Organisational Development & Change 12MBAHR447
SYLLABUS
Module I (6 hours)
Introduction to organizational Development: Definition, growth and relevance,
historyand evolution. Theories of planned change, general model of planned change,
differenttypes of panned change and critique of planned change. OD practitioner role,
competenciesand professional ethics.
Module II (6 hours)
OD process: Initiating OD relationship, contracting and diagnosing the problem.
Diagnosingmodels, open systems, individual level group level and organizational level
diagnosis;collection and analysis for diagnostic information, feeding back the diagnosed
information.
Module III ( 9 hours)
Designing OD interventions: Human process interventions:- coaching, training and
development, process consultation, third part intervention, and team building.
Organizationconfrontation meeting, intergroup relations intervention, and large group
intervention.involvement, work design, socio technical systems approach
Module IV (9 hours)
HR and Strategic interventions :HRM interventions:- performance management, goal
setting, performance coaching, appraising and rewarding. Career planning, workforce
diversity interventions, wellness and work-life balance,Strategic interventions:
Competitive strategies, collaborative strategies, organizationaltransformation, culture
change, self designing organizations, learning and knowledgemanagement.
Module V (6 hours)
Special applications of OD : OD in, health care organizations, family owned
organizations,educational institutions, public sector organizations and future directions
in OD.
Module VI (8 hours)
Introduction to organizational change: Nature of change, forces of change,
reinventingKurt Levin, organizational routines and mental models, change need
analysis, content ofchange, types and styles of change, building capability for change,
providing leadership tochange, action research and dialogue, types of change,
organizational vision, culturalchange, strategic planning, creating support systems and
managing transition, processoriented strategies and competitor oriented strategies and
customer oriented strategies.
Module VII (6 hours)
Appreciating change: External environment as drivers of change, business cycles,
industrycycles, technology and strategic change, industry evolution and concentration ,
developing achange agenda. Cognition and organizational change, mental models,
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organizationa l learning, Senge’s five disciplines, business models and value
propositions, refining thechange agenda
Module VIII ( 6hours)
Mobilizing support and executing change: Four approaches to change, parallel
organization, ownership and involvement in change, dealing with political aspects of
change,the psychology of persuasion, communicating to influence, targeting influence
efforts,framing change, making difficult choices, negotiating change. Executing change:
challenges of execution, execution framework, developing cross functional linkages,
aligningpolicies, and removing structural impediments, developing new routines for
innovation andimprovement, considering human element.
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INDEX Page no.
Module No. 4
13
1 17
2 27
3 34
4 49
5 58
6 69
7
8
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Module I
• Introduction to organizational Development: Definition, growth and relevance,
history and evolution.
• Theories of planned change, general model of planned change, different types of
panned change and critique of planned change. OD practitioner role, competencies
and professional ethics.
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Organization development (OD) is a deliberately planned, organization-wide effort to increase
an organization's effectiveness and/or efficiency. OD theorists and practitioners define it in
various ways. Its multiplicity of definition reflects the complexity of the discipline and is
responsible for its lack of understanding. For example, Vasudevan has referred to OD being
about promoting organizational readiness to meet changeand it has been said that OD is a
systemic learning and development strategy intended to change the basics of beliefs, attitudes
and relevance of values, and structure of the current organization to better absorb disruptive
technologies, shrinking or exploding market opportunities and ensuing challenges and chaos. It is
worth understanding what OD is not. It is not training, personal development, team development,
HRD (human resource development), L&D (learning and development) or a part of HR although
it is often mistakenly understood as some or all of these. OD interventions are about change so
involve people - but OD also develops processes, systems and structures. The primary purpose of
OD is to develop the organization, not to train or develop the staff.
Objective of OD
The objective of OD is:
1. To increase the level of inter-personal trust among employees.
2. To increase employees' level of satisfaction and commitment.
3. To confront problems instead of neglecting them.
4. To effectively manage conflict.
5. To increase cooperation among the employees.
6. To increase the organization's problem solving.
7. To put in place processes that will help improve the ongoing operation of the
organization on a continuous basis.
As objectives of organizational development are framed keeping in view specific situations, they
vary from one situation to another. In other words, these programs are tailored to meet the
requirements of a particular situation. But broadly speaking, all organizational development
programs try to achieve the following objectives:
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1. Making individuals in the organization aware of the vision of the organization.
Organizational development helps in making employees align with the vision of the
organization.
2. Encouraging employees to solve problems instead of avoiding them.
3. Strengthening inter-personnel trust, cooperation, and communication for the successful
achievement of organizational goals.
4. Encouraging every individual to participate in the process of planning, thus making them
feel responsible for the implementation of the plan.
5. Creating a work atmosphere in which employees are encouraged to work and participate
enthusiastically.
6. Replacing formal lines of authority with personal knowledge and skill.
7. Creating an environment of trust so that employees willingly accept change.
According to organizational development thinking, organization development provides managers
with a vehicle for introducing change systematically by applying a broad selection of
management techniques. This, in turn, leads to greater personal, group, and organizational
effectiveness.
Definition:
OD is a top management supported, long range effort to improve an organisation’s
problem-solving & renewal processes,
Growth & Relevance:
3 major trends are shaping their relevance of OD in this drastically changing environment:
1. Globalization
2. Information Technology
3. Managerial Innovation
History
Kurt Lewin (1898–1947) is widely recognized as the founding father of OD, although he died
before the concept became current in the mid-1950s.[1] From Lewin came the ideas of group
dynamics and action research which underpin the basic OD process as well as providing its
collaborative consultant/client ethos. Institutionally, Lewin founded the "Research Center for
Group Dynamics" (RCGD) at MIT, which moved to Michigan after his death. RCGD colleagues
were among those who founded the National Training Laboratories (NTL), from which the T-
groups and group-based OD emerged.
Kurt Lewin played a key role in the evolution of organization development as it is known today.
As early as World War II, Lewin experimented with a collaborative change process (involving
himself as consultant and a client group) based on a three-step process of planning, taking action,
and measuring results. This was the forerunner of action research, an important element of OD,
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which will be discussed later. Lewin then participated in the beginnings of laboratory training, or
T-groups, and, after his death in 1947, his close associates helped to develop survey-research
methods at the University of Michigan. These procedures became important parts of OD as
developments in this field continued at the National Training Laboratories and in growing
numbers of universities and private consulting firms across the country. Two of the leading
universities offering doctoral level degrees in OD are Benedictine University and the Fielding
Graduate University.
Douglas McGregor and Richard Beckhard while "consulting together at General Mills in the
1950s, the two coined the term organization development (OD) to describe an innovative
bottoms-up change effort that fit no traditional consulting categories"
The failure of off-site laboratory training to live up to its early promise was one of the important
forces stimulating the development of OD. Laboratory training is learning from a person's "here
and now" experience as a member of an ongoing training group. Such groups usually meet
without a specific agenda. Their purpose is for the members to learn about themselves from their
spontaneous "here and now" responses to an ambiguous hypothetical situation. Problems of
leadership, structure, status, communication, and self-serving behavior typically arise in such a
group. The members have an opportunity to learn something about themselves and to practice
such skills as listening, observing others, and functioning as effective group members.[4]
As formerly practiced (and occasionally still practiced for special purposes), laboratory training
was conducted in "stranger groups," or groups composed of individuals from different
organizations, situations, and backgrounds. A major difficulty developed, however, in
transferring knowledge gained from these "stranger labs" to the actual situation "back home".
This required a transfer between two different cultures, the relatively safe and protected
environment of the T-group (or training group) and the give-and-take of the organizational
environment with its traditional values. This led the early pioneers in this type of learning to
begin to apply it to "family groups" — that is, groups located within an organization. From this
shift in the locale of the training site and the realization that culture was an important factor in
influencing group members (along with some other developments in the behavioral sciences)
emerged the concept of organization development.
Theories of Planned change:
Organizational Climate - the mood or unique “personality” of an organization which can be
observed in the attitudes and beliefs about organizational practices create organizational climate
and influence members’ collective behaviour. Climate features and characteristics may be
associated with employee satisfaction, stress, service quality and outcomes and successful
implementation of new programs. Climate features and characteristics include:
Leadership
Openness of Communication
Participative Management
Role Clarity
Conflict Resolution
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Leader Support
Leader Control
Organizational Culture - Deeply seated norms, values and behaviours that members share. The
five basic elements of culture in organizations include:
Assumptions
Values
Behavioral norms
Behavioral patterns
Artifacts
General Model of Planned change
One of the foundational definitions in the field of organizational development (aka OD) is planned
change:
“Organization Development is an effort planned, organization-wide, and managed from the top, to
increase organization effectiveness and health through planned interventions in the organization's
'processes,' using behavioral-science knowledge.”-- Richard Beckhard, “Organization development:
Strategies and Models”,
To understand the practice of OD, some of the key terms, embedded in Beckhard's formulation,
include:
Planned - carefully thought through; based on data; documented
Effectiveness - as measured by actual organizational performance versus desired organizational
performance
Health - as measured by the organization's ability to respond, grow and adapt in its environmental
context
Intervention - the specific action(s) selected for implementation that are intended to bring about the
envisioned change
Processes - how work gets done in an organization; e.g. delivery of service, billing, repair, etc.
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Steps in Planned Change
Once managers and an organization commit to planned change, they need to create a logical
step‐by step approach in order to accomplish the objectives. Planned change requires managers
to follow an eight‐step process for successful implementations, which is illustrated in Figure 1.
1. Recognize the need for change. Recognition of the need for change may occur at the top
management level or in peripheral parts of the organization. The change may be due to
either internal or external forces.
2. Develop the goals of the change. Remember that before any action is taken, it is
necessary to determine why the change is necessary. Both problems and opportunities
must be evaluated. Then it is important to define the needed changes in terms of products,
technology, structure, and culture.
3. Select a change agent. The change agent is the person who takes leadership
responsibility to implement planned change. The change agent must be alert to things that
need revamping, open to good ideas, and supportive of the implementation of those ideas
into actual practice.
4. Diagnose the current climate. In this step, the change agent sets about gathering data
about the climate of the organization in order to help employees prepare for change.
Preparing people for change requires direct and forceful feedback about the negatives of
the present situation, as compared to the desired future state, and sensitizing people to the
forces of change that exist in their environment.
5. Select an implementation method. This step requires a decision on the best way to
bring about the change. Managers can make themselves more sensitive to pressures for
change by using networks of people and organizations with different perspectives and
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views, visiting other organizations exposed to new ideas, and using external standards of
performance, such as competitor's progress.
6. Develop a plan. This step involves actually putting together the plan, or the “what”
information. This phase also determines the when, where, and how of the plan. The plan
is like a road map. It notes specific events and activities that must be timed and integrated
to produce the change. It also delegates responsibility for each of the goals and
objectives.
7. Implement the plan. After all the questions have been answered, the plan is put into
operation. Once a change has begun, initial excitement can dissipate in the face of
everyday problems. Managers can maintain the momentum for change by providing
resources, developing new competencies and skills, reinforcing new behaviors, and
building a support system for those initiating the change.
8. Follow the plan and evaluate it. During this step, managers must compare the actual
results to the goals established in Step 4. It is important to determine whether the goals
were met; a complete follow‐up and evaluation of the results aids this determination.
Change should produce positive results and not be undertaken for its own sake.
General Model of Planned Change
From the above picture, you can see that it has the following stages: Page 9
Entering and Contracting
Diagnosing
Planning and Implementing Change
Evaluating &Institutionalising Change
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Entering and Contracting
This first step helps management (and the OD practitioner in certain cases) make a decision to
either proceed or not with an OD intervention, and indicates roughly how much resources, time
and finances should be committed.
The entering and contracting phase has the the following sub-stages:
Gathering initial data
The OD practitioner and the customer would typically start with a discussion regarding
the reason for considering OD in the first place. The OD practitioner would then collect
some data to get a high level understanding of the organisation, the reasons for change,
the presenting problem and from this make some very preliminary recommendations
about possible ways to go forward. He could focus on a problem that has been presented,
or on positive areas of enquiry.
The OD practitioner will present these initial findings to the customer, and they will
jointly do some preliminary work with this data.
From this first step, the OD relationship begins to be built. The OD practitioner will seek
to build a collaborative relationship with the customer to ensure from this early stage that
the relationship is one of the customer owning the intervention, and the consultant
assisting and coaching through the process.
Based on the initial findings and the discussions with the customer, the OD practitioner
will propose a model to be used, which will indicate the types and magnitude of change
that could be expected, and propose an agreement of cooperation for working together
going forward. At this point, the consultant will estimate the resources that he would
need to commit, and the resources that he expects would be needed from the client.
Resources can include finances, but probably the resource which is of the greatest
concern is employee time.
The customer will review this proposal, there might be some negotiation and should they
finally come to an agreement, a contract will be drawn up.
The contract should be clear about rates, fees and terms and conditions. It should set out
the rule of engagement – how the two parties will work together, as well as the principles
that will guide potential termination. It should clarify the role that the OD practitioner
will play, and the roles that different organisation members need to play in the process.
Because of the amount of unknowns at this stage, it is impossible to know exactly how
the process will play out, but the OD practitioner should make every effort to ensure that
there are no surprises for the customer down the line.
Many efforts stop at this point, for a variety of reasons, such as a lack of available
resources to be able to navigate the change, a incongruence between the values of the OD
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practitioner and the organisation, or because an alternative method of addressing the
presenting problem is found.
Diagnosing
The Diagnosing phase consists of gathering, analysing and feeding back data.
The focus is on understanding the organisation’s problems, what the causes and the effects of
those problems are, and / or understanding the positive elements of the organisation. What are
the areas of strength on which the organisation can build?
Diagnosing can happen at three levels. Organisational level, group level or individual level.
Diagnosis becomes increasingly complex as we move from individual to organisational
diagnosis. However, because of the integrated nature of an organisation, and the fact that the
diagnosis of the larger levels are the inputs for the smaller ones, it is necessary to understand the
higher levels, even when diagnosing at a lower level. So, for example, when diagnosing job
design at an individual level, you need to understand how the design components of the team
impacts on that job design, and how the design components of the organisation impacts on the
team.At every level, we consider the design components of the organisation, and the alignment
between the various design components, the inputs and the outputs.
The analysis and feedback process is collaborative, ensuring continued use and ownership of the
data and the results of the diagnosis, by the client.
That means that although the OD practitioner would typically design the data analysis process to
maximise involvement and skills transfer.
The analysis process might include the consultant making some preliminary conclusions, but the
real conclusions about the meaning of the data, which will be used to plan the interventions,
should be done collaboratively with the client.
Planning & Implementing Change
Based on the diagnosis, the OD practitioner and organisational members now, together, design
the interventions that would drive the change.
The interventions should be based on the results of the diagnosis, and should be aimed at
resolving the root causes of the problems, or at developing the most prominent strengths of the
organisation.
Criteria that can affect the way interventions are designed, are
the organisation’s readiness and capability for change,
the OD practitioner’s skills
and the organisation’s power distribution.
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Evaluating and Institutionalising Change
Finally, the change should be evaluated against two major criteria:
Was the implementation successful?
Did the implementation have the required results?
If the answers to the above two questions are both positive, then it is time to institutionalise the
change, through reinforcing knowledge and performance, and continuous reinforcement of the
values that underlie the change until normative and value consensus has been reached.
Theories of planned change:
1. Kurt Lewin’s change model Theory
2. Action oriented model theory
3. Positive model theory
Critics of Planned Change:
Environmental parameters are highly dynamic in nature.
Organisation structure should be flexible enough to incorporate the changes.
Circumstances are unpredictable.
The OD Practitioner
The role of the OD practitioner is varied and dynamic. Descriptions include; helper, advisor,
sounding board, navigator, coach, facilitator, designer, developer, leader, consultant, expert,
partner, problem solver, diagnostician, process specialist and collaborator. These roles can be
practiced as an employee within the organisation or as an external consultant.
Whatever descriptor is used to describe the role, the truth is the OD practitioner role is varied and
purposed with helping clients to improve the effectiveness of their organisation developing both
business processes and people processes within the context of the organisation.
OD practitioners are by their very practice humanistic and that makes their practice relational
based, and puts the OD practitioner at the centre of change and development efforts; using ‘self’
as an instrument to drive change and help the organisation develop through each of the phases of
the OD cycle; Diagnostic, Intervention and Evaluation.
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The OD practitioner is responsible for bringing their whole self to the task in hand, and build
their reputation as a trusted advisor with their clients. Not only must the practitioner be an
advocate of development, but must focus on continuously improving and developing their own
learning and understanding of their practice.
Key Competencies & professional ethics of an OD Practitioner
1. Theoretical and Technical expertise which can be applied
2. Influencing Skills
3. Spot and energise engagement in others
4. Innovative, Creative and Critical thinking
5. Ability to tackle difficulties and problems with positivity
6. Self-Confident
7. Credible communicators
8. Interpersonal and Facilitation skills, with an ability to ‘stand back’
9. Emotionally Tuned in
10. Ethical, value driven and acts with integrity
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Module 2
• OD process: Initiating OD relationship, contracting and diagnosing the problem.
Diagnosing models, open systems, individual level group level and organizational level
diagnosis;
• collection and analysis for diagnostic information, feeding back the diagnosed
information.
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OD Process:
The OD Process is based on the action research model which begins with an identified problem
or need for change. The process proceeds through assessment, planning of an intervention,
implementing the intervention, gathering data to evaluate the intervention, and determining if
satisfactory progress has been made or if there is need for further intervention.
The organizational Diagnostic phase is often integrated within an overall OD process, commonly
called 'a consulting process'. An example of such a process is:
Entry --> Diagnosis --> Action Planning --> Implementation --> Termination Page 14
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The OD process begins when an organization recognizes that a problem exists which impacts the
mission or health of the organization and change is desired. It can also begin when leadership has
a vision of a better way and wants to improve the organization. An organization does not always
have to be in trouble to implement organization development activities.
Once the decision is made to change the situation, the next step is to assess the situation to fully
understand it. This assessment can be conducted in many ways including documentation review,
organizational sensing, focus groups, interviewing, or surveying. The assessment could be
conducted by outside experts or by members of the organization.
After the situation is assessed, defined, and understood, the next step is to plan an intervention.
The type of change desired would determine the nature of the intervention. Interventions could
include training and development, team interventions such as team building for management or
employees or the establishment of change teams, structural interventions, or individual
interventions.
Once the intervention is planned, it is implemented.
During and after the implementation of the intervention, relevant data is gathered. The data
gathered would be determined by the change goals. For example, if the intervention were
training and development for individual employees or for work groups, data to be gathered
would measure changes in knowledge and competencies.
This data is used to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. It is reported to the
organization’s decision-makers. The decision-makers determine if the intervention met its goals.
If the intervention met its goals, the process can end, which is depicted by the raising of the
development bar. If it did not, the decision is made whether to continue the cycle and to plan and
carry out another intervention or to end it.
What is a Diagnosis
Diagnosis is a systematic approach to understanding and describing the present state of the
organization. The purpose is to specify the nature of the problem requiring solution to identify
the underlying the forces, and to provide a basis for selective effective change strategies
techniques. Diagnosis involves the systematic analysis of data regarding the organization
structure and culture with the intention of discovering problems and areas for improvement.
Critical Issues in Diagnosis
Simplicity
Visibility
Involvement
Primary Factors
Measure What’s Important
Sense of Urgency
The Process
Diagnosis is a cyclical process involving gathering interpretation, identification of problem
areas, and potential action program,
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Steps
Step 1- Tentative problems and identified
Step 2 – Collect data
Step 3 – Analyze data
Step 4 – Feedback data
Step 5 – Is more data needed
Step 6 – Problems areas are identified
Step 7- Is the client motiva
ted to work on the problem
Step 8 – Diagnosis and work on the problem
Step 9 – Monitor and assess result
Phases in Diagnosis
Diagnostic studies typically include several distinct phases (Nadler, 1977). As the following
description shows, diagnostic tasks, models, and methods shift within and between phases, as do
relations between consultants, clients,
and other members of the client organization:
Entry:
Clients and consultants explore expectations for the study; the client presents problems and
challenges; the consultant assesses the likelihood of cooperation with various types of research
and probable receptiveness to feedback; and the consul-
tant makes a preliminary reconnaissance of organizational problems and strengths.
Contracting:
Consultants and clients negotiate and agree on the nature of the diagnosis and client-consultant
relations.
Study design:
Methods, measurement procedures, sampling, analysis, and administrative procedures are
planned.
Collection & Analysis for Diagnosis:
Data are gathered through interviews, observations, questionnaires, analysis of secondary data,
group discussions, and workshops.
Analysis:
Consultants analyze the data and summarize findings; consultants (and sometimes clients)
interpret them and prepare for feedback.
Feeding back the info:
Consultants present findings to clients and other members of the client organization; feedback
may include explicit recommendations or more general findings to stimulate discussion, decision
making, and action planning
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Diagnostic Models
In a study of OD practitioners, 70 % reported using a model to assist identifying
problems.Diagnostic models may used to analyze the structure, culture, and behavior of the
organization.
The Analytical Model
Used for interdepartmental issues Examines four characteristics of departments Degree of
department structure Time orientation of members toward others Interpersonal member’s
orientation toward goals The model’s objective is to help departments achieve integration.
The Management Practice Model
Six Basic Factors
Basic planning
General Business practices
Finance
Advertising and promotion
Market research
Personal
Asking a few basic questions in each area, it is possible to get an indication of where the
client’s problems may be located.
The Sociotechnical System Model
Two systems contained in each organization:
Social system, which consists of interpersonal relationships.
Technical system, which consists of task, tools, and activities of organization.
The systems are interrelated. The diagnosis determines how the systems are interrelated
and what types of feedback is required between the subsystems.
The Force Field- Analysis Model
Organizational behavioral is a balance between forces working in opposite directions.
Restraining forces act to keep organization stable.
Driving forces act to change organization.
When two forces are equal, the organization is in quasi-stationary state of equilibrium.
Analysis of forces determines which force to increase or decrease to bring about change.
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Module 3
Designing OD interventions: Human process interventions:- coaching, training
anddevelopment, process consultation, third part intervention, and team building.
Organization
Techno structural interventions:- Structural design , downsizing, reengineering, employee
involvement, work design, socio technical systems approach,confrontation meeting,
intergroup relations intervention, and large group intervention.
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WHAT ARE EFFECTIVE OD INTERVENTIONS?
The term “intervention” refers to a set of sequenced planned actions or events intended to help
an organization increase its effectiveness. Interventions purposely disrupt the status quo; they are
deliberate attempts to change an organization or subunit toward a different and more effective
state. In OD, three major criteria define an effective intervention:
(1) the extent to which it fits the needs of the organization;
(2) the degree to which it is based on causal knowledge of intended outcomes; and
(3) the extent to which it transfers change management competence to organization members.
The first criterion concerns the extent to which the intervention is relevant to the organization
and its members. Effective interventions are based on valid information about the organization’s
functioning; they provide organization members with opportunities to make free and informed
choices; and they gain members’ internal commitment to those choices.
Organisational change programmes are typically designed to:
1. Change the way people behave at work in order to improve performance.
2. Implement a bold new strategy for turning the corporate vision into reality.
3. Rethink corporate structure and redesign jobs.
4. Integrate merged or acquired companies.
5. Re-engineer business processes.
6. Implement new IT systems..
7. Increase the speed at which new products are developed and brought to market.
Even though most change programmes are carefully planned often with the help of experienced
consultants – between 70% and 90% of them fail to achieve the desired results. Why is the
failure rate so high?
The conventional approach to change has ten structural weaknesses
-1 Top management clings to the old model of leadership.
Senior managers continue to provide leadership in the form of solutions, instead of working to
improve the organisation’scapacity to adapt. This improved adaptability can only be achieved if
the leaders change themselves before seeking to change the rest of the organisation.
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-2Change is imposed and driven by senior management.
By and large the planners of the change programme (typically senior management assisted by
consultants) have the best of intentions when they insist that people implement their plan
without modification. The implementers, on the other hand, usually want to adapt the plan to fit
their individual situations. This can lead to an escalating pattern where the more the planners
seek compliance, the more the implementers do their own thing, or do nothing – ultimately
resulting in the failure of the programme.
-3 The change model is based on control and domination.
Fearing the unpredictable, chaotic nature of change and the threat of its unwanted consequences,
managers employ pseudo-scientific change management techniques in a vain attempt to control
the process and create predictable and measurable outcomes. But although managers can control
micro-level changes, such as introducing new corporate stationery, at the macro level too many
of the variables are beyond human control. Major change can no more be managed than the
weather can be managed. Indeed, many major change programmes are little more than ritual rain
dances that satisfy man’s compelling need to take action in the face of a crisis. But whereas rain
dances are harmless, many conventional change programmes have failure designed into them as
they make no allowances for unanticipated developments.
-4 Stakeholder involvement is narrow.
Planners of conventional change programmes generally exclude the vast majority of internal
stakeholders from the planning process. Also, they tend to ignore important external stakeholder
groups such as suppliers, customers and the local community. The opportunity to create a more
widely-shared vision of the future is therefore lost, and key stakeholders may fail to provide
vitally-needed support
5 Awareness of current reality is limited.
As a consequence of failing to involve from the outset everyone who will be affected by the
change, a dangerously incomplete picture of current reality is created. This is compounded by the
fact that certain issues will be considered taboo and therefore undiscussable. Wise strategic
decisions are unlikely to be made when informed by such a limited information base.
-6 The focus is on identifying and solving problems.
Many models of organisational change are based on an elaboration of the problem solving
model. Problem solving is about fi xing things that have gone wrong, and the results tend to be
incremental improvements rather than “order of magnitude” changes. Even if an organisation
were to nail every one of its problems, this would not be enough for it to achieve its strategic
objectives.
-7 The vision is shaped by an elite group of experts and senior managers.
The boss outlines his or her vision through a presentation. (“I have shared my vision, so now we
have a shared vision.”) Employees may buy into the vision but, after giving it more
consideration, experience buyer’s remorse and as a consequence withdraw their support.
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-8 Linear thinking is used.
Linear thinking usually leads to ineffective change strategies, for two reasons. First, it produces a
programme with a predetermined sequence of steps leading the organisation towards a fi xed
goal.
-9Change strategy is communicated by transmitting messages.
The communication method is one where messages are transmitted from the bosses to “the
troops”. The consequences are low commitment and missed opportunities.
-10 Planning and implementation are sequential.
Conventional strategic planning (plan then implement) requires the world to stand still while the
planners do their work. Unfortunately the world keeps on turning and the planners never
quite catch up.
Types of OD Interventions
Broadly OD interventions can be classified into:
1. Technology related interventions
2. Human process interventions
Human Process Interventions:
interventions focus on people within organizations and the processes through which they
accomplish organizational goals. These processes include communication, problem solving,
group decision making, and leadership. This type of intervention is deeply rooted in the history
of OD and represents the earliest change programs characterizing OD. Human process
interventions derive mainly from the disciplines of psychology and social psychology and the
applied fields of group dynamics and human relations. Practitioners applying these interventions
generally value human fulfillment and expect that organizational effectiveness follows from
improved functioning of people and organizational processes.Human process interventions
related to interpersonal relationships and group dynamics.
These include the following interventions:
Coaching, Training & Development:
Coaching, is a training or development process via which an individual is supported while
achieving a specific personal or professional competence result or goal. The individual receiving
coaching may be referred to as coachee. Occasionally, the term coaching may be applied to an
informal relationship between two individuals where one has greater experience and expertise
than the other and offers advice and guidance as the other goes through a learning process, but
coaching differs from mentoring by focusing upon competence specifics, as opposed to general
overall development.
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The structures, models and methodologies of coaching are numerous, and may be designed to
facilitate thinking or learning new behavior for personal growth or professional advancement.
There are also forms of coaching that help the coachee improve a physical skill, like in a sport or
performing art form. Some coaches use a style in which they ask questions and offer
opportunities that will challenge the coachee to find answers from within him/herself. This
facilitates the learner to discover answers and new ways of being based on their values,
preferences and unique perspective.
When coaching is aimed at facilitating psychological or emotional growth it should be
differentiated from therapeutic and counseling disciplines, since clients of coaching, in most
cases, are considered healthy (i.e. not sick). The purpose of the coaching is to help them move
forward in whatever way they want to move, not to 'cure' them. In addition the therapist or
counsellor may work from a position of authoritative doubt, but cannot claim the position of
ignorance so vital for coaching, because of the assessment knowledge that underpins their work.
Process consultation.
This intervention focuses on interpersonal relations and social dynamics occurring in work
groups. Typically, a process consultant helps group members diagnose group functioning and
devise appropriate solutions to
process problems, such as dysfunctional conflict, poor communication, and ineffective norms.
The aim is to help members gain the skills and understanding necessary to identify and solve
problems themselves.
Third-party intervention.
This change method is a form of process consultation aimed at dysfunctional interpersonal
relations in organizations. Interpersonal conflict may derive from substantive issues, such as
disputes over work methods, or
from interpersonal issues, such as miscommunication. The third-party intervener helps people
resolve conflicts through such methods as problem solving, bargaining, and conciliation.
Team building
This intervention helps work groups become more effective in accomplishing tasks. Like
process consultation, team building helps members diagnose group processes and devise
solutions to problems. It goes beyond group processes, however, to include examination of the
group’s task, member roles, and strategies for performing tasks. The consultant also may
function as a resource person offering expertise related to the group’s task.
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1. Organization confrontation meeting.
This change method mobilizes organization members to identify problems, set action targets, and
begin working on problems. It is usually applied when organizations are experiencing stress and
when management needs to organize resources for immediate problem solving. The intervention
generally includes various groupings of employees in identifying and solving problems. The
confrontation meeting is an intervention designed to mobilize the resources of the entire
organization to identify problems, set priorities and action targets, and begin working on
identified problems. Originally developed by Beckhard, the intervention can be used at any time
but is particularly useful when the organization is in stress and when there is a gap between the
top and the rest of the organization.
2. Intergroup relations.
These interventions are designed to improve interactions among different groups or departments
in organizations. The microcosm groupintervention involves a small group of people whose
backgrounds closely match the organizational problems being addressed. This group addresses
the problem and develops means to solve it. The intergroup conflict model typically involves a
consultant helping two groups understand the causes of their conflict and choose appropriate
solutions.
It is very important for OD practitioners to diagnose and understand the inter group relations
because
1 To achieve the goals of the group they must work with and through other groups.
2 Groups can create problems within the organization
3 The level of the organization effectiveness depend upon the quality of relationship between the
groups
3. Large-group interventions.
These interventions involve getting a broad variety of stakeholders into a large meeting to clarify
important values, to develop new ways of working, to articulate a new vision for the
organization, or to solve pressing organizational problems. Such meetings are powerful tools for
creating awareness of organizational problems and opportunities and for specifying valued
directions for future action.
The range and purpose of Large Group Interventions
There is now a comprehensive range of LGI’s, each coming with their own methodologies and
processes. The main Large Group Interventions are listed in this article, with a brief summary of
the purpose, methodology and optimum size of each, where applicable. It is possible, using some
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LGI’s, to work highly effectively with thousands of people together all at once and there have
been some stunning outcomes, that many people would not have thought possible, from many of
these events throughout the world.
There is a separate page on Appreciative Inquiry, which is not technically classed as one of the
original Large Group Interventions but which is a very different approach to change and OD that
has fast been gaining popularity and credibility over the last few years.
Technostructural Interventions:
Interventions related to organization’s technology.They include approaches to employee
involvement, as well as methods for designing organizations, groups, and jobs. Technostructural
interventions are rooted in the disciplines of engineering, sociology, and psychology and in the
applied fields of sociotechnical systems and organization design. Practitioners generally stress
both productivity and human fulfillment and expect that organization effectiveness will result
from appropriate work designs and organization structures.
Structural design.
This change process concerns the organization’s division of labor—how to specialize task
performances. Interventions aimed at structural design include moving from more traditional
ways of dividing the organization’soverall work (such as functional, self-contained unit, and
matrix structures) to more integrative and flexible forms (such as process-based, customer-
centric, and network-based structures). Diagnostic guidelines exist to determine which structure
is appropriate for particular organizational environments, technologies, and conditions.
Downsizing.
This intervention reduces costs and bureaucracy by decreasing the size of the organization
through personnel layoffs, organization redesign, and outsourcing. Each of these downsizing
methods must be planned with a clear understanding of the organization’s strategy.
Reengineering.
This recent intervention radically redesigns the organization’s core work processes to create
tighter linkage and coordination among the different tasks. This workflow integration results in
faster, more responsive task performance. Reengineering is often accomplished with new
information technology that permits employees to control and coordinate work processes more
effectively. Reengineering often fails if it ignores basic principles and processes of OD.
Employee Involvement
This type of intervention is of contemporary type where in organisations involve key employees
in decision making process. It makes th employee feel attached to the company & also boosts
their morale.
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Sociotechnical system Approach:
Sociotechnical systems (STS) in organizational development is an approach to complex
organizational work design that recognizes the interaction between people and technology in
workplaces. The term also refers to the interaction between society's complex infrastructures and
human behaviour. In this sense, society itself, and most of its substructures, are complex
sociotechnical systems. The term sociotechnical systems was coined by Eric Trist, Ken Bamforth
and Fred Emery, World War II era, based on their work with workers in English coal
minesTavistock Institute in London.
Sociotechnical systems pertains to theory regarding the social aspects of people and society and
technical aspects of organizational structure and processes. Here, technical does not necessarily
imply material technology. The focus is on procedures and related knowledge, i.e. it refers to the
ancient Greek term logos. "Technical" is a term used to refer to structure and a broader sense of
technicalities. Sociotechnical refers to the interrelatedness of social and technical aspects of an
organization or the society as a whole. Sociotechnical theory therefore is about joint
optimization, with a shared emphasis on achievement of both excellence in technical
performance and quality in people's work lives. Sociotechnical theory, as distinct from
sociotechnical systems, proposes a number of different ways of achieving joint optimisation.
They are usually based on designing different kinds of organisation, ones in which the
relationships between socio and technical elements lead to the emergence of productivity and
wellbeing.
Principles
Some of the central principles of sociotechnical theory were elaborated in a seminal paper by
Eric Trist and Ken Bamforth in 1951. This is an interesting case study which, like most of the
work in sociotechnical theory, is focused on a form of 'production system' expressive of the era
and the contemporary technological systems it contained. The study was based on the
paradoxical observation that despite improved technology, productivity was falling, and that
despite better pay and amenities, absenteeism was increasing. This particular rational
organisation had become irrational. The cause of the problem was hypothesized to be the
adoption of a new form of production technology which had created the need for a bureaucratic
form of organization (rather like classic command-and-control). In this specific example,
technology brought with it a retrograde step in organizational design terms. The analysis that
followed introduced the terms "socio" and "technical" and elaborated on many of the core
principles that sociotechnical theory subsequently became.
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Responsible autonomy
Sociotechnical theory was pioneering for its shift in emphasis, a shift towards considering teams
or groups as the primary unit of analysis and not the individual. Sociotechnical theory pays
particular attention to internal supervision and leadership at the level of the "group" and refers to
it as "responsible autonomy".The overriding point seems to be that having the simple ability of
individual team members being able to perform their function is not the only predictor of group
effectiveness. There are a range of issues in team cohesion research, for example, that are
answered by having the regulation and leadership internal to a group or team.
These, and other factors, play an integral and parallel role in ensuring successful teamwork
which sociotechnical theory exploits. The idea of semi-autonomous groups conveys a number of
further advantages. Not least among these, especially in hazardous environments, is the often felt
need on the part of people in the organisation for a role in a small primary group. It is argued that
such a need arises in cases where the means for effective communication are often somewhat
limited. As Carvalho states, this is because "…operators use verbal exchanges to produce
continuous, redundant and recursive interactions to successfully construct and maintain
individual and mutual awareness…". The immediacy and proximity of trusted team members
makes it possible for this to occur. The coevolution of technology and organizations brings with
it an expanding array of new possibilities for novel interaction. Responsible autonomy could
become more distributed along with the team(s) themselves.
Adaptability
Carvajal states that "the rate at which uncertainty overwhelms an organisation is related more to
its internal structure than to the amount of environmental uncertainty". Sitter in 1997 offered two
solutions for organisations confronted, like the military, with an environment of increased (and
increasing) complexity: "The first option is to restore the fit with the external complexity by an
increasing internal complexity. ...This usually means the creation of more staff functions or the
enlargement of staff-functions and/or the investment in vertical information systems". Vertical
information systems are often confused for "network enabled capability" systems (NEC) but an
important distinction needs to be made, which Sitter et al. propose as their second option: "…the
organisation tries to deal with the external complexity by 'reducing' the internal control and
coordination needs. ...This option might be called the strategy of 'simple organisations and
complex jobs'". This all contributes to a number of unique advantages. Firstly is the issue of
"human redundancy" in which "groups of this kind were free to set their own targets, so that
aspiration levels with respect to production could be adjusted to the age and stamina of the
individuals concerned".Human redundancy speaks towards the flexibility, ubiquity and
pervasiveness of resources within NEC.
Traditional approaches to change tend to be:
• Top-down and therefore often misunderstood or resisted by people lower down in the
organization
• Led by a selected working or project group, representative of the workforce. This approach
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often starts off well, but over time, the representatives become distanced and isolated from their
colleagues as they gather enthusiasm for their work and are privy to much more information than
their colleagues back in the workplace.
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Module 4:
HR and Strategic interventions : HRM interventions:- performance
management, goal setting, performance coaching, appraising and rewarding.
Career planning, workforce diversity interventions, wellness and work-life
balance,
Strategic interventions: Competitive strategies, collaborative strategies,
organizational transformation, culture change, self designing organizations,
learning and knowledge management.
HRM Intervention
HRM interventions are used to develop, integrate,and support people in the organization.
These practices include those change practicesthat are traditionallyassociated with the HRfunction of
the organization
These interventions look at goal setting andappraisal systems, reward systems, career planning and
development, stress management,and diversity.
Interventions under HRM Interventions
1. Performance management
2. G o a l S e t t i n g
3. P e r f o r m a n c e A p p r a i s a l
4. R e w a r d S ys t e m s
5. D e v e l o p i n g a n d a s s i s t i n g M e m b e r s
6. C a r e e r P l a n n i n g a n d D e v e l o p m e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n s
7. W o r k F o r c e D i v e r s i t y i n t e r v e n t i o n s
8. Em p l o y e e s t r e s s a n d W e l l n e s s i n t e r v e n t i o n s
Performance management (PM) includes activities which ensure that goals are consistently
being met in an effective and efficient manner. Performance management can focus on the
performance of an organization, a department, employee, or even the processes to build a
product of service, as well as many other areas.
PM is also known as a process by which organizations align their resources, systems and
employees to strategic objectives and priorities.
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Performance management as referenced on this page in a broad term coined by Dr. Aubrey
Daniels in the late 1970s to describe a technology (i.e. science imbedded in applications
methods) for managing both behavior and results, two critical elements of what is known as
performance.
Long-cycle Performance Management
Long-cycle Performance Management is usually done on an annual, every 6 months, or quarterly
basis. From implementations standpoint, this area is the one that has traditionally received the
most attention.This is so for historical reasons, as most performance management
techniques/styles predate use of computers.
Short-cycle Performance Management
Short-cycle Performance Management (which overlaps with principles of [Agile Software
Development]) is usually done on a weekly, by-weekly, or monthly basis. From the
implementation standpoint, this sort of management is industry-specific.
Micro Performance Management
Micro Performance management is generally done on a by-minute/hour/day basis.
Goal Setting:Goal setting involves establishing specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and
time-targeted (S.M.A.R.T ) goals. Work on the theory of goal-setting suggests that an effective
tool for making progress is to ensure that participants in a group with a common goal are clearly
aware of what is expected from them. On a personal level, setting goals helps people work
towards their own objectives. Goal setting features as a major component of personal
developmentliterature.Organisations should develop a program that helps the employees to align
their individual goals with that of organizations’. Both should go in tandem with eachother.
Performance Coaching, appraising, & rewarding:Once the feedback is collected from the
employees about their performance, they are measured for their deviations against standard
procedures. If the deviations are on the positive scale , the employee is rewarded for his work.
Rewarding is a process with both monetary & non-monetary benefits. They motivate an
employee for further commitment.
Career Management is the combination of structured planning and the active management
choice of one's own professional career.
The outcome of successful career management should include personal fulfillment, work/life
balance, goal achievement and financial security.
Career Planning
Career planning is a subset of career management. Career planning applies the concepts of
Strategic planning and Marketing to taking charge of one's professional future.
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The word career refers to all types of employment ranging from semi-skilled through skilled, and
semiprofessional to professional. The term career has often been restricted to suggest an
employment commitment to a single trade skill, profession or business firm for the entire
working life of a person. In recent years, however, career now refers to changes or modifications
in employment during the foreseeable future.
There are many definitions by management scholars of the stages in the managerial process. The
following classification system with minor variations is widely used:
1. Development of overall goals and objectives,
2. Development of a strategy (a general means to accomplish the selected goals/objectives),
3. Development of the specific means (policies, rules, procedures and activities) to
implement the strategy, and
4. Systematic evaluation of the progress toward the achievement of the selected
goals/objectives to modify the strategy, if necessary.
Workforce Diversity Intervention
Researchers suggest and managers confirm that contemporary workforce characteristics are
radically different from what they were 20 years ago.Diversity results from people who bring
different resources and perspectives to the workplace and who have distinctive needs,
preferences, expectations and lifestyles.Organizations must design HR systems to account for
these differences.
Managing Workforce Diversity: This change program makes human resource practices more
responsive to a variety of individual needs.Important trends, such as increasing number of
women, ethnic minorities, and physically and mentally challenged people in the workforce,
require a more flexible set of policies.
Wellness & work-life balance: Protecting or addressing the psychological needs of the
employees is the prime duty of any employer. Employee wellness & work-life balance creates
stress free work environment & also leverages productivity.
Strategic Interventions, is a strategic, results-oriented,management consulting method.
Strategic Interventions competes based on its ability toproduce extraordinary "bottom line"
results. We achieve those results for our clients by"re-imagining" their business (not their
business processes) to reconfigure assets, construct"road maps" for implementation and execute
those plans to build sustainable competitiveadvantage in their marketplace. Strategic
Interventions, Inc is a "beginning to end"organization that believes our work is complete when
the identified returns are realized.
Strategic Intervention (also known as SI) is dedicated to extracting the most practical and
effective forms of strategic action and communication from a variety of disciplines: Human
Needs Psychology, Ericksonian therapy, Strategic Family Therapy, Organisational Psychology,
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Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP), Psychology of Influence, Hypno-Therapy, Traditions of
Diplomacy and Negotiation, Social Action Therapy, Direct & Indirect Negotiation, the Third
Side, Structural Family Therapy, Life-Cycle theory of business organization, mediation and
Conflict Resolution Techniques, Logo-Therapy, De-Armouring Process, Bio-Dynamic
Bodywork. “Strategic Intervention provides simple understanding and solutions that REALLY
deliver more benefit to people with less effort in a short space of time.”
Strategic Intervention allows us to STOP analyzing so much and work with the heart. Not to gain
an outcome but to gain INSIGHT. Strategic Intervention allows us the opportunity to “take the
pressure off” our responsibility as therapists, coaches, social workers, caring friends etc and
firmly places the responsibility on the PERSON YOU ARE ATTEMPTING TO HELP which is
where it has the most profound impact.
Strategic Intervention is a method (commonly demonstrated by Tony Robbins) for assisting
people to find empowering meanings for their life circumstances, discover why they do what
they do and how they meet their needs in positive and negative ways, the understanding of which
helps to promote sustainable change. It involves the use of MANY disciplines and provides us as
coaches with Highly EFFECTIVE, FLEXIBLE and QUICK ACTING LONG-TERM strategies
to deal with a wide range of issues.
Competitive Strategies : Page 30
Any successful approach to achieving top-line growth must
take into account what your competitors are, and are not,
doing, and balance those insights with a detailed
understanding of where promising market opportunities are
to be found. Ignoring either of these activities puts top-line
growth at risk. Companies must therefore invest heavily not
only to keep pace with competitors, but also to render them
irrelevant whenever possible, while simultaneously
anticipating and preparing for the next threat or opportunity.
COLLABORATIVE STRATEGY
It's when multiple people make incremental contributions
to a project. "Collaborative Strategy is the synergy between
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the strategy of a Business and the Strategy of its Partners to
realize the objectives through collaboration. "This concept is
being developed as the new way to grow a Business.
ompanies collaborate with their partners, vendors, customers
etc., to build synergy at strategic level to grow their
business. Classic example of Collaborative Strategy is the
business models of Procter & Gamble to collaborate with
numerous researchers across the globe. Also, Bharti Airtel.
Organisational Tranformation & Culture change:This is
the period when the organisation is undergoing change in
order to align itself with the changes in the
macroenvironment. Ex: Mcdonalds has changed it’s work &
process in order to suit the region of it’s operations.
Self-designing Organisations are those which have a
flexi organisation structure so as to incorporate the
external changes & modify themselves. Work design
In organizational development (OD), SDO is the application
of Socio-Technical Systems principles and techniques to the
humanization of work.
The aims of work design are to improve job satisfaction, to
improve through-put, to improve quality and to reduce
employee problems (e.g., grievances, absenteeism
Learning & Knowledge management System:
Learning & Knowledge management is the process of capturing, developing, sharing, and
effectively using organizational knowledge. It refers to a multi-disciplined approach to achieving
organizational objectives by making the best use of knowledge.
Application
This is used most often in the workplace, can apply wherever people interact — schools,
churches, community meetings, sports teams, health setting, governmental agencies,social events
and even political settings - anywhere in the world people interact with their environments to
produce desired effects. Armstrong and Baron (1998) defined it as a “strategic and integrated
approach to increase the effectiveness of companies by improving the performance of the people
who work in them and by developing the capabilities of teams and individual contributors.”
It may be possible to get all employees to reconcile personal goals with organizational goals and
increase productivity and profitability of an organization using this process.[3] It can be applied
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by organizations or a single department or section inside an organization, as well as an individual
person. The performance process is appropriately named the self-propelled performance process
(SPPP).
First, a commitment analysis must be done where a job mission statement is drawn up for each
job. The job mission statement is a job definition in terms of purpose, customers, product and
scope. The aim with this analysis is to determine the continuous key objectives and performance
standards for each job position.
Following the commitment analysis is the work analysis of a particular job in terms of the
reporting structure and job description. If a job description is not available, then a systems
analysis can be done to draw up a job description. The aim with this analysis is to determine the
continuous critical objectives and performance standards for each job.
Benefits
Managing employee or system performance and aligning their objectives facilitates the effective
delivery of strategic and operational goals. Some proponents argue that there is a clear and
immediate correlation between using performance management programs or software and
improved business and organizational results.In the public sector, the effects of performance
management systems have differed from positive to negative, suggesting that differences in the
characteristics of performance management systems and the contexts into which they are
implemented play an important role to the success or failure of performance management.
For employee performance management, using integrated software, rather than a spreadsheet
based recording system, may deliver a significant return on investment through a range of direct
and indirect sales benefits, operational efficiency benefits and by unlocking the latent potential in
every employees work day (i.e. the time they spend not actually doing their job). Benefits may
include:
Direct financial gain,
Grow sales
Reduce costs in the organization
Stop project overruns
Aligns the organization directly behind the CEO's goals
Decreases the time it takes to create strategic or operational changes by communicating
the changes through a new set of goals
Motivated workforce
Optimizes incentive plans to specific goals for over achievement, not just business as
usual
Improves employee engagement because everyone understands how they are directly
contributing to the organizations high level goals
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Create transparency in achievement of goals
High confidence in bonus payment process
Professional development programs are better aligned directly to achieving business level
goals
Improved management control
Flexible, responsive to management needs
Displays data relationships
Helps audit / comply with legislative requirement
Simplifies communication of strategic goals scenario planning
Provides well documented and communicated process documentation
Sociotechnical Systems Model
Sociotechnical systems (STS) in organizational development is an approach to complex organizational
work design that recognizes the interaction between people and technology in workplaces. The term also
refers to the interaction between society's complex infrastructures and human behaviour. In this sense,
society itself, and most of its substructures, are complex sociotechnical systems. The term sociotechnical
systems was coined by Eric Trist, Ken Bamforth and Fred Emery, World War II era, based on their work
with workers in English coal minesTavistock Institute in London
Goals or objectives development
The career management process begins with setting goals/objectives. A relatively specific
goal/objective must be formulated. This task may be quite difficult when the individual lacks
knowledge of career opportunities and/or is not fully aware of their talents and abilities.
However, the entire career management process is based on the establishment of defined
goals/objectives whether specific or general in nature. Utilizing career assessments may be a
critical step in identifying opportunities and career paths that most resonate with someone.
Career assessments can range from quick and informal to more indepth. Regardless of the ones
you use, you will need to evaluate them. Most assessments found today for free (although good)
do not offer an in-depth evaluation.
The time horizon for the achievement of the selected goals or objectives - short term, medium
term or long term - will have a major influence on their formulation.
1. Short term goals (one or two years) are usually specific and limited in scope. Short term
goals are easier to formulate. Make sure they are achievable and relate to your longer
term career goals.
2. Intermediate goals (3 to 20 years) tend to be less specific and more open ended than short
term goals. Both intermediate and long term goals are more difficult to formulate than
short term goals because there are so many unknowns about the future.
3. Long term goals (Over 20 years), of course, are the most fluid of all. Lack of life
experience and knowledge about potential opportunities and pitfalls make the formulation
of long term goals/objectives very difficult. Long range goals/objectives, however, may
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be easily modified as additional information is received without a great loss of career
efforts because of experience/knowledge transfer from one career to another.
4. Making career choices and decisions – the traditional focus of careers interventions. The
changed nature of work means that individuals may now have to revisit this process more
frequently now and in the future, more than in the past.
5. Managing the organizational career – concerns the career management tasks of
individuals within the workplace, such as decision-making, life-stage transitions, dealing
with stress etc.
6. Managing 'boundaryless' careers – refers to skills needed by workers whose employment
is beyond the boundaries of a single organization, a workstyle common among, for
example, artists and designers.
7. Taking control of one's personal development – as employers take less responsibility,
employees need to take control of their own development in order to maintain and
enhance their employability.
The Learning Organization and Strategic Change
Business environments are too chaotic and organizational change too complex to
establish firm objectives, fixed plans, and concrete programs of change.
Amid sometimes unpredictable, always uncertain, and highly turbulent business
conditions, an organization's capacity to learn as it goes may be the only true source
of competitive advantage. No longer able to forecast the future, many leading
organizations are constructing arks comprised of their inherent capacity to adapt to
unforeseen situations, to learn from their own experiences, to shift their shared
mindsets, and to change more quickly, broadly, and deeply than ever before. In other
words, to become learning organizations. According to Kiechel, the notion of the
learning organization is... a very big conceptual catchall to help us make sense of a set
of values and ideas we've been wrestling with, everything from customer service to
corporate responsiveness and speed
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Module 5 :
Special applications of OD : OD in
health care organizations,
family owned organizations,
educational institutions,
public sector organizations and future directions in OD.
******************************************************************************
Special applications of OD :
OD inhealth care organizations
Health Care Reform expands coverage but adds new administrative expenses and taxes
The ten essential services in health care organisations where change can be brought are:
1. Monitor health status to identify and solve community health problems.
2. Diagnose and investigate health problems and health hazards in the community.
3. Inform, educate, and empower people about health issues.
4. Mobilize community partnerships to identify and solve health problems.
5. Develop policies and plans that support individual and community health efforts.
6. Enforce laws and regulations that protect health and ensure safety.
7. Link people to needed personal health services and assure the provision of health care
when otherwise unavailable.
8. Assure a competent public and personal health care workforce.
9. Evaluate effectiveness, accessibility, and quality of personal and population-based health
services.
10. Research for new insights and innovative solutions to health problems
These are the foundation of any public health activity.
For example, any public health program needs data to operate. Essential Service #1
includes activities such as data collection, community health assessments and the
maintenance of population health registries. As another example, Essential Service #7
includes personal health care services, transportation and other enabling services such as
assuring the availability of culturally appropriate personnel and materials.
Since the Ten Essential Services were released, numerous initiatives have explored the
utility and feasibility of these services and have found them to be a good descriptor of
public health practice.
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Monitor Health Status to Identify and Solve Community Health Problems
Now let’s look at each of the services in more detail. This service includes
accurate diagnosis of the community’s health status; identification of threats to health and
assessment of health service needs; timely collection, analysis, and publication of
information on healthcare access, utilization, costs, and outcomes of personal health
services; and attention to the vital statistics.
Motoring conditions that influence health are decentralized across the community.
Data is maintained by police on crime, drug use, and traffic-related injuries. Fire
departments collect information on smoke detectors, fire-related injuries, and location of
toxic chemical in the community. Hospitals have discharge and emergency services data.
Schools have attendance data, student immunizations data, and graduation rates. Many
other system partners have important data as well. All of this data when brought together
helps describe health in the community.
This service informs decision-makers on health matters and supports selection of
effective policy, plans and interventions to improve health. Efficient and effective use of
computer and communication technology is needed to assure information is timely.
Diagnose and Investigate Community Health Problems and Hazards
This service includes epidemiological identification of emerging health threats;
public health laboratory capability using modern technology to conduct rapid screening
and high volume testing; active infectious disease epidemiology programs; and technical
capacity for epidemiological investigation of disease outbreaks and patterns of chronic
disease and injury.
Inform, Educate and Empower People About Health Issues
This service involves:
• Making health information and educational resources accessible;
• Providing health information and education activities that shape attitudes and build
knowledge necessary to reduce health risk and promote better health;
• Establishing health communication plans and activities that use media advocacy and
social marketing approaches to shape attitudes and build knowledge;
• Enabling informed decision-making among individuals in making health choices and
among leaders establishing health policies for the community.
• Maintaining health education and promotion program partnerships with schools, faith
communities, work sites, personal care providers, and others to implement and reinforce
health promotion programs that shape attitudes, knowledge, skills, and behaviors needed
in a healthy community populations.
These activities assist to empower people to make informed decisions regarding
individual and community health matters.
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Mobilize Communities to Identify and Solve Community Health Problems
Community health improvement is a collaborative effort requiring:
• Skilled conveners and organizers,
• Social responsiveness (above self-interest) from community members, and
• System structures that link community assets and the public’s will to act.
Develop Policies and Plans That Support Community Health Efforts
Policies addressing specific health-related issues are public statements
establishing directions individuals, organizations, or governments follow to protect and
promote health. Policies are established by organizations and governments to identify
consistent behaviors that are expected. Community and organization leaders have
responsibility to articulate policies built on proven scientific finding and shaped by
community values. Policies having negative or positive influences on health touch every
aspect of community life. Safety standards that makers of automobiles and producers of
electrical materials follow demonstrate policies that protect people from injury. Food
handling guidelines protect people from illness. Other policy examples designed to
encourage or support healthy behaviors can be identified in zoning rules. For example,
zoning that requires sidewalks in new residential developments. This type of policy has
influence on health by supporting the opportunity for physical activity as well as
improving pedestrian safety. In addition, organizational leaders can influence health with
policies that govern use of tobacco at company facilities, the availability of health
insurance for employees, or facilities and time that allow for and promote physical
activity. These are all examples of health-related policies that are important for
community leaders to understand and apply. How well is health-related policy used to
improve health in our community?
Enforce Laws, Regulations, and Rules That Protect Health and Ensure
Safety
Governmental officials form public health and other regulatory officials have
responsibility to assess legal authority and effectiveness of regulations. If regulations are
not based on appropriate public health science and contemporary practice standards or if
there are new regulations needed to properly protect health, public health leaders should
advocate for needed regulator change. The primary purpose of health-related regulation
is not punishment but compliance. Public health should employ the use of education and
other methods to enable individuals and organizations to comply with health and safety
regulations. If there is failure to comply, it is essential that public health use its
enforcement authority to protect the public.
Link People to Personal Health Services
This service (often referred to as the "outreach" or "enabling" service) includes
assuring effective entry of people into a coordinated system of clinical care, especially
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the socially disadvantaged. This may involve identifying and addressing potential
barriers related to cultural, language of materials, or staff serving special population
groups. It most certainly involves providing people access and linkage to a coordinated
system of personal healthcare that provides ongoing "care management," transportation
services, and targeted health information to high risk population groups. The system
should also ensure delivery of effective health promotion and disease prevention services
within the community as well as provision of technical assistance to community
providers who wish to improve or offer health promotion services.
Assure a Competent Public and Personal Health Care Workforce
This service includes:
Education and training for personnel to meet the needs for public and personal health
service;
Efficient processes for licensure of professionals and certification of facilities with
regular verification and inspection follow-up;
Adoption of continuous quality improvement and life-long learning within all licensure
and certification programs;
Active partnerships with professional training programs to assure community-relevant
learning experiences for all students; and
Continuing education in management and leadership development programs for those
charged with administrative or executive roles.
Evaluate Effectiveness, Accessibility, and Quality of Health Services
This service calls for ongoing evaluation of health programs, based on analysis of
health status and service utilization data, to assess program effectiveness and to provide
information necessary for allocating resources and reshaping programs.
Its through this service we should answer the questions
• Are we doing things right? and
• Are we doing the right things to effectively improve health?
Evaluation must be seen as a consistent part of all public health work. Evaluation
can be identified in many forms such as customer service feedback, quality improvement
programs that examine the process of service delivery, or rigorous case control
evaluation. All levels of evaluation are needed. Evaluation is needed for effective
decision-making and resource allocation. It is through evaluation that we understand our
improvements.
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Research for New Insights and Innovative Solutions to Health Problems
This service includes continuous linkage with appropriate institutions of higher
learning and research and an internal capacity to mount timely epidemiological and
economic analyses and conduct needed health services research.
Telecommunications applications:
Technology is helping healthcare professionals work more efficiently.
Care can be provided in real time over great distances.
Physicians can consult with one another around the globe.
Patients can use the Internet or e-mail to learn more about health conditions and educate
themselves.
Surveillance systems can enhance emergency response efforts by monitoring for
“signals” in communities.
How Healthcare Informatics is changing professional practice.
Using the Internet to:
Obtain information on practice guidelines, continuing education, long-distance learning
for academic degrees.
Deliver interactive training simultaneously to multiple sites.
How Healthcare Informatics is changing professional practice.
Time distribution of work:
Increase frequency of interacting among staff nurses, allied professionals and physicians.
Reduce the time for information transmission.
How Healthcare Informatics is changing professional practice.
POE implementation issues:
Need long-term commitment; usually several years.
During transition, both paper and e-systems exist, duplicating documentation and
increasing time commitments. Can frustrate clinical staff.
Many interpersonal barriers exist. Technology cannot solve these. Only faith and shift in
philosophy can do that.
How Healthcare Informatics is changing professional practice.
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Acceptance of Healthcare Informatics:
Varied from refusal to requests for additional applications.
Access to hardware and downtime for re-programming as well as on-going training of
staff are noted as barriers to successful implementation.
How Healthcare Informatics is changing management roles.
Support rapid response to change:
Informatics supports localization of decision making by being responsive to changes and
needs in specialized service areas.
How Healthcare Informatics is changing management roles.
Leaders need IS skills:
Administrators need information about trends.
Information Systems need to create faster, condensed, organized, and more accurate
feedback that supports decision making without overloading the users with information.
Do not allow previous experiences to bias view of how IT might help to resolve a new
challenge.
As IT systems provide more information to managers and clinicians, they will be
expected to interpret information and act on their analysis to benefit the organization and
its customers.
How Healthcare Informatics is changing management roles.
Danger of cascade effect:
When implementing major IT project, such as EMR or scheduling system, balance
financial, quality and personnel factors and respond to problems quickly.
Otherwise, users may not adapt and respond quickly to changes and that could lead to
failure of the project.
How Healthcare Informatics is changing management roles.
Changing Workgroup Culture:
Managers must encourage persons in the workgroup to make decisions about what
information is relevant to improve overall care.
Clinicians must be encouraged to use IT and to move past initial reservations that they
feel. They may feel embarrassed because they do not have the technical skills, but this
will pass as they become more proficient.
How Healthcare Informatics is changing management roles.
Short-term vs. Long-term performance measures:
Move away from short-term goals. In this view, employees are costs.
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Employees are assets and their long-term achievement approach will provide financial
gains to the organization.
How Healthcare Informatics is changing management roles.
Paradox of Increased Efficiency:
IT systems make administrators and clinicians more efficient.
Now they both are expected to do multitasking, or simultaneous processing of multiple
sources of information for multiple issues and customers.
Organizations should provide “checkpoints” for administrators, allowing them to make
sure that information is being used effectively.
Organizational Change in educational institutions:
Educational organizations are expected to be vehicles for social change, as well as
preserving and transmitting values.To change schools, we must change the power
relationships in schools.
Aims of Educational Reform
Sarason listed five aims that would constitute major change in the inner core of
assumptions that are difficult to bring about:
To reduce the achievement gap among social classes and racial groups.
To get students to enjoy school.
To enable students to acquire knowledge and skills in ways that relate learning
and give purpose to each student.
To engender interest in human accomplishments, past and present, and to enlarge
their own identities: personal, social, and as citizens.
To acquaint students with the domain of career options and how schooling relates
to the fast-changing world of work.
Three Strategies of Planned Change
Robert Chin’s taxonomy of change strategies is used in this book.
I. Empirical-rational strategies.
II. Power-coercive strategies.
III. Normative-reeducative strategies.
Development Phase: Research and development, or R & D, includes translating research
into products that are practical.
Diffusion Phase: RD& D includes marketing the new products and making them
attractive at a reasonable cost.
Adoption Phase: RDDA, which usually includes Dick Clark and EgonGuba’s three-stage
process: a trial, installation of the program, the institutionalization of the program as part
of the system.
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II. Power-Coercive
Strategies for Change
One Power-Coercive strategy uses the behavioral psychology concept of the carrot and
stick approach:
Both rewards (financial) and sanctions (political, financial, moral) are used to obtain
compliance from adopters.
Example: minority group efforts to gain representation in decision making.
Example: coalitions of disabled who lobbied for series of laws and judicial decisions in
their favor.
III. Normative-Reeducative or Organizational Self-Renewal Strategies
Empirical-rational and Power-coercive strategies share two assumptions: (a) good ideas
are developed outside the organization; (b) the organization is the target of external
forces for change. Normative-reeducative differs.
As Chris Argyris noted, a healthy organization performs three core activities over time:
Achieves its goals.
Maintains itself internally.
Adapts to its environment.
Organizational Health
Indicators of organizational health from Matthew Miles:
Goal focus.
Communication adequacy.
Optimal power equalization.
Human resources utilization.
Cohesiveness.
Morale.
Innovativeness.
Autonomy.
Adaptation.
Problem-solving adequacy.
The Learning Organization
A Learning Organization adapts to unfolding changes in the environment. This process is
often called organizational development (OD).
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OD is an approach to increasing the self-renewal capability of school districts and
schools.
OD Involves at Least 10 Concepts
The goal of OD.
System renewal.
A systems approach.
A focus on people.
An educational strategy.
Learning through experience.
Dealing with real problems.
A planned strategy.
Change agent.
Involvement of top-level administration.
The Sociotechnical View
What OD strives to do is to seek a new and more functional basis for:
Task analysis.
Structural arrangements.
Selection and use of technology.
Selection and professional development of people and groups.
Force-Field Analysis
This is a technique to analyze the sociotechnical aspects of the organization.
Kurt Lewin indicated that an organization can analyze its ability to change by the
following:
The Key to change is to analyze the forces for and the forces against change.
If they are in balance, then we have equilibrium—no change
When one or the other is removed or weakened, then equilibrium is upset and change
occurs
A family business is a business in which one or more members of one or more families have a
significant ownership interest and significant commitments toward the business’ overall well-
being.
In some countries, many of the largest publicly listed firms are family-owned. A firm is said to
be family-owned if a person is the controlling shareholder; that is, a person (rather than a state,
corporation, management trust, or mutual fund) can garner enough shares to assure at least 20%
of the voting rights and the highest percentage of voting rights in comparison to other
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shareholders.Some of the world's largest family-run-businesses are Walmart (United States),
Samsung Group (Korea), Tata Group (India) and Foxconn (Taiwan).
Family owned businesses account for over 30% of companies with sales over $1 billion.
Problems
The interests of a family member may not be aligned with the interest of the business. For
example, if a family member wants to be president but is not as competent as a non-family
member, the personal interest of the family member and the well being of the business may be in
conflict.
Or, the interests of the entire family may not be balanced with the interests of their business. For
example, if a family needs its business to distribute funds for living expenses and retirement but
the business requires those to stay competitive, the interests of the entire family and the business
are not aligned.[3]
Finally, the interest of one family member may not be aligned with another family member. For
example, a family member who is an owner may want to sell the business to maximize their
return, but a family member who is an owner and also a manager may want to keep the company
because it represents their career and they want their children to have the opportunity to work in
the company.
Structuring
When the family business is basically owned and operated by one person, that person usually
does the necessary balancing automatically. For example, the founder may decide the business
needs to build a new plant and take less money out of the business for a period so the business
can accumulate cash needed to expand. In making this decision, the founder is balancing his
personal interests (taking cash out) with the needs of the business (expansion).
Most first generation owner/managers make the majority of the decisions. When the second
generation (sibling partnership) is in control, the decision making becomes more consultative.
When the larger third generation (cousin consortium) is in control, the decision making becomes
more consensual, the family members often take a vote. In this manner, the decision making
throughout generations becomes more rational.
The assets that are owned by the family, in most family businesses, are hard to separate from the
assets that belong to the business.
Examples of family businesses
Aditya Birla Group
Avantha Group
Bombardier Inc.
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Dillard's
Ford
Gernatt Family of Companies
Jolly Time
Lundberg Family Farms
Mango
Mittal Steel
Panda Energy International
Pete's RV Center
Raymond Group
Samsung
Tata Group
Toyota
OD in public sector organisations:
There are a number of profound differences between public sector organizations and private sector
organizations when it comes to organizational changeIn many cases not only are the reasonsdifferent for
initiating change but also change concepts and approaches that aretransferred from the private sector to
the public sector can lead to contradictoryresults. In comparison to private organizations, public
organizations are morecharacterized by a multitude of decision-makers, by a larger diversity of
stakeholders, by more intensive organizational dynamics and by a more bureaucraticorganizational
design. Or as Patchett (2005: 598 – 9) puts it: ‘The politicalnature of the legislative and representation
process and the functional expertand efficiency orientation of the administrative process produce
important tensionsin a public-sector organization.’ The particular context of a public
organizationputs specific demands on the management of change, for instance, with regardto
working with different authorities and handling the influence of legislationand the political field
of force effectively.
OD in Educational Organisations: Education in its general sense is a form of learning in
which the knowledge, skills, and habits of a group of people are transferred from one generation
to the next through teaching, training, or research. Education frequently takes place under the
guidance of others, but may also be autodidactic.Any experience that has a formative effect on
the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. Education is commonly divided
into stages such as preschool, primary school, secondary school and then college, university or
apprenticeship.
Future of OD: organization development (OD) is a complex strategy intended to change the
beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of organizations so that they can better adapt to new
technologies, markets, and challenges.
Within business, strategic planning may provide overall direction (called strategic management)
to a company or give specific direction in such areas as:
* Financial strategies
* Human resource/organizational development strategies
* Information technology deployments
* Marketing strategy
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Module 6 :
Introduction to organizational change: Nature of change, forces of change, reinventing
Kurt Levin, organizational routines and mental models, change need analysis, content
ofchange, types and styles of change, building capability for change, providing leadership
tochange, action research and dialogue, types of change, organizational vision,
culturalchange,
strategic planning, creating support systems and managing transition, processoriented
strategies and competitor oriented strategies and customer oriented strategies.
*****************************************************************************
DEFINITION:
Organisational Change can be defined as, a concerted, planned effort toIncrease organisational
effectiveness &health through changes in the organization's dynamics using behavioral science
knowledge.
Basic context of organizational change:
The concept of organisational change is in regard to organization-wide
Change, such as adding a new person, modifying a program, etc. Ex of
Organization wide change are:
1. Change in mission
2. New Technologies.
3. Mergers.
4. Major collaborations.
5. Total Quality Management
6. Re Engineering
The Nature of Organization Change
Ø Organization Change
• Any substantive modification to some part of the organization (e.g., work
schedules, machinery, employees).
Ø Forces for Change
• External forcesin the organization’s general and task environments that
force the organization to alter the way in which it competes.
• Internal forces inside the organization that cause it to change its structure
and strategy; some internal forces are responses to external pressures.
Ø Planned Change
– Change that is designed and implemented in an orderly and timely fashion
in anticipation offuture events.
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Ø Reactive Change– Change that is a piecemeal response to events and circumstances as they
develop.
FORCES of change:
1.External forces.
2.Internal Forces.
External Forces
Ø Demographic Characteristics
Ø Market Changes.
Ø Technological Advancements
Ø Social Pressures.
Ø Political Events.
Internal Forces
Ø Human resource Problems.
Ø Managerial Behavior & Problems.
External Forces:
1.External forces for change originate outside the org
Demographic characteristics
1.They work force is more diverse
2.There is a business imperative to effectively manage diversity.
• Organisations need to effectively manage diversity if they are to receive
maximum contribution & commitment from employees
2.Technological Advancements.
Both manufacturing & service orgs are increasingly using technology as a means to improve
productivity & market competitiveness.
INTERNAL CHANGES Page 47
• Internal forces for change come from inside the org.
• These forces may be low morale, low productivity & conflict.
• Internal forces for change come from both human resource problems
&managerial behavior/decisions.
1.HUMAN RESOURCE PROBLEMS
Ø These problems stem from employee perceptions about how they are treated
at work & the match b/w people & org needs & desires.
Ø Dissatisfaction at work is a symptom.
Ø High level of absenteeism & turnover also represent the forces for change.
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Ø Organisations might respond to these problems by using the various
approaches.
• Job Design.
• By reducing employees role conflict.
• Work overload by removing the different stressors.
2.Managerial Behavior an Decisions.
• Excessive interpersonal conflict between managers & their subordinates is a
sign that change is needed.
• Both the manager & the employee may need interpersonal skills training, or
the two people may simply need to be separated.
• Inappropriate behaviors such as inadequate direction or support may result in
human resource problems which requiring change
Kurt Lewin change theory and Lewin's three step model is very much a significant part of
change management strategies for managing change in the workplace in the 21st century. This
change management model was developed during the 1940's and the concept of 'Unfreezing-
Transition-Freezing' still remains very relevant today.
Below, from the perspective of a change management consultant I explain this change
management model, 'the 3 phases model', and how it works today as a key part of business
improvement and successful organizational change initiatives.
Kurt Lewin 3 Phases Change Management Model
Kurt Lewin's change management model is a fantastic change model for understanding the basic
concepts of a straight-forward change management process.
Lewin's Three Step Change Model Phases are:
Unfreeze: Reducing the forces that are striving to maintain the status quo, and dismantling the
current mind set. Usually by presenting a provocative problem or event to get people to
recognize the need for change and to search for new solutions.
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Transition: Developing new behaviors, values, and attitudes, sometimes through organizational
structure and process changes and development techniques. There may be a period of some
confusion as we move from the old ways of doing things to the new.
Freeze: The final stage of crystallizing and the adaptation of ownership of the new 'as is'. The
organization may revert to former ways of doing things at this point unless the changes are
reinforced through freezing.
Use Kurt Lewin's Change Model in Change Management Implementations
The challenge when reviewing a change management model like this is being able to picture
yourself implementing it a real world situation, using the change model in your business today.
Two examples are:
By doing attitude surveys of all staff, it may show management that moral is quite low and that
as a result of this low morale the risk to safety is quite high. This may influence a manager who
has been resisting change to begin to take action.
Similarly when information is being delivered to the field, but then negative events in the field
are continuing to occur, this may convince management that the message is not being heard and
some required changes are in order.
During the unfreezing step generally most staff and management are willing to change. Those
that are not usually require something meaningful to provoke them to change their attitude.
These two examples above demonstrate that there are many positive and constructive ways to do
that.
Kurt Lewin's model suggests that one of the best ways to motivate people to change is to first get
people to see the need for change. Even when a change if for the persons long term health
benefits such a ceasing a bad destructive habit, few people ever change because someone else
tells them to. People generally need to see for themselves the need for change, for the catalyst to
occur, to provoke them to "unfreeze".
Educating employees in regards the pressures for change is a first step.
Following on from that leaders can begin to highlight gaps between the current and desired
states and present a vision as it needs to be. Then further begin to convey the change in terms of
specific outcomes that the company expects from the operation and employees and their
confidence and belief that these changes are possible.
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Organisational Routines for change:
During the transition phase we aim to shift or alter the behavior of the individual, departments, or
organization in which the changes are taking place.
People are at this stage looking for new and better ways to do things. The behavior may initially
be mechanical but they are starting to perform and behave in ways that support the new
direction.
This process can be lengthy and almost certainly will not happen in a matter of just a few days. It
will take time for people to feel comfortable and start to act in ways that are supporting the
change initiative. There may be some mayhem and confusion at this point though with a properly
structured approach to the change this can be managed well.
During this transition phase be prepared to deal with people who benefit from not changing. For
them the best situation is the status quo.
Have plenty of time and plenty of communication. People need time to take things in and
through the continual communication they will feel more involved and connected to the process.
It will benefit the project and is great for leaders and the change initiators to get out in the field
and talk and be apart of the people's approach. This aspect is part of what makes a good leader.
Dialogue’s of change:
address any barriers of negative people, and keep things real and coming back to
how it relates to the business and the need for change.
change.
tones and measurements.
Creating Support Systems
When the people, structure, and strategy elements all seem okay, when things are looking
well, it is time to lock things in. We act here to make sure that the improvements stick
and this is the freezing phase. We continue here until the changes become the 'way we do
things around here'.
Kurt Lewin's three step model assumes that organizations tend to revert to there former
ways of doing things unless the changes are reinforced. Kurt Lewin's model requires a
process be in place that supports and maintains the changes. This may include things such
as new employee performance appraisal systems and reward systems to influence those to
adhere to the firm's new values.
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