and limited or erratic
feed, genetics and management practices. It is, availability of feed resources.
however, probable that intensification of this kind
is transitory. As soon as the volume of demand is One-third of the world’s small ruminants,
sufficiently large and concentrated to allow for nearly one-third of the cattle population and 22
substantial economies of scale, scaling-up occurs percent of the dairy cows are found in grassland-
with the arrival of large companies. The latter based systems (Table 46). These animals produce
trend is now observed, for example, in Cambodia. 25 percent of global beef and veal, 12 percent of
total milk production, and 32 percent of sheep
In the already densely populated rural areas and goat meat. While small ruminant production
of Asia, the population continues to increase is proportional to the numbers, the figures for
while the land area used for agriculture cannot cattle are lower than in the other systems.
be further expanded. Where there are limited
alternative livelihood options outside agriculture, Grazing systems found in arid and semi-arid
livestock keeping is likely to remain an important zones include both the pastoralist systems of sub-
activity for the landless rural poor. Where markets Saharan Africa, North Africa, the Near and Middle
are accessible, there may be some opportunity for East, and South Asia (Table 49), and the ranch-
engaging in more commercially oriented activities type systems found in the drier parts of Australia,
such as dairying. This has happened in the case of the United States of America, and in parts of
the dairy cooperative movements in India, where Southern Africa. Ranching is characterized by
a considerable proportion of the milk delivered to private ownership of rangeland (individual,
dairy plants is produced by rural landless buffalo commercial organization or in some cases
or cattle keepers who often participate in related group ranches). Production is market-oriented
genetic improvement programmes. However, – usually of cattle, which are sold for fattening
landless livestock keepers face severe constraints in other systems. Sheep and goats are kept for
to expanding the output of their herds or flocks, fibres or pelts in subtropical zones. In contrast,
particularly with regard to the supply of feed. traditional pastoralism is largely a subsistence-
oriented activity based on the keeping of cattle,
3 Grassland-based systems camels and/or small ruminants. One objective is
to ensure a year-round production of milk for
3.1 Overview consumption. Another objective is the production
of live animals for sale. This is probably becoming
Grassland-based or grazing production systems more important as a result of growing demand
are largely found in locations that are unsuitable for livestock products. The mobility of pastoral
or marginal for growing crops, as a result of low herds and flocks allows for efficient use of feed
rainfall, cold, or rough terrain, or where degraded resources, the availability of which is dependent
cropland has been converted into pasture. Grazing on unpredictable rainfall patterns. Traditionally,
systems are found in temperate, subhumid indigenous institutions have regulated access to
and humid climatic zones, but are particularly common grazing and water resources.
abundant in arid and semi-arid locations.
Livestock breeds kept under grazing systems Grazing systems are also found in some
subhumid or humid zones, mostly in South
America, but also in Australia and to a limited
extent in Africa. Extensive cattle production

165

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

TABLE 49
Estimated number of pastoralists in different geographic regions

Region Number of pastoralists Proportion of rural population Proportion of total
[million] [%] population
[%]
Sub-Saharan Africa 50 12
18 8
West Asia & North Africa 31 3
12 8
East Asia 20 1
4 2
Newly Independent States 5
7
South Asia 10
0.7
Central & South America 5
1

Total 120

Source: FAO (2006h).
Calculations based on Thornton et al. (2002).

mostly for beef is the most frequent activity, but relative to the levels of production obtained.
buffalo ranching occurs in very humid areas, and However, it is probably the issues of overgrazing
wool sheep are kept in subtropical areas of South and the destruction of tropical rainforests to
America, Australia and South Africa (FAO, 1996a). make way for cattle ranching that have raised the
The system tends to be concentrated in locations greatest concerns in grazing systems.
where crop production is restricted because of
biophysical reasons or lack of market access. It is certainly the case that prolonged heavy
grazing can lead to changes in the composition
In the grazing systems of temperate zones, of vegetation, with palatable species becoming
highly selected animals are utilized along with a less common. The removal of plant cover through
range of technologies to maximize production. heavy grazing and trampling can lead to erosion
Breeds from temperate countries are also suited to and the loss of fertile soils. Recent years have,
many tropical highland locations. However, where however, seen something of a change in the
more subsistence-oriented production is practised, way in which grazing systems in arid zones are
or at very high altitudes, locally adapted breeds understood. Arid rangelands have come to be
and species are important. In the Andes of South viewed as non-equilibrium systems in which
America, for example, camelid species adapted to abiotic factors (most notably rainfall), rather
the high altitudes are important. Similarly, the yak than livestock density, are the driving forces
is of great significance to the livelihoods of local influencing patterns of vegetation cover (Behnke
people in the mountain ranges of Asia. et al., 1993). Livestock numbers in turn respond
to the availability of grazing. As such, traditional
3.2 Environmental issues mobile opportunistic systems are often considered
to be the most appropriate form of livestock
Grazing livestock often have a poor reputation management from the point of view of efficiently
with respect to environmental impacts. As in all utilizing grazing resources under arid conditions.
production systems, the ruminants kept under In less arid areas, the availability of grazing is
grazing systems are a source of methane, and less variable, population density is higher, and
hence contribute to global warming. Indeed, cropping is more widespread. Livestock keeping
the low-quality forage resources on which the tends to be more sedentary. Grazing pressure
livestock in these systems often rely, means that is more likely to be the factor influencing the
the animals produce large quantities of methane

166

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

extent of vegetation cover. In these circumstances, Central America and tropical South America that
overgrazing, along with cropping in fragile areas was forest in 2000 will be used for grazing by 2010
and excessive collection of fuelwood, can lead – meaning that two-thirds of land deforested in
to serious problems of soil erosion and loss of these areas is expected to be converted to pasture
biodiversity (FAO, 1996b). (ibid.). Further policy measures are required to
slow the expansion of the agricultural frontier
Problems are increasingly exacerbated by trends and to promote more sustainable use of land that
that restrict the mobility of pastoralists (see next is already being grazed. Packages of technologies
subchapter). Inappropriate water developments (combining improved grazing management,
or the availability of subsidized grains for feeding genetics, animal health, etc.) need to be developed
animals can also lead to situations in which and promoted in order to enable livestock keepers
livestock are retained for too long in a particular to make productive use of their existing grazing
area, thereby preventing the normal regeneration land. There is a growing interest in silvopastoral
of the pasture. Another factor is the breakdown production, and in schemes that provide farmers
of traditional arrangements for the management with payments for the provision of ecosystem
of access to common grazing lands. This can services such as carbon sequestration, biodiversity
lead to a situation in which the contradiction conservation and watershed management
between private ownership of livestock and open (FAO, 2006b).
access to grazing land means that individual
livestock keepers will be motivated to graze extra The effects of inappropriate grazing can also
animals even though the combined outcome of be a concern in temperate countries – for example
their actions is the degradation of the pastures in dwarf shrub and woodland habitats. However,
(FAO, 1996a). managed grazing is increasingly viewed as an
important tool for conservation. In the United
Particularly in Latin America, the expansion of Kingdom, for example, grazing is utilized to
cattle ranching on planted pastures in humid areas promote the biodiversity of species-rich grassland,
has been an important driver of the destruction heath and wetland habitats (Harris, 2002). Some
of rainforests, the most biodiverse ecosystems plant species thrive under grazing pressure, others
on earth. In addition to the sheer scale of are unable to survive in grazed habitats, while
habitat loss, the fragmentation of the remaining others are able to thrive if grazing is avoided
forested areas also has serious consequences for during growing periods. As such, it is possible to
biodiversity. Deforestation also releases billions use managed grazing to control the distribution of
of tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere plants in accordance with conservation objectives.
each year. Patterns of livestock trampling and dunging also
affect the vegetation, and have to be considered
The problem has often been exacerbated by for conservation management. Unfortunately,
policies, including: inappropriate road building the plants that the conservation manager wishes
schemes in forest areas; tax policies and subsidies to control are not always the most palatable to
designed to promote beef production and livestock. This problem can to some extent be
exports; migration and colonization projects overcome by utilizing the differential feeding
that shift poor populations to areas with low habits of different species and breeds. It is in this
population density; and land titling schemes that context that there is potentially an important
lead to the spread of livestock grazing as a cheap role for breeds that are not economically viable
and easy means of establishing ownership rights in conventional production. These breeds are
(ibid.). In many countries, subsidies promoting often well adapted to grazing and browsing poor
the expansion of ranching have now been quality vegetation, and are able to thrive under
discontinued, but livestock production continues harsh environmental conditions and with low
to be an important driver of deforestation. It is
estimated that 24 million hectares of land in

167

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

levels of management intervention. Conservation to the number of animals they keep on the
sites are diverse, and are often managed to communal land. Lack of infrastructure in these
provide a mosaic of habitats for wildlife. Grazing remote areas further contributes to the difficulty
requirements can, therefore, be very specific and of improving productivity through individual
benefits can be maximized if breed characteristics investments. Globally, these limitations are
are closely matched to these requirements. An reflected in the slow growth of meat production
interesting development in this respect is the from grassland systems compared, particularly, to
Grazing Animals Project5 in the United Kingdom, industrial systems (FAO, 1996a).
which provides breed-specific information on
grazing preferences along with other breed Though often remote, pastoralist production
characteristics relevant to conservation grazing systems are not unaffected by macroscale economic,
such as hardiness, husbandry requirements, political and social changes, and by technological
interactions with the public, and marketability. and infrastructural developments. The increasing
globalization of trade, for example, may mean that
3.3 Trends the marketing of products from pastoral systems is
affected by competition from imported meat, or
As discussed in the previous subchapter, the by increasingly stringent hygiene requirements
sustainability of many grazing systems is (FAO, 2001c). Modern armed conflict, endemic in
threatened by pressure on natural resources, and many pastoral zones, disrupts herding activities
the disruption or abandonment of well-adapted and displaces populations. Motorized transport
traditional management practices. At the same enables those with the necessary resources to
time, large populations traditionally reliant rapidly move animals in search of grazing or to the
on subsistence-oriented livestock production, market, a situation which is increasingly common
continue to seek a livelihood from the rangelands. in the Near and Middle East region for example
In general, pastureland productivity has lagged (FAO, 1996b). As well as potentially disrupting
far behind that of cultivated areas, although traditional regimes for grazing management,
detailed estimates are difficult to make. A this development can affect demands for genetic
number of factors contribute to this trend. First, resources, reducing the desirability of traits such
intensification of pastures is often technically as walking ability, and promoting more market-
difficult and unprofitable. Constraints commonly oriented production objectives. Motorization
relate, to climatic conditions, topography, also means that the role of pack animals such as
shallow soils, acidity and disease pressure. The camels or donkeys declines in importance. The
difficult conditions that characterize pasturelands introduction of modern veterinary medicines
are exemplified by the pastoralist and agro- can promote the enlargement of herd sizes
pastoralist systems of the arid and semi-arid lands (FAO, 2001c), and may facilitate the introduction
of sub-Saharan Africa. These constraints could of exotic genetic resources less adapted to local
only be overcome by massive investments on disease challenges.
various fronts; piecemeal interventions will have
no effect. Additionally, in much of Africa and Asia, A number of factors threaten the sustainability
most pastures are under common ownership, of mobile pastoralist systems. The expansion of
which further complicates their intensification. crop production into former grazing lands is one
Without firm institutional arrangements, private threat – often driven by population growth in
investments in these areas are difficult to organize crop-producing systems (FAO, 1996b). Particularly
as returns accrue to individuals, in proportion disruptive is the spread of cropping into dry-
season grazing areas, which form a key element
5 http://www.grazinganimalsproject.info/pilot1024. of mobile pastoralists’ grazing strategies. In
php?detect=true places, the development of irrigation schemes

168

LIVESTOCK SECTOR TRENDS

also promotes the expansion of the cropped area or camels. Trends towards social differentiation
(FAO, 2001c). Moreover, among some pastoralist are also widespread – promoted by differential
communities the uptake of crop production is capacity to respond to the disruption of pastoral
increasingly common, as a response the growing systems, and to take advantage of policy and
insecurity of livestock-based livelihoods, and as a technological developments. Large-scale, often
by-product of sedentarization (Morris, 1988). absentee livestock owners on the one hand, and
destitute populations increasingly sedentarized
There is, thus, a general shift away from around urban settlements, on the other, may no
pastoralism towards agropastoralism (a rather longer be able or willing to continue traditional
ill-defined term describing production systems pastoral livelihoods. Given that the livestock
in semi-arid environments that combine crop breeds of pastoral zones are not only adapted
and livestock production, but where livestock to the natural environment, but have been
are highly dependent on rangeland grazing). In developed to meet the needs and preferences of
sub-Saharan Africa, for example, Thornton et al. the local livestock keepers, such changes may have
(2002) predict a substantial shift from pastoral substantial effects on the utilization of AnGR.
to agropastoral systems over the next 50 years.
In mountainous areas of Asia, transhumant Havingoutlinedtrendstowardsthedisappearance
migration routes are also increasingly disrupted of traditional mobile livestock production systems,
by the expansion of cropping (FAO, 2003). The some countervailing factors must be noted. It is
fencing of traditional grazing areas is also a increasingly recognized that “pastoralists remain
problem for livestock keepers in parts of the a resource, a system of producing meat and milk
Andes (see Box 102 in Part 4 – Section: F 6). cheaply in land that is otherwise hard to exploit”
(FAO, 2001c). It is also recognized that appropriate
Policies promoting sedentarization, the development policies for the rangelands are
regularization of stocking rates or the required if such systems are to survive or flourish
development of individual ranch-type farms also (ibid.). Similarly, in many remote locations
play a role (FAO, 1996b). Particularly in Africa, the prospects for the emergence of alternative sources
establishment of wildlife reserves, motivated both of income are limited, and seeking to scrape a
by conservation objectives and by the potential living from livestock keeping is likely to remain
economic benefits from tourism, can exclude one of the few livelihood options available to local
pastoralists from their traditional grazing lands populations (FAO, 2003). The expansion of crop
(FAO, 2001c). School attendance and alternative production may not always be sustainable in the
employment (e.g. involving migration to urban long term, particularly where inappropriate water
areas) may restrict the availability of labour develoments have been implemented, and a swing
for herding and increase the trend towards back towards pastoral livestock keeping cannot be
sedentarization (ibid.). ruled out in some places (FAO, 2001c). One part of
the world which has seen some recent return to
While the significance of different driving more traditional grazing systems has been Central
forces varies from place to place, the broad trend Asia, following the decline of collectivized farming
is towards greater numbers of people seeking and the infrastructure established during the Soviet
to make a living from more restricted and often era (ibid.).
less well-managed grazing land. Under severe
pressure, herders may be forced to abandon The extensive ranching systems of the Latin
pastoral livelihoods. There may be shifts in breed America and the Caribbean region are also
or species utilization, as livestock keepers adapt facing changes. The subsidies which promoted
to difficult circumstances. For example, as pasture the expansion of livestock ranching (often at
resources are depleted, herders may adapt, by the expense of rainforests) have largely been
abandoning cattle in favour of small ruminants

169

THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

PART 2

discontinued (FAO, 2006b). Urban demand for threatened by the poor profitability of livestock
crop staples and an improved road infrastructure production in remote areas, lower-output breeds
promotes the expansion of mixed farming into are often well suited to alternative roles such as
grazing areas (FAO, 1996a). At the same time, conservation grazing, the production of speciality
increasing numbers of incentive measures are products, or forming part of an appealing rural
being put in place to promote the conservation landscape to attract the tourist.
of natural resources and the provision of
environmental services (FAO, 2006b). One 4 Mixed farming systems
reflection of these developments is a growing
interest in silvopastoral systems (ibid.). 4.1 Overview

Over the coming decades, grazing systems are Crop–livestock production systems dominate
also likely to be affected by changing temperature smallholder production throughout the
and rainfall patterns associated with global developing world. The system is particularly
climate change. It is, of course, difficult to predict dominant in the subhumid and humid tropics,
with great accuracy the impacts of climate change but mixed farming is also widespread in semi-
on livestock production. However, changes to the arid, highland and temperate areas. The use of
length of the growing period are expected to shift land for mixed farming depends on the feasibility
the boundaries of zones suitable for cropping. In of rainfed crop production (Table 50) or, where
sub-Saharan Africa, Thornton et al. (2002) predict quantity and distribution of rainfall does not
that current mixed farming areas that will be more allow rainfed production, on the possibility of
suitable for pastoral production by 2050 include irrigation.
zones stretching in bands across the Sahel and the
Sudan, and across southern Angola and central The majority of the world’s ruminants are
Zimbabwe, as well as transition zones to lower kept within crop–livestock systems: 68 percent of
elevations in Ethiopia. Conversely, some pastoral the world’s cattle population, 66 percent of the
lands, mainly in Kenya, the United Republic of sheep and goat population, and 100 percent of
Tanzania and Ethiopia, are predicted to become the buffalo population. This translates into 68
suitable for mixed farming. Taken as a whole, percent of beef and veal production, 100 percent
however, the area of land in sub-Saharan African of buffalo meat production, 67 percent of sheep
with a climate suitable for crop production is and goat meat production, and 88 percent of
predicted to decline (ibid.). Central parts of Asia milk production. Mixed systems also produce 57
and North America, both areas where grazing percent of pig meat production, 31 percent of
systems are of major importance, are also predicted poultry meat production, and 49 percent of egg
to be seriously affected by climate change production (Table 46).
(Phillips, 2002). Increased frequency and severity
of droughts is predicted to exacerbate pressures Many crop–livestock farming systems in
on dryland production systems (FAO, 2001c). developing countries are characterized by
relatively low levels of external inputs, with
In the temperate zones of developed countries, the products of one component of the system
the functions of grazing systems are also changing. being used as inputs for the other (Table 51).
Demands placed on the system increasingly relate Crop residues provide a source of feed for the
to the provision of environmental services, and the animals, while the use of livestock manure helps
relative significance of animal production per se is to maintain soil fertility (Savadogo, 2000), and
often in decline (FAO, 1996a). Policy concerns also draught animals often provide a source of power.
relate to the provision of employment in remote, Livestock offer a means of intensifying crop
often relatively poor, rural areas. While in some production systems based on limited additional
cases locally adapted livestock breeds may be

170