Change Management_ A Guide to Effective Implementation

380 Epilogue

Third, to be effective, change management needs to be supported from
the top and be characterized by ‘full-blown’ participation. Senior man-
agement needs to be seen to be making the time to be fully involved.
There is also a need for this involvement to permeate throughout the
organization, to gain commitment to the changes being made. For exam-
ple, when Delta airlines were faced with significant redundancies in 1994
they took positive steps to control and manage the situation. A commu-
nications centre, with freephone numbers, was set up to provide
immediate responses to employee questions. Open forums were organ-
ized and Vice Presidents dispatched to allay fears. In addition, the senior
management team visited all Delta sites within two days of the
announcement. Those ultimately responsible for the well being of the
corporation, division, or operating unit must support strategic, tactical or
operational change.

Ten Key Factors in Effective Change Management

We have expanded the themes discussed above, namely, innovative
responses to triggers, holistic solutions, and visionary, committed sup-
port into ten factors, which must be addressed and actioned if change is
to be effectively managed. By ensuring that these factors have been con-
sidered, prior to initializing change, the problem owner and associated
change agents will be in a position to confidently manage the process of
transition from that which is inadequate to that which is desired.

First: change is all pervasive

Any process of change is likely to have an impact greater than the sum of
its parts. A holistic view must be taken to ensure that the full environ-
mental impact is understood. When you consider making change in your
organization, from redesigning the staff canteen to acquiring a new com-
pany, look at change in terms of its impact on the organization as a
whole. Forget the parts; look at the whole picture.

Second: successful change needs active senior management
support

Whether you believe in a top-down or bottom-up approach to change,
one thing is vital: visible and active senior management support is a must.
This is self-evident. Without senior management support three things will
be missing. First, the change will lack vision. In most organizations, it is
senior management’s responsibility to look forward, examine changes in

Epilogue 381

the environment, and determine the future state of the business.
There are numerous examples of senior management vision from
Branson at Virgin, Gates at Microsoft, Soutter at Stagecoach to Murdoch
everywhere!

Second, you’ll need effective allies. Senior management backing for
the change process is crucial in recruiting the desired level of support to
instigate change at all levels. Problem owners need someone to help
them open doors and gain support. Senior management support is
essential. It will allow you and/or the change project to cross the func-
tional boundaries that often impede change.

Third, you’ll need power. When the problem owner or change agent
communicates the recipients must realize that it is senior management
that is really speaking out. Senior management support guarantees that
the problem owner ‘speaks quietly but carries a big stick’.

Work on achieving senior management support from the outset. Talk
out the ideas you have for change with your boss, or his or her boss. The
sooner there is senior management awareness of the need and desirabil-
ity for change, the sooner things will begin to happen.

Third: change is a multi-disciplinary activity

Most successful change projects accomplish their objectives through the
project team. No one person can handle all the tasks and they certainly
won’t have all the required knowledge and understanding. Recognition of
the multi-disciplinary nature of change goes a long way in beginning the
sequence of events that will realize the transformation. Problem owners
are often identified because of their association with the change. Change
agents are recruited because of their expertise in facilitating change
through its various stages. Their expertise may be based on people skills,
technological know-how, or their experience of systems analysis.

When placed in charge of a change project, or when in general contemplat-
ing a change, get yourself a team. The successful management of change,
which is complex and all-pervasive, will require a multi-disciplinary
approach. None of us has the ability to deal with all the aspects of change
management that are likely to occur over the lifetime of a project.

Four: change is about people, pure and simple

In Chapter 10, we focused attention on the need to design organizations
in a way that created effective performance. The key ingredient in this
design was the human element. Remember that people are the most
important asset: people want and need to grow, and personal growth
is the engine that drives organization performance. Therefore, when

382 Epilogue

contemplating change, involve the people in the process from the out-
set. Through active participation you accomplish two things. You gain
commitment and ownership of the change process by all: those experi-
encing the change will not need to be pushed and they will begin to
drive change themselves.

Change management is about people management. When managing
change, you manage people. Remember the basics:

• openness

• communication

• involvement

• empowerment.

Fifth: change is about success

Faced with competitive environments, which are growing in terms of
both their magnitude and ferocity, organizations must be flexible enough
to rise to the challenges. Creating an organizational culture, which is
receptive to change, should provide a competitive edge that will last the
test of time. Stand still and be complacent if you wish, but you can be
sure that your competitors, both current and future, will be striving
towards greater efficiency and effectiveness.

Make change a way of life. However, watch how you do it. Going
boldly forth where no organization has gone before, discovering new
planets, and seeking out new life forms is all very well, but you need
focus. The challenges created by looking too far ahead may be beyond
the organization’s current capabilities. On the other hand, dinosaur
organizations become extinct because they fail to adapt to their environ-
ment. Set goals for success that can be accomplished and seen to be
deliverable. Perhaps not all organizations have to go on the five-year
quest; for many a peek round the corner may be a very good start!

Sixth: change is perpetual

How do we explain change that was successful? How do we explain
change that never seemed to get going? How can we explain the change
project that started off well but seemed to fade away after a couple of
years? The answers seem to lie in the attention and resources devoted to
managing change as a perpetual process.

We have cited throughout the concept of perpetual transition manage-
ment. Change is about identifying triggers, seeking vision, recruiting
converts to the vision, and maintaining and renewing the need for

Epilogue 383

change on an ongoing basis. The effective management of change demands
management action on all these fronts.

You have to be able to identify what is triggering change. This has to be
expressed and clarified and communicated throughout the organization
to gain understanding. There is also a need for some vision of how the
triggers will affect the future of the organization. In this sense, there is a
need to define what the future is, in terms of the challenges being faced
and the future make-up of the organization. Having set a vision, there is
a need to manage change through converting people to that vision. Most
successful change programmes work on the basis of persuading people
that this is the right way to go. Finally, watch the triggers. Change that
fades away does so because circumstances alter: those involved at the
start move on, and the triggers become unclear in the minds of those left
to carry on. The systems intervention model deals with a dynamic
change environment by incorporating, in the design, iterative processes
where you can step back and reappraise your position in light of envi-
ronmental changes.

Perpetual change is what it says: you never get to the end. Something
else always comes along to impact the organization and/or business in a
new way.

Seventh: effective change requires competent change agents

A change management project has a certain number of needs that must
be satisfied. One of these needs relates to the required skills, knowledge
and position of the change agents. Analysis of the change situation will
determine the appropriate management team in terms of their position
and attributes. It will not, however, ensure that the change agents have
the necessary competencies to effectively contribute to the process of
change. To be fully effective, the change agent must have certain capabil-
ities, over and above their functional skills and knowledge.

The competencies of the change agent were examined in Chapter 11.
These relate to being able to communicate with, on behalf of, and
through people involved in the change situation. The change agent
therefore needs to feel comfortable in dealing with interpersonal rela-
tionships, coping with conflict and ambiguity, and the 1,001 different
emotions that humans can display as a result of change. Change can
upset people; they can also become overjoyed, over-enthusiastic or
indeed shy away from it. The change agent has to be able to facilitate
those involved through this process by taking their feelings and emo-
tions into account, getting them to address how these emotions relate to
change itself, while steering the change forward.

Many organizations have begun to address the management of change
within their own organizations as a perpetual process. The competencies

384 Epilogue

of the change agent are being directly dealt with by instigating training
programmes to provide them with the necessary staff skilled in the tech-
niques associated with organization development.

Technical skills, such as systems diagramming, network analysis, and
charting in general, can be readily taught and acquired. In fact, many of
the skills associated with project planning are now dealt with by sophis-
ticated computerized packages.

However, people skills are the more important, and often the more dif-
ficult competencies to acquire. If you are a theory X person, you are
unlikely to be able to develop good change management skills. You do
not appreciate the enormity of the change. The basis of change manage-
ment rests with the assumptions you make about people in organizations.
Make the wrong assumptions and the management of change will not
succeed.

Eight: in terms of methodology, there is no one best way

All we wish to say here is: do not adopt a one size fits all strategy. You
must not be too blinkered about change management. In essence, there is
no single best way. What works for one change situation may not be fully
appropriate for another. For example, in takeover situations, the cultures
of organizations involved may be seemingly incompatible and require
adjustment. The obvious approach is to adopt an organization develop-
ment methodology. However, such an approach will take time and will
not bring about immediate improvements in performance. It may be bet-
ter to start the ball rolling by adopting a more interventionist strategy.
This could provide the quick-wins, whilst over the medium-to-long
term, an organization development cycle could be set in motion to
accomplish higher level objectives.

Ninth: change is about ownership

Once again we refer back here to people. What makes change happen?
When it works beautifully, what causes this? The answers seem to rest
with attaining ownership of the change process itself. In terms of the
problem owner, change agents, and those being affected by change, there
is a need to feel ownership.

The management team must feel that they are responsible for the
successful implementation of the change. This responsibility is best dis-
charged through a desire to succeed rather than survive. What we are
concerned with here is a movement from control to commitment. When
people are being coerced or manoeuvred into change situations, the
result is at best indifference and at worst resistance. When people feel

Epilogue 385

ownership of the change process and can see the opportunity it offers,
then they will be committed to its satisfactory accomplishment.

Ownership comes from getting involvement. Get involvement through
openness and communication; let people live the change.

Tenth: change is about fun, challenge and opportunity

When faced with a challenge, most individuals respond positively. The
psychologists would argue that it brings out the best in people. On the
other hand, when faced with a crisis people can go one of two ways.
They can emerge as strong individuals to meet that crisis or they can
become cowering wrecks under its enormity.

We have tried to make this book both interesting and easy to read. We
work from the perspective that change management should be a chal-
lenging subject that offers the practitioner, the reader, and those
associated with change, the opportunity to show their mettle. Change, as
it implies, gives you the chance to move on. By providing opportunities
you get to learn new and different things. Hopefully, you become a better
person and contribute more to your organization. The challenges that
you face through change management may be difficult, inspiring, and
they may even make a better manager out of you. These challenges
should be faced positively. Never shy away from the need for change.
Sure, it’s uncomfortable in some instances, but change can also be fun.

We use fun, in this instance, to denote an attitude of mind. Throughout
the seriousness of it all, the drive for performance, the need to maintain a
competitive edge, the desire for a better, more effective organization,
there is also a need to show a human face. We teach and research change
management because it fascinates us. The specific subject areas of sys-
tems and organization development are interesting, practical and
challenging. However, if you have ever witnessed the way in which we
teach them, you would also recognize that change management can be
both gratifying and fun.

Make your management of the change project challenging. Provide
those involved in it with the opportunity to develop themselves and the
rest of the organization. At all points in time remember, no one ever said
that achieving effective change and gaining organizational performance
cannot be fun!

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Index

Please note: the letter ‘f’ after a page number indicates a figure, ‘mc’ a mini case, ‘ra’ a reader
activity and ‘t’ a table.

ABC Ltd mini case 126–7mc, 127t, Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM case
128–31mc, 130t, 134–5mc study cont.

academic theories 73–4, 279, 288–91 implementation 340, 341
accounting 294 option generation and evaluation
Ackoff, R.L. 106
acquisitions or mergers, as trigger 35 339–40, 339t
action research model 217, 218f problem owner and definition phase 238f,
action vehicles 36, 37, 379–80
activity classification, in definition phase in 337–9, 337f, 338ra, 341
regulatory background information 336
TPM 140f, 141t, 142 Argyll and Clyde Health Board mini case
activity sequence diagrams 79t, 82–3, 83f,
84–5mc
84–5mc, 85f, 349, 350f Argyris, C. 207–9, 278, 280, 281, 282, 283
adaptability 123, 284, 377 Aristotle 267, 270
adaptive learning 280, 281 assessment phase, in organizational
adding value 6, 42–3mc, 44, 45mc
ageing population 193ra, 195 development (OD) 225
agenda-setting, by change agents 55 assumptions, about organizations
Alban-Metcalfe, R.J. 62
Alimo-Metcalfe, B. 62 198–200ra, 201–3
ambition 245–6 attainment, feasibility 206
analytical skills 229 authoritative leadership style 61, 62
analytical techniques, gender differences autonomous business units 41
autonomous project teams 330–1, 332,
71, 72
analytical thinking 167, 174, 175 358, 359
autonomous workgroups 203
see also Taylorism autonomy 104, 291
anticipation 211
see also empowerment; empowerment
see also proactive stance vision workgroups (EWGs); power
anticipatory learning 281
apathy 42–3mc, 46, 53, 55 Badham, R. 252, 255, 256, 256t, 258, 260, 270,
271, 274, 275, 327
see also resistance to change
Appelbaum, S.H. 255, 271 Bain, P. 259
application skills 247, 248 Balogun, J. 7
Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM Bamford, D.R. 7, 29
barriers to knowledge creation and sharing
case study
case analysis 341 identifying 304–10, 305f, 308t
change-related background information and learning organization 311–14, 311ra,

336–7 312t, 313f
epilogue 340–1 see also IBM case study on barriers to

knowledge creation and sharing
Barson, R. 308–11, 308t, 312t

402 Index

Bateman, T.S. 62 Caledonian Airmotive ISM case study cont.
Beckhard, R. 192, 193, 205 company background information 341–2
Bell, C.H., Jr. 223 evaluation 344, 345, 347
Bell Atlantic and Participative Change implementation 346, 346ra, 347
problem owner and definition phase
mini case 185–7mc 343–5, 343ra, 344f, 347
benchmarking 292
Benefit Fraud Inspectorate (UK) see gender Caledonian Airmotive Ltd mini cases
87–8mc, 88f, 92, 92f, 134mc
and change management study
Benefits Agency (UK) see gender and change careers 60–1, 252, 255
Carr, A. 281
management study cascaded communications 51
benevolent authoritative organizational Cavanagh, G. 256–7
centralization, in contingency theory 179
design model 209 challenge, and effective change management
big bang, in implementation phase in ISM 120
biology, and gender differences 63–5 13, 385
Boart Longyear mini case 57mc change, organizational see organizational
Boddy, D. 42–3mc, 55, 55mc, 56, 63, 142, 143,
change
145, 152, 155, 156, 162, 328ra, 329 change agents
boundaries, in systems 104, 105
bounded models see contingency theory; and effective change management
381, 383–4
organizational development (OD)
bounded rationality 168 guidelines and attributes 54–7, 55mc,
boys 64 57mc, 383–4
brains, gender differences 64
brainstorming 128–9, 141t, 142 and problem ownership 20, 21
breakthrough thinking 290 see also change agents for organizational
British Airports Authority mini cases
development (OD); external change
96–7mc, 96f, 120mc agents; internal change agents;
British Airways 46 managers and change
British Gas Plc ISM case study change agents for organizational
development (OD)
case analysis 355 client-change agent relationship 232, 241,
change-related background information 348 242, 243, 246, 247–8
company background information 347–8 effectiveness 249–50
evaluation phase 354, 355 golden rules 241–4
implementation phase 354–5 as insider 239–41, 240f, 245
problem owner and definition phase 348–54, as outsider 228–9, 230, 241, 243–4, 245
personal attributes 229–30, 231, 245, 247
348ra, 349f, 350f, 351f, 352f, 353f, 354f phases of OD 222–5, 232, 240–1, 244–9
British Gas Plc mini case 125–6mc role 230–3, 236–7, 246–8
Brownlie, D.T. 131 change management
Buchanan, D.A. 11–14, 12f, 36, 39, 54, 55, factors for success 31–3, 146–7, 153, 160,
170, 380–5
55mc, 56, 66, 145, 152, 153, 154, 166, 171, models 106, 147–8, 147f
172–3, 176, 197, 203, 252, 254, 255–6, 256t, (see also individual models)
258, 260, 270, 271, 274, 275, 327, 330 change spectrum 21–5, 22f, 24t
Buckler learning model 282, 282f charismatic leadership style 366
Burdett, J.D. 376 children, gender differences 64
Burnes, B. 10, 29, 39, 143 Clarke, C. 32, 41
Burns, J.M. 62 Claydon, T. 255–6
Burns, T. 178–9 client-change agent relationship 232, 241,
Burr, V. 66–7 242, 243, 246, 247–8
coaching 231
Calas, M. 66 coalitions of support 55
calculating management style 62 codes of conduct 273
Caledonian Airmotive ISM case study codified knowledge 291–2, 297–8, 311, 313f,
317–18
case analysis 346–7
change-related background

information 342–3

Index 403

coercion 55, 187–90mc competing narratives cont.
cognitive abilities, gender differences 64 defined 152–3
collective ... see shared ... and interactive view of change 155–7
Colwill, N. 65 multiple subjective narratives 154–5,
command control leadership style 62 155ra, 160ra
commitment sensemaking 150, 156

and control in people management competition, as trigger 7, 8, 35
165, 171–2 competitive advantage 48, 284–5, 377
complex projects versus mechanistic projects
and effective, successful change
management 32, 170, 384–5 138–40, 139t
complex solutions see soft solutions
encouragement by change agents 54, 55 compromise, turf game tactic 256t, 272–3
in intervention strategy model (ISM) confidence 212, 231
conflict 237, 254, 254f, 257, 258
109, 110, 146
and leadership in learning organizations 289 see also resistance to change
to mission and vision 182, 183 consensus driven management 49
of people in successful companies 166 consolidation 120–1, 133mc, 140f, 144
and performance 197 constraints
of senior management 159, 161
committing management style 62 GlaxoSmithKline OD case study 358, 359
‘common good’ 54 in intervention strategy model (ISM) 114,
common sense 31, 231, 372
communication 114f, 118, 122–3, 127mc
and competing narratives 159, 161 Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM
effective change management 382, 383
Ethicon Ltd OD case study 360 case study 339, 341
failures 159, 361–2, 363 British Gas Plc ISM case study 351–3,
gender differences 63ra, 65
and implementation phase in ISM 119, 354, 354f
Caledonian Airmotive ISM case
120, 121
managers and change 49–52, 51ra, 53, study 344
in TPM 140f, 141t, 142
55, 55mc consultants for organizational development
MTC Ltd OD case study 370f, 371
in organizational politics and (OD) see change agents for
organizational development (OD)
organizational change study 259–60, consultation 13, 361–2, 363, 364–5, 366
262–3, 263f consultative organizational design model 209
and perpetual transition management consumers see customers
12–13, 12f context, in organizational development (OD)
and reducing resistance to change 53, 239 model matrix 219–20f
Smokies case study in business contingency theory 178–9
growth 330 continuous change and improvement
and successful change management 248–9, 377
146, 161 contracting phase 222–3, 248, 321, 322ra
see also conversation; debate; discussions; control
information and communications by change agents 55, 55mc
technologies; presentations; reports; versus commitment in people
workshops
communications skills 40 management 165, 171–2
communications techniques, gender and force field analysis 28mc, 29, 30t
differences 71 managers and change 40, 42
competency 33f, 34, 39–40, 64–5, 383–4 and triggers 36ra
see also expertise; skills in TROPICS test 25, 26t, 27, 27mc
competing narratives see also autonomy; empowerment;
case study 157–60
change management, implications empowerment workgroups
for 160–2 (EWGs); power
conversation 283–4
see also debate; discussions
conversion, in perpetual transition
management 11, 12f, 13–14, 187mc

404 Index

cooperation 170 definition phase in ISM cont.
‘corporate prisoner dilemma’ 304, 305f Caledonian Airmotive ISM case study
cost-benefit analysis 344 343–5, 343ra, 344f, 347
costs, of external change agent for and implementation phase, importance
to 119
organizational development key players 125mc
(OD) 239–40 overview 108f, 109, 110, 111f, 112–13, 115ra
see also constraints stage 1: problem /systems specification
Cotter, J.J. 123, 377 and description 111f, 113, 125–6mc
creative chaos 291 stage 2: success criteria 111f, 113–14, 126–7mc
creativity 64–5, 255, 256, 259, 260, 292, 364 stage 3: performance measures,
see also Senge Model of learning identification of 111f, 114, 126–7mc

organization delegation 19–20, 21, 173, 175, 183
crises 5, 8, 12f, 13, 35, 37, 37ra, 378 Deming, W.E. 285
cultural revolution 277–8 demographic change 193ra, 195
cultural web 45–7, 45ra, 46f, 47–8ra, 48, 49, 328ra Dempster, L. 60, 65, 72, 74
culture 48–9, 49ra, 267, 275 Department of Social Security (UK) see

see also cultural revolution; cultural web; gender and change management study
Japanese management and work dependence, versus independence in people
practices; organizational culture; management 167–9
sub-cultures; Western management designers, leadership role in learning
approach
organization 289
customers development
awareness and services 41, 45mc, 165–6
demand, as trigger 34–5 GlaxoSmithKline OD case study 358
and learning organization 285, 286, 292, Group Performance Review at OILCo OD
294, 297
resistance to change 53 case study 373
in Smokies case study in business growth and implementation phase in ISM
324–5, 324f, 326f, 327, 331
119, 134mc
customized messages 50 and learning organization 286–7
MTC Ltd OD case study 371
Dawson, P. 10, 152–3, 155 total project management (TPM) 144
de Geus, A.P. 290, 295 diagnosis phase, in organizational
debate 53
development (OD) 245, 247, 248
see also conversation; discussions diagnostic skills 229, 231, 245, 247
decentralization, in contingency theory 179 diagramming tools
decision making, and misinformation
activity sequence diagram 79t, 82–3, 83f,
150, 154ra 84–5mc, 85f, 349, 350f
definition phase
Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM case
in ISM (see definition phase in ISM) study 337–8, 337f, 337ra, 338f
in operational and systems management
Argyll and Clyde Health Board mini case
schools 106 84–5mc, 85f
in organizational development (OD)
British Gas Plc ISM case study 254f,
232, 244–5 348–54, 349f, 350f, 351f, 352f, 353f
Smokies case study in business
Caledonian Airmotive ISM case study 343,
growth 321 344, 344f
in total project management (TPM) 140f,
Caledonian Airmotive Ltd mini case
141t, 142–3ra, 142–3 87–8mc, 88f
definition phase in ISM
flow diagram 79t, 82, 82f, 348, 349f
ABC Ltd mini case 126–7mc force field analysis 79t, 86f, 86mc, 350,
Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM case
353f, 370f
study 337–9, 337f, 337ra, 338f, 341 input/output diagrams (see input/output
British Gas mini case 125–6mc
British Gas Plc ISM case study 348–54, diagrams)
and intervention strategy model (ISM) 113
348ra, 349f, 350f, 351f, 352f, 353f, 354f relationship mapping (see relationship

mapping)

Index 405

diagramming tools cont. empowerment 41, 42, 71, 72, 120mc, 382
role 77–81, 78f, 79t, 80f see also autonomy; empowerment
systems diagramming (see systems workgroups (EWGs); power
diagramming)
Vitafoam and Kay Metzler Ltd mini case empowerment workgroups (EWGs) 372–5
86f, 86mc entry phase, in organizational development

Dickson, W.J. 177 (OD) 222, 240–1, 245–6
dictatorial transformation 187–90mc environment 179, 181, 376–7
differentiation, in contingency theory 179
diplomacy 223 see also external environment; internal
discourse theory 272–3, 275 environment
discussions 13–14, 224, 329, 360, 375
environmental catastrophes, as trigger 8, 35
see also conversation; debate environmental feedback loop, in
dissatisfaction 246
division of labour 165, 167, 173, 176 intervention strategy model (ISM) 108f,
double loop learning 280–1, 284, 286, 290, 291 109, 122
doughnut metaphor of organizations 196–7 environmental impact tests 95
Doyle, M. 255–6, 333 Ericsson and Glenlight mini case 42–3mc
driving forces, in force field analysis 28mc, ethical egoism 268–9, 274
Ethicon Ltd OD case study 359–60
29, 30f, 30t ethics
Drory, A. 251–2, 253, 276 and organizational politics 252, 256–8,
Drucker, P.F. 7, 60, 278
Dunphy, D.C. 187–8mc, 255, 366 266–70, 275–6
turf game tactics 270–5
Eagly, A.H. 61 evaluation phase
economic pressures, as trigger 5, 6, 7, 8, 34–5 in ISM (see evaluation phase in ISM)
Eden, C. 282–4, 295 MTC Ltd OD case study 371
education 144, 371 in operational and systems management

see also development; learning; skills; schools 106–7, 108f, 111f
training Smokies case study in business growth

educational history, and successful change 322–7, 323f, 323t, 324f, 326f
implementation 32 evaluation phase in ISM

effective change management 382 ABC mini case 128–9mc, 130mc, 130t
Egan, G. 255, 273 Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM case
Egri, C.P. 255, 260
elements, in systems 102, 103t study 339–40, 339t
emotional ‘work’ 32 British Gas Plc ISM case study 354, 355
Caledonian Airmotive ISM case study 344,
see also feelings
employee involvement 345, 347
key players 115, 128
effective change management 381, 382, 385 overview 108f, 109, 110–12, 111f
Ethicon Ltd OD case study 360 stage 4: options or solutions, generating
GlaxoSmithKline OD case study 357, 358
Group Performance Review at OILCo OD 111f, 115–16, 115t, 128–9mc
stage 5: evaluation technique selection and
case study 373, 374
MTC Ltd OD case study 370f, 371 option editing 111f, 116–17, 129mc
and planning for future change 380 stage 6: option evaluation 111f, 117–18,
Smokies case study in business
117t, 129mc, 130mc, 130t
growth 328ra evaluation techniques, in evaluation phase
employee non-involvement 361–2,
in ISM 111f, 116–17
363, 366 experiences
employees, ‘well-being’ of 41
employment see division of labour; labour of change agent for organizational
development (OD) 229, 231
participation, gender balance
employment history, and successful change learning from 282, 284, 292, 293, 295
shared 282–3, 284
implementation 32 and successful change

implementation 32
experimentation 282, 282f, 292, 294, 295
expertise 229–30, 231, 242, 381

see also competency; skills

406 Index

explicit knowledge 291–2, 297–8, 311, focus, in ‘trinity’ 43–4, 44f, 45mc
313f, 317–18 force field analysis 27–8mc, 29–31, 30f, 30t,

exploitive organizational design model 209 350, 353f, 370f
external change agents Ford, M.W. 42
Forlaron, J. 39
GlaxoSmithKline OD case study 357–8, 359 formal alliances, turf game tactic 256t, 272–3
versus internal change agents 56–7 Forrester, P.L. 7, 29
National Health Service OD case fragmentation 154, 171–2
French, W.L. 210, 217, 218f, 223, 267, 287
study 364 Frost, P.J. 255, 260
organizational development (OD) 228–9, Froud Consine Ltd (FCL) mini case

230, 241, 243–4, 245 131–3mc, 133t
external environment Fulmer, R.M. 281
future change 123, 153, 156, 157, 160,
and learning organizations 278, 286, 292,
293, 295, 297 376–80, 382
see also anticipation; proactive stance; vision
and purpose of organization 174, 181
external stakeholders, in intervention Galbraith, J.R. 184–5
Gandz, J. 253
strategy model (ISM) 109 Garratt, R. 279, 286
externally generated change 7–8, 9–11, 30, Garvin, D.A. 279, 291
Garvin’s Model of learning
30t, 31, 34
organizations 291–3
facilitation skills gender and change management study
importance for change agents 40, 41–2, 54,
142–3ra, 383 conclusion 72–3
multi-disciplinary aspects 381 findings 70–1
in organizational development (OD) implications for change 73–4
229–30, 231, 237, 248 sample 68–70
gender balance, labour participation 59–60
failure in change implementation 31, 129, gender differences
131, 135 analytical techniques 71, 72
change management 60–1, 65, 67
feedback
for change agents 55mc (see also gender and change
in communication 50 management study)
Group Performance Review at OILCo OD
case study 375 communication 63ra, 65
in input/output diagram 79t, 81, 81f, 82 communication techniques 71
intervention strategy model (ISM) 108f, 109 critique of evidence 66–7, 67ra
and motivation of individual 206 holistic problem solving 64–5, 70
in organizational development (OD) leadership style 61–3
model 223–4 management style 60–3, 70–2, 73
see also double loop learning; iterations in mental models 65–6
ISM; iterations in TPM; single loop multi-tasking 64, 65, 70
learning nature versus nurture 63–5
and organizations, implications for 73
feelings 20–1, 30t, 32, 45, 45ra and trainers and academics,
see also resistance to change
implications 73–4
female managers 59–63, 65, 70, 71, 72 generative learning 280–1, 284, 286, 290, 291
females see female managers; girls; women George, J. 237
Ferris, G. 252, 253 Gibson, S. 61
fish bone cause and effect diagram girls 64
GlaxoSmithKline OD case study 356–9, 357f
79t, 94–5mc, 95f, 97–8mc, 97f GlenLight and Ericsson mini case 42–3mc
Fletcher, J. 66 goals
‘flexi’ change, defined 75
flexi solutions, in change problem-solving organizational 252, 255, 267
personal 155, 156, 158, 160, 238, 252, 255
22f, 23, 24t, 28mc
flexibility 278, 284, 285, 294–5, 376–7
Flow and Process charts 80
flow diagrams 79t, 82, 82f, 348, 349f
fluctuation, and knowledge creation 291

Index 407

goals cont. IBM case study on barriers to knowledge
in ‘trinity’ 44, 44f, 44ra, 45mc creation and sharing
see also objectives
barrier impact and change 317–18
Goodman, J. 50 barriers and IBM case 310–14, 312t, 313f
Gordon, S. 61 case context 303
government legislation, as trigger 8, 9, 34 hypotheses 315
Graetz, F. 43mc identifying barriers 304–10, 305f, 308t
Gray, J. 255, 271 results 315–16, 316t
Greer, B.M. 42 survey 314–15
grey solutions, in change problem-solving identification of need for change 11,

22f, 23, 28mc 19, 20, 21, 36
group level 219f, 237–9 image building, turf game tactic 256t, 270–1
implementation phase
see also team building; teams; workgroups
Group Performance Review at OILCo OD in ISM (see implementation phase in ISM)
operational and systems management
case study 372–5
groupthink 237–8 schools 107
Gupta, A. 306–7, 312t organizational development (OD) model

Hackman, J.R. 207, 208f 225, 232, 233
‘hands-off’ management approach 170 organizational politics and organizational
Handy, C. 41, 60, 192, 196–7, 286
hard change 75–6, 118–19, 126–7mc, 139, change study 259, 260–2, 261f, 262f
Smokies case study in business growth
139t, 140
hard management approaches 148–9mc 227–332, 328ra
hard solutions 21–3, 22f, 24t, 25–7, 26t, in total project management (TPM) 140f,

27mc, 28–9 141t, 144–5
Hardy, C. 253 implementation phase in ISM
Hawthorne studies 177–8
‘helicopter’ approach 169–70, 368 Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM case
Hendry, C. 40 study 340, 341
Herzberg, F. 369
Hewlett Packard mini case 45mc British Airports Authority mini
Hickson, D.J. 208 case 120mc
Higgins, J.M. 46, 48
Higgs, M. 143 British Gas Plc ISM case study 354–5
Hinkin, T.R. 63 Caledonian Airmotive ISM case study
holistic approach 6, 64–5, 70, 72, 360, 376,
346, 346ra, 347
379, 380 Caledonian Airmotive Ltd mini case 134mc
see also total project and failure 129, 131
Froud Consine Ltd (FCL) mini case
management (TPM)
Huczynski, A.A. 11, 39, 54, 66, 166, 254 131–3mc, 133t
Hughes, B. 255, 271 overview 108f, 109, 110–12, 111f
human beings see people stage 7: strategy development 111f, 118–20,
human relations movement 177–8
human resource management, 120mc, 131–4mc, 133t
stage 8: consolidation 120–1, 133mc
defined 173 time factors 118, 131
see also people management Vision mini case 121mc
human resources 40–2, 42ra implementation strategies, in
see also employee involvement;
implementation phase in ISM 111f,
employee non-involvement; 118–20, 120mc, 131–4mc, 133t
employees, ‘well-being’ of; people impressions 45, 61, 270–1
Human Side of Enterprise, The independence versus dependence in people
(McGregor) 201–3 management 167–9
Hunt, J. 203 individual learning 282, 283, 284, 285, 303–4
Huse, E.F. 213ra, 235ra, 236ra, 238–9 individual level 220f, 238
see also people
influence 238, 243, 244
influence charts 79t, 91–2, 91f, 92f, 93mc,
96–7mc, 96f
influencing skills 40

408 Index

information 238, 239, 240, 278, 283, 303–4 intervention strategy model (ISM) cont.
see also communication; information definition phase (see definition phase
analysis phase; information and in ISM)
communications technologies; evaluation phase (see evaluation phase
information gathering phase; in ISM)
information ‘push’ and ‘pull’; feedback 108f, 109, 122
knowledge; misinformation; implementation phase (see
redundant information; selective implementation phase in ISM)
information; ‘spin’; surveys iterations 109, 110, 111f, 122, 127mc,
134–5mc, 135
information analysis phase 223 management teams 109, 112, 119, 120mc
information and communications overview 106–12, 107ra, 108f, 111f
problem initialisation 108–9, 108f, 111f
technologies 5, 8, 35, 49, 51, 278, 294, 298 problem owners (see problem
information gathering phase 223, 232–3, 248 owners in ISM)
‘quick and dirty’ (Q&D) analysis 109,
see also surveys 121–2, 123
information ‘push’ and ‘pull’ 304, 305, 311 resources and constraints 122–3
input/output diagrams solutions 110, 111f
stakeholders 109, 112, 113, 115
Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM case and total project management (TPM) 106,
study 337, 337f 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146
see also Argyll and Clyde Health Board
Argyll and Clyde Health Board mini case ISM case study; Caledonian
84–5mc, 85f Airmotive ISM case study

described 79t, 81, 81f, 82 intuition 64–5
Vitafoam and Kay Metzler Ltd mini case involvement and participation

86f, 86mc encouragement by change agents 54
insiders, as change agents see internal implementation phase in ISM 119
of internal change agent for organizational
change agents
Institute of Management 59 development (OD) 240, 241
instrumental learning 280, 281 and performance 41
integrated organization 6, 286, 379 and receptivity to change 235ra, 236,
integrated supply chain (ISC) 6
236ra, 249
see also IBM case study on barriers to and successful change implementation
knowledge creation and sharing
32, 146
inter-group level, in organizational see also employee involvement; employee
development (OD) model matrix 219f
non-involvement; key player
interactive leadership style 62 involvement; management
interactive view of change 155–7 involvement; participative leadership
interest, in TROPICS test 25, 26t, 27mc style; participative management;
internal change agents participative policy making; senior
management involvement;
as change agent for organizational stakeholder involvement; user
development (OD) 239–41, 240f, 245 involvement
iterations in ISM
Ethicon Ltd OD case study 360 ABC Ltd mini cases 127mc, 134–5mc
versus external change agents 56–7 Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM case
GlaxoSmithKline OD case study 358, 359 study 340–1
Group Performance Review at OILCo OD British Gas Plc ISM case study 355
Caledonian Airmotive ISM case study 344
case study 373–5 described 109, 110, 111f, 122
internal environment 7, 174 and failure in change implementation 135
internal exchange 294 iterations in TPM 140f, 143, 144, 145
internally generated change 28mc, 29, 30t,

31, 34, 35–6
interpersonal relations 207–9
intervention methods 364–6, 384
intervention programmes 365–6
intervention strategy model (ISM)

and adaptability 123
critique 136–7

Index 409

Jackall, R. 266 leadership
Janis, I.L. 237–8 and learning organization 285, 289, 297
Japanese management and work practices managers and change 40, 41
reducing resistance to change 238
285–6, 290, 291 and self-directed teams 57mc
job design 206, 207, 208f
leadership style 61–2, 366
see also work organization and design learning
job satisfaction 207, 208f
Johnson, B.T. 61 GlaxoSmithKline OD case study 359
Johnson, G. 46 as natural process 281, 285
joint ... see shared ... in organizational development (OD)
Jones, G. 237
justice, and organizational politics 256–8 230, 232, 236–7, 248–9
from past experiences 282, 284, 292,
Kacmar, K. 252
Kanter, R.M. 36–7, 40, 45, 46, 47, 48, 52, 54, 56, 293, 295
and planning for future change 377
59, 63, 64, 170, 172, 185–7mc, 193, 378, 379 processes 281–4
Kantianism 271–2, 273 schema 281
Karp, T. 376 types 280–1
key player involvement see also development; education;

in ISM 115, 125mc, 128 generative learning; individual
Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM learning; learning organizations;
case study 339–40 organizational learning; thinking
British Gas Plc ISM case study 348 processes; training
learning audits 293
in TPM 144 learning cycle, Kolb’s 281–3, 281f
Kilman, R. 37 learning organizations
King, T. 253 barriers to knowledge creation and
Kleiner, B.H. 229 sharing 311–14, 312t, 313f
Kluge, J. 303, 304, 305, 311, 312t (see also IBM case study on barriers to
knowledge
knowledge creation and sharing)
acquisition in learning organization 278 building
barriers to knowledge creation and sharing
academic theories 279, 288–91, 296–7
(see barriers to knowledge creation and definitions and prescriptive, practical
sharing; IBM case study on barriers to
knowledge creation and sharing) approaches 291–3, 296–7
and competing narratives 154, 160, 161 guidelines and practical hints 294–6,
creation 280–1, 290, 303–4
fragmentation 154 297–8
sharing 292, 303–4, 327–8 concept 279–84
see also education; explicit knowledge; as cultural revolution 277–8
information; learning; learning fad versus trend 277
organizations; skills; tacit knowledge; historical perspective 278–9
thinking processes and organizational development (OD)
Kolb learning cycle 281–3, 281f
Kotter, J.P. 55, 188mc, 372 285, 298
Krogh, G. von 66 relevance 284–7
Kudray, L.M. 229 Leavitt, H.L. 33–4, 33f, 371
Kühl, S. 39–40, 42 Leavitt’s model of organizational change

labour participation, gender balance 59–60 33–4, 33f, 57
language skills 64 Lee, R. 255
‘lateral leadership’ 40 legislation, as trigger 8, 9, 34
Lawler, E.E., III 9, 11, 206 Lewin, K. 221–2
Lawrence, P. 255 Likert, R. 209–10
Lawrence, P.R. 179, 181 Lines, R. 41, 137
Lippit, G. 231
Lippit, R. 211, 231, 241–4, 246, 247–8
Lockyer, K.G. 143
long-termism 280–1, 289, 359

410 Index

Lorsch, J.W. 179, 181 McGriggor Donald (Solicitors) mini case
Lucas, E. 310 94f, 94mc
Luna-Reyes, L.F. 106
McHugh, D. 255
Machiavelli 52 McKinsey’s ‘corporate prisoner dilemma’
MacIntosh, R. 321, 327, 329
Maclagan, P. 253, 267 304, 305f
MacLean, D. 321, 327, 329 McLaughlin, S. see IBM case study on barriers
maintenance, in perpetual transition
to knowledge creation and sharing
management 11, 12f, 14, 187mc, 220, mechanistic organizations 178
225, 382–3 mechanistic projects versus complex projects
male managers 61, 62, 65, 70, 71, 72
males see boys; male managers; men 138–40, 139t
Malhotra, Y. 308 mechanistic solutions see hard solutions
management discussions 375 mechanistic thinking 167, 174, 175
management involvement 13
see also senior management involvement see also Taylorism
management models, limitations 174, 176–9 Megson, L.V.C. 174, 180f, 181ra, 184,
management skills 20–1, 40
management style 32, 60–3, 70–2, 73 226, 377–8
management teams 109, 112, 119, 120mc men 61, 62, 64, 65, 70, 72
managers and change mental models 65–6, 283, 288, 290
adding to value 42–3mc, 44, 45mc mergers or acquisitions, as trigger 35
attributes and guidelines for change messy change, defined 75–6
Michailova, S. 306–7, 312t
agents 54–7, 55mc, 57mc, 229–30, 231, Mill, J.S. 269
245, 247 Millar, V.E. 301
communication 49–52, 51ra, 53, 55, 55mc Miller, K. 63
competency 39–40, 383–4 Mintzberg, H. 62, 63
cultural attributes of change 48–9, 49ra misinformation 150, 151, 152ra, 154ra
cultural web 45–8, 45ra, 46f, 47–8ra mission 174, 182–3, 289, 365, 366
human resources 40–2, 42ra
resistance to change 52–4, 53ra, 55 see also vision
‘trinity’ 43–5, 44f, 44ra, 45mc mission statements 182
see also change agents Moberg, D. 256–7
managing outcomes 151–2, 152ra, 160 Moir, A. 64
March, J.G. 166, 273 Moir, B. 64
Margerison, C.J. 223, 225 momentum 159, 161
Margulies, N. 212, 226–7, 229, 230, 240, 241, 250 money, in TROPICS test 28–9
market profiling 322–4, 323f, 323t, 324f, monitoring, implementation phase in
325–6, 327, 331
marketing ethos, as cultural attribute of TPM 141t, 144
change 49 morality 54
Marshall, J. 60–1
Marwick, A.D. 307, 309 see also ethics
masters of change see change agents motivation
mathematical skills 64
matrix, in organizational development (OD) MTC Ltd OD case study 369
217–21, 219–20f, 220t National Health Service OD case study 365
matrix organization 286 and organizational change 212, 245–6
Matsushita, K. 165, 167, 173–4 and organizational development (OD)
Mayon-White, B. 106
Mcallaster, C. 46, 48 205–6, 207, 208f
McCalman, J. 11–14, 12f, 36, 140, 171, 172–3, problems in GlaxoSmithKline OD case
176, 197, 203, 258, 260, 330
McGregor, D. 168–9, 200ra, 201–3, 208, 369 study 358, 359
motivation skills 40
Moving Office mini case 148–9mc
MTC Ltd OD case study 147, 147f, 367–72,

369t, 370f
multi-disciplinary approach 32, 40, 95–6

see also total project management (TPM)
multi-disciplinary teams 360, 381
multi-tasking 64, 65, 70, 72
multiple cause diagrams 79t, 92–3, 93f,

94–5mc, 94f, 95f, 344f

Index 411

multiple subjective narratives 154–5, objectives cont.
155ra, 160ra in TROPICS test 25, 26t, 27mc
see also goals
Murray, V. 253
objectivity, of change agent for
narratives, competing see competing narratives organizational development (OD) 240,
Narver, J.C. 280, 283, 285 241, 243–4
National Health Service OD
O’Boyle, W.M. 64
case study 363–6 OILCo Group Performance Review OD case
natural process of learning 281, 285
nature of change study 372–5
Oldham, G.R. 207, 208f
force field analysis 27–8mc, 29–31, 30f, 30t operational management school 106–7
locating change in change spectrum 21–5, opportunity, and effective change

22f, 24t management 13, 385
problem owner, role and selection of 19–21 options and solutions in ISM
success guarantors 31–3
triggers, managing 33–7, 33f, 36ra, 37ra Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM case
TROPICS test 25–9, 26t, 27–8mc, 126mc study 339–40, 339t
unpredictability and non-linearity 333–4
nature versus nurture, in gender in definition phase 110, 113, 114
evaluation phase 110, 111f, 115–18, 115t,
differences 63–5
need and expectancy theory 207 117t, 128–9
negative feelings 20, 30t organic organizations 178, 179
organizational change
see also resistance to change
negative narratives 155, 156 impact 9–11
negotiation 54 imperative of 7–9
negotiation skills 40 importance 5–7, 7ra
networks 140f, 143, 144, 256t, 272–3, 286 interactive view of 155–7
new technologies 5, 6, 8, 34, 52–3, 378 Leavitt’s model 33–4, 33f, 57
motivation 212, 245–6
see also information and communications nature of (see nature of change)
technologies and organizational politics 211,

New Telecoms Enterprise and Dictatorial 255–6, 258
Transformation mini case 187–90mc (see also organizational politics and

NHS mini case 55mc organizational change study)
non-involvement 138, 138ra, 236ra, 361–2, principles 211–12
sources 25, 26, 26t, 27mc, 31
363, 366
Nonaka, I. 290–1, 295–6, 306, 310, 311 (see also triggers)
Nonaka and Takeuchi Model of learning trends 192–5, 193–4ra
organizational climate 219–20f
organization 290–1, 295–6, 311, organizational conflict 166
313–14, 313f organizational context, and process

objective trees 103–4, 103f, 114, 114f, 118, interactivity 155–6, 157, 160
351–3, 354f organizational culture

objectives barrier to knowledge creation and
Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM case sharing 309
study 338–9
British Gas Plc ISM case study 351–3, 354, GlaxoSmithKline OD case study 357
354f, 355 individual learning mentality 303–4
of change agents and masters 55 and learning organization 298
definition phase in ISM 113–14, 114f, 126–7mc National Health Service OD case study
definition phase in TPM 140f, 141t, 142
Ethicon Ltd OD case study 360 364, 365, 366
evaluation phase in ISM 117–18, 117t and problem ownership 20
long-term strategy 359 receptivity to future change 153, 155, 156,
and positive narratives 156, 158, 160
systems 102, 103–4, 103f, 103t, 105 157, 160, 382
and resistance to change 237
and shared purpose 182
and successful change implementation

31, 146–7, 153

412 Index

organizational design organizational enquiry 283
Bell Atlantic and Participative Change organizational goals 252, 255, 267
mini case 185–7mc organizational learning 281, 282–4, 290
concept 184–91, 185–90mc
and learning organization 286 see also learning organizations
models 209–10 organizational level 219f, 237, 239
New Telecoms Enterprise and Dictatorial organizational memory 284
Transformation mini case 187–90mc organizational politics
problems with 173, 174–5
and purpose of organization 174, 181 acceptability 251, 252, 255, 258, 268–9, 271,
see also organizational redesign 273–5

organizational development (OD) and culture 267, 275
change agents (see change agents for definition 253–4
organizational development (OD)) denial 251, 252
characteristics 212 and ethics 252, 256–8, 266–70, 275–6
definition 180, 200–1, 213
five-step process 211 and turf game tactics 270–5
historical progression negative aspects 251, 252, 253, 255, 270–3, 274
interpersonal relations 207–9 and organizational change 211, 255–6, 258
job and work design 206, 207, 208f
McGregor and human side of enterprise (see also organizational politics and
200ra, 201–3 organizational change study)
motivation of individual 205–6,
207, 208f and organizational development (OD) 255
participative management 209–10 reasons for 251–2, 254–8, 254f
Tavistock Institute and socio-technical and resistance to change 369
systems 203–4, 204f Smokies case study in business growth 327
and learning 230, 232, 236–7, 248–9 organizational politics and organizational
and learning organizations 285, 298
matrix 217–21, 219–20f, 220t change study
methods of initiating change 219–20f, 220t methods 258–9
need for in people management 172–6 quantitative analysis 260–6, 261f, 262f,
objectives 210–11
and organizational politics 255 263f, 264f, 265f, 266f
overview 179–81, 180f survey content 259–60
people-oriented change problem-solving organizational redesign 52, 182
22f, 23, 24t organizational structure
phases of intervention 221–5, 232, and learning organization 278, 286, 297
240–1, 244–9, 368 in Leavitt’s model of organizational
process 216–17, 218f
receptivity to 213–15ra, 215 change 33f, 34
and resistance to change 215, 215ra National Health Service OD case study
rules 220–1
situations in need of 217, 233–6ra, 364, 365, 366
233–6, 242 and resistance to change 237
and systems interventionist organizational transformation 187–8mc, 287,
strategy (SIS) 146–7
values and philosophy 226–7 329–32, 366
see also Ethicon Ltd OD case study; organizations
GlaxoSmithKline OD case study;
Group Performance Review at OILCo assumptions 198–200ra, 201–2
OD case study; MTC Ltd OD case barriers to knowledge creation and
study; National Health Service OD
case study; United Kingdom Atomic transfer 308–10, 308t, 312t
Energy Authority OD case study characteristics 197
doughnut metaphor 196–7
gender differences, implications for 73
mission and vision 174, 182–3
purpose, lack of 174, 181–2, 181ra
values and philosophy, problems with

173, 175, 184
Orlikowski, W.J. 155
outcomes, managing 151–2, 152ra, 160

see also failure in change implementation;
successful change management

outsiders, as change agents see external
change agents

Index 413

Palmer, I. 253 performance measures cont.
parallel running, in implementation learning organizations 293
in TPM 140f, 141t, 142, 143
119–20, 346, 354, 355 see also success criteria
participation see involvement and
perpetual transition management 11–13, 12f,
participation; participative leadership 36, 186–7mc, 220, 225, 382–3
style; participative management;
participative policy making see also triggers
participative leadership style 61, 62 personal attributes
participative management 185–7mc,
209–10, 357–8 change agents 56, 229–30, 231, 245,
participative policy making 294 247, 383–4
Pascale, R.T. 60, 63, 121mc, 320, 328, 379
Pasmore, W.A. 182 women 60
past change implementation successes and personal goals 155, 156, 158, 160, 238, 252, 255
failures 47–8ra, 48, 53 personal mastery 288
past performance 206 personal prejudices 32
Paton, R.A. 60, 65, 72, 74, 106, 142, 152, personalized knowledge see tacit knowledge
162, 328ra personnel administration 172–3
Pawar, K. 307–8, 311, 312t Peters, T.J. 40, 45, 48, 170, 171, 287
Pearn, M. 294, 296 Pettigrew, A.M. 10, 40, 153, 155, 255, 328ra
Pedler, M. 286, 287, 294–5 Pfeffer, J. 254, 254f
penetration, in communication 51 philosophy 173, 175, 184, 226–7
people physical aspects of cultural web 47
barriers to knowledge creation and pilot studies, and implementation phase in

transfer 308t, 310, 312t ISM 119
care for, in successful companies 165–6 planning
competences in Leavitt’s model of
by change agents and masters 55
organizational change 33f, 34 for future change 376–80
and competitive edge 49–50 in organizational development (OD)
effective change management 381–2
importance 172–3, 226 model 224–5, 368
and learning 285 in organizational politics and
and organizational conflict 166
and organizational context organizational change study 259,
260–2, 261f, 262f
interactions 155–6 in total project management (TPM) 140f,
people management 141t, 143–4
planning skills 40
control and commitment 165, 171–2 policy see participative policy making;
dependence versus independence 168–70 strategy
effective change management 381, 382 politics, organizational see organizational
importance of 225–6 politics
and importance of people 172–3 Porter, M.E. 34, 301
and organizational development need positioning tools see force field analysis
positive action 55
for 172–6 positive feelings 20–1, 30t
people-oriented change problem-solving positive narratives 155, 156, 158, 160
power
22f, 23, 24t and effective change management 56, 381
people skills 231, 232, 381, 384 lack of in United Kingdom Atomic Energy
perceptions 25, 26t, 27mc, 146 Authority OD case study 361–2
performance 41, 197, 206, 207, 208f, 279, 285 and organizational politics 253, 254, 254f,
performance measures 255, 257, 274
and resistance to change 237, 340–1, 368
British Gas Plc ISM case study 352–3, 355 see also autonomy; control; empowerment;
Ethicon Ltd OD case study 360 empowerment workgroups (EWGs)
Group Performance Review at OILCo OD prejudices 32
presentations 224
case study 373, 374, 375 prime movers, as triggers 379
intervention strategy model (ISM) 110,

111f, 112, 114, 117, 126–7mc

414 Index

prioritized objective trees 114, 114f, 351–3, 354f redundant information 291
proactive stance refreezing 222, 370f, 371
relationship mapping
and force field analysis 30, 30t
learning organizations 282–3, 284, 292, Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM
case study 337–8, 338f
294, 296–7
and problem ownership 20, 35–6 British Gas Plc ISM case study 349, 351f
and triggers 34, 35–6 described 79t, 86–8, 87–8mc, 87f, 88f
problem initialisation 108–9, 108f, 111f, 242 relationships, in systems 104, 105
problem owners 19–21, 321, 381 renewal, in perpetual transition management
problem owners in ISM
Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM 11, 12f, 14, 187mc, 220, 225, 382–3
reports 224
case study 337–9 resistance to change
British Gas Plc ISM case study 348–53
described 109, 110, 112, 113, 118–19, Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM
case study 341–2
121, 125mc
problem ownership 32, 384–5 and coalitions of support 55
problem specification and description 111f, and coercion 55
GlaxoSmithKline OD case study 358, 359
113, 125–6mc implementation phase in TPM 144
process alignment 302 implementation phase intervention in
process of change, and context interactivity
ISM 119
156–7, 160 levels of the organization 237–8
project-audit 157–8 managers and change 52–4, 53ra, 55,
project management 136–40, 139t, 330–1
370f, 372ra
see also total project management (TPM) minimization by change agent for
project narratives 155, 156, 158, 160
project overview, planning phase in TPM organizational development (OD) 229
minimization by stakeholder participation
140f, 143
projects, complex versus mechanistic 235ra, 236, 236ra
MTC Ltd OD case study 368, 369t, 370f
138–40, 139t National Health Service OD case study 366
Pugh, D.S. 208, 211–12, 217–20, 219–20f, and non-involvement 138, 138ra, 236ra
and power 237, 340–1, 368
367, 368 reasons 368, 369t, 370f
purpose, lack of in organizations 174, 181–2 reduction methods 238–9
Smokies case study in business growth
quality standards 165, 172, 285–6, 287
‘quick and dirty’ (Q&D) analysis 109, 327, 328
stakeholders 53, 225, 236ra
121–2, 123 resources
barrier to knowledge creation and
R. Terley Ltd (Texstyle World) mini cases
90–1mc, 91f, 94–5mc, 95f sharing 309
deficiencies in GlaxoSmithKline OD case
Raia, A. 212, 226–7, 229, 230, 240,
241, 250 study 358, 359
and intervention strategy model (ISM)
Rajan, A. 309
Ralston, D. 267 119, 122–3
rationale for change 161 and problem ownership 20–1
rationalization 47, 48, 52–3, 54, 151–2, 160 and successful change management 146
reactive learning 281 and total project management (TPM)
reactive stance 34
141t, 142
see also proactive stance in TROPICS test 25, 26t, 27mc, 28–9
receptivity to change see also constraints
restraining forces, and force field analysis
and competing narratives 153, 156, 160
MTC Ltd OD case study 370f 28mc, 29, 30f, 30t
and organizational culture 153, 160, 382 review 225, 280
and participation 235ra, 236, 236ra rewards 206, 294–5, 309
receptivity to organizational development Rhodes, D. 145
rights, and organizational politics 256–8
(OD) 213–15ra

Index 415

Roethlisberger, F.J. 177 sensemaking 150, 156, 161
role awareness, in ‘trinity’ 44, 44f, 45mc sensitivity, in implementation phase in
Romm, C. 251–2, 253, 276
Rosener, J. 62, 65 ISM 119
Rowland, D. 143 shared change ownership 29
Royal-Dutch Shell 290 shared experience 282–3, 284
rule manipulation, in turf game tactic shared knowledge and information 292,

256t, 273–4 303–4, 327–8
rules, in ‘trinity’ 43–5, 44f, 44ra, 45mc see also barriers to knowledge creation and
ruthlessness, turf game tactic 256t, 274–5
sharing
scapegoating 256t, 270, 271–2 shared language 50, 283–4
Scarborough, H. 309–10 shared perception 31, 32, 33, 49, 118–19,
Schaffer, R.H. 359
scheduling, and successful change 131mc, 146, 238
shared purpose 182
management 146 shared responsibilities 41–2
Schein, E.H. 205, 228–9, 230, 249 shared understanding 13, 14
Schlesinger, L.A. 55, 372 shared vision 283, 288, 290, 296, 357, 360
Schon, D. 208–9, 278, 280, 281, 282, 283 Shaywitz, B.A. 64
scientific management see Taylorism Shaywitz, S.E. 64
Scottish Homes mini case 27–8mc Sherwood, J.J. 182
Segal, A. 61 short-term improvement projects 359
selective information 256t, 270–1 short-termism 280, 281
self-development 286–7, 295–6 Simon, H.A 166, 168
self-directed teams 57mc simplicity, importance 376
self-interest single loop learning 280, 281
skills 20–1, 40, 64, 119, 373, 383–4
barrier to knowledge creation and
sharing 310 see also analytical skills; application skills;
competency; diagnostic skills;
and organizational politics 252, 253, 255, education; expertise; facilitation skills;
258, 267, 268–9, 271–2, 273, 274, 276 knowledge; learning; people skills;
training
self-management 165
semi-autonomous workgroups 203 Slater, S.F. 280, 283, 285
Semler, R. 165 Smircich, L. 66
Senge, P.M. 66, 280–1, 283, 285–6, 288–90, Smith, R. 185–7mc
Smokies case study in business growth
291, 329
Senge Model of learning organization change-related background
information 320–1
288–90, 291, 295, 296
senior management closing stages 332–3
company background information 319–20
commitment 159, 161 evaluation phase 322–7, 323f, 323t,
mission and vision 182–3
momentum 159, 161 324f, 326f
and sensemaking 156, 161 implementation phase 227–332, 328ra
support in implementation phase in ISM problem owner and definition phase

119, 120mc 321, 322ra
senior management involvement social background, and successful change

Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM implementation 32
case study 338, 339, 340 social construction, and competing

Caledonian Airmotive ISM case study 343, narratives 154
345, 346 social pressures, as trigger 8, 35
social responsibility 49
as cultural attribute of change 48 socio-technical systems 203–4, 204f
and effective change management 380–1 soft change
and implementation phase in ISM 119, 120mc
National Health Service OD case study complex projects 139, 139t
defined 76
365, 366 and intervention strategy model (ISM)
and planning for future change 380
119, 127mc, 131, 132–4mc, 136–7

416 Index

soft change cont. subjectivity see competing narratives
Moving Office mini case 148–9mc success criteria
and total project management (TPM) 140,
141, 145 in ISM 111f, 113–14, 116, 118, 126–7mc
in TPM 140f, 141t, 142
soft management approaches 146–7 see also performance measures
see also organizational development (OD) successful change management
factors 31–3, 146–7, 153, 160, 170, 380–5
soft solutions and future change 153
people-oriented change problem-solving successful companies, factors 165–6
22f, 23, 24t supply chains 6, 35, 53, 293, 294, 297,
and TROPICS test 25–7, 26t, 27mc, 28, 29
302, 302ra
solutions, in ISM see options and solutions see also customers; IBM case study on
in ISM
barriers to knowledge creation and
source of change 25, 26, 26t, 27mc, 31 sharing
see also externally generated change; support 20–1, 55, 119, 129mc
internally generated change; triggers support services 54
surveys 364–5, 366, 374, 375
Southern, G. 106, 136–7 Swartz, J. 309
spatial skills 64 synthetic thinking 174, 175
‘spin’ 150, 151, 152ra, 160, 160ra systematic problem solving 292
stability, and resistance to change 53 systematic thinking 174, 175, 376, 378
Stace, D.A. 187–8mc, 328ra, 366 systems
Stacey, R.D. 328ra autonomy and behaviour 104–5,
stakeholder involvement 104ra, 105ra
concept 101–4, 103f, 103t
Argyll and Clyde Health Board ISM intervention strategies 105–6
case study 339–40, 341 (see also intervention strategy model

British Gas Plc ISM case study 348, (ISM); systems intervention
350–1, 355 strategy (SIS))
in organizational development (OD)
Caledonian Airmotive ISM case study model matrix 219–20f
345, 346, 347 specification and description in ISM 111f,
113, 125–6mc
and intervention strategy model (ISM) systems diagramming
109, 112, 113, 115 British Airports Authority mini case
96–7mc, 96f
in organizational development (OD) Caledonian Airmotive Ltd mini case
223, 224, 249 92f, 92mc
fish bone cause and effect diagram 79t,
and receptivity to change 235, 236ra, 249 94–5mc, 95f, 97–8mc, 97f
see also employee involvement; key player influence charts 79t, 91–2, 91f, 92f, 93mc,
96–7mc, 96f
involvement; management McGriggor Donald (Solicitors) mini case
involvement; senior management 94f, 94mc
involvement; user involvement multi-disciplinary approach 95–6
stakeholders 53, 55, 225, 236ra, 246, 333 multiple cause diagrams 79t, 92–3, 93f,
Stalker, G. 178–9 94–5mc, 94f, 95f, 344f
Starke, F. 255, 271 R. Terley Ltd (Texstyle World) mini cases
Stata, R. 284 90–1mc, 91f, 94–5mc, 95f
status, and Taylorism 176 Southern General NHS mini case
stereotypes 45 97–8mc, 97f
stewards, leadership role in learning systems mapping 79t, 89–90, 89f, 90–1mc,
organization 289 90f, 91f, 350, 352f
Stone, B. 255 see also diagramming tools
strategy 41, 48, 278–9, 289–90, 294, 359, 365
see also intervention strategy model (ISM);
systems intervention strategy (SIS)
sub-cultures 154
sub-objectives 103, 103t, 104, 114, 114f
sub-systems 103, 103t, 104
subjective assessments, in evaluation phase
in ISM 117–18, 117t

Index 417

systems intervention strategy (SIS) time scales cont.
106, 146–7 and intervention strategy model (ISM)
118, 122–3, 131
systems management school 21–3, 22f, in TROPICS test 25, 26, 26t, 27mc, 28–9
24t, 106–7
Tiong, T.N. 41
systems mapping 79t, 89–90, 89f, 90–1mc, total project management (TPM)
90f, 91f, 350, 352f
administrative and organizational points 145
systems thinking 289 Caledonian Airmotive ISM case study 347
Szulanski, G. 305, 306, 311, 312t and intervention strategy model (ISM)

tacit knowledge 290–1, 297, 311, 313f, 317–18 106, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146
tactics, and organizational politics 252, 254, iterations 140f, 143, 144, 145
overview 140–1, 140f, 141t
255, 256, 256t, 268–75, 276 phase 1: definition 140f, 141t, 142–3ra, 142–3
Takeuchi, H. 290–1, 296, 310, 311 phase 2: planning 140f, 141t, 143–4
task, in Leavitt’s model of organizational phase 3: implementation 140f, 141t, 144–5
value of 137–8
change 33f, 34 total quality management (TQM) 286, 287
task fragmentation 171–2 Tracey, J.B. 63
Tavistock Institute 203–4, 204f trainers 73–4, 231, 248
Taylor, S.S. 152, 156, 161 training
Taylorism 167, 172, 176, 177 of change agent for organizational
teacher, leadership role in learning
development (OD) 239, 240f
organization 289 GlaxoSmithKline OD case study 357, 358
team building 116, 141t, 142, 364, 365 and implementation phase in ISM 119,
team learning 289
teams 134mc
and learning organization 286–7
creation by change agents 55 MTC Ltd OD case study 371
leadership, and self-directed teams 57mc National Health Service OD case study
and learning organizations 289, 296
and managers and change 41, 42ra 365, 366
and successful change management 170 total project management (TPM) 144
and total project management (TPM) 140, traits see personal attributes
transactional leadership style 62
142, 143, 145 transformational leadership style 62
see also autonomous project teams; transition management, perpetual see

management teams; multi- perpetual transition management
disciplinary teams; team building; transparency 275
workgroups triggers
Tearle, R. 231–2
technical change problem-solving 21–3, identification for future change 377–9
22f, 24t managing 33–7, 33f, 36ra, 37ra
technical skills 384 in perpetual transition management 11,
technology 34, 34t, 307–8, 308t, 309, 312t
see also information and communications 12–13, 12f, 36, 187mc, 220, 382–3
technologies; new technologies Smokies case study in business growth 321
temporary client-change agent relationship source of change 34, 35–6, 36ra
243, 245 ‘trinity’ 43–5, 44f, 44ra, 45mc
theory X and Y 200ra, 201–3, 208, 369 TROPICS test 25–9, 26t, 27–8mc, 126mc
thinking processes 64, 167, 174, 175, 289, 290, Truss, C. 50
376, 378 trust 150, 159, 333, 366
Thompson, P. 255 turf game tactics 255, 256t, 270–5
Thomson, H.A. 359
Thorsurd, E. 165 UK 62, 266
threats 13 see also gender and change management
time scales study
in change management 333
GlaxoSmithKline OD case study 358–9 Ulrich, D. 192
unfreezing 221–2, 371

418 Index

United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority Vision mini case 121mc
OD case study 361–3 vision statements 43mc
Vitafoam and Kay Metzler Ltd mini case
unsuccessful change implementation 31, 129,
131, 135 86mc
voluntary change agent for organizational
US 62, 266–7
user involvement 138 development (OD) 241, 242
utilitarianism 256–7, 258, 269, 276 Vroom.V.H. 205–6

validity 109, 140f, 142 Warner Burke, W. 180,
value, of reward as motivational 206 222–5, 236–7
values 173, 175, 184, 185mc, 226–7,
Waterman, R.H., Jr. 40, 45, 48, 287
289, 376 Watson, T. 266
Van der Heijden, K. 282–4, 295 ‘well-being’ of employees 41
variety, and knowledge creation 291 Western management approach 290–1
Velasquez, M. 256–7 Wijnberg, N. 267
Vennix, J.A.M. 116 women 59–60, 61, 62, 64–5, 70, 72
Vicari, S. 66
Vinnicombe, S. 61, 65 see also female managers; girls
virtue theory 267, 270 Woodward, S. 40
vision work organization and design 203–4, 204f,

and knowledge creation 291 206, 207, 208f
lack of 174, 182–3 workgroups 203, 204, 204f, 372–5
managers and change 41
National Health Service OD case study see also group level; team building;
teams
365, 366
in perpetual transition management 11, workshops 374, 375
Wright, M. 145
12f, 13, 187mc, 220, 382–3
and planning for future change 379, 380 Yin, R.K. 303
and strategy 48
see also anticipation; proactive stance Zahra, S.A. 266, 267
Zeithaml, C.P. 62