Science Portfolio
2017-2018
Olivia Buszta
Acceleration
Acceleration Worksheet:
2. A parachute on a racing dragster opens and changes the speed of the car from 85 m/s to 45 m/s in
a period of 4.5 seconds. What is the acceleration of the dragster?
A = 85 m/s - 45 m/s/4.5 sec
A = 40 m/s/4.5 sec
A = 8.89 m/s
4. A car traveling at a speed of 30.0 m/s encounters an emergency and comes to a complete stop.
How much time will it take for the car to stop if it decelerates at -4.0 m/s2?
A = 0 m/s - 30 m/s / t
-4 m/s = -30 m/s / t
26 = t
5. If a car can go from 0 to 60 mi/hr in 8.0 seconds, what would be its final speed after 5.0 seconds
if its starting speed were 50 mi/hr?
A = 60 mph - 0 mph / 5 sec
A = 60 mph / 5 sec
A = 12 mph
6. A cart rolling down an incline for 5.0 seconds has an acceleration of 4.0 m/s2. If the cart has a
beginning speed of 2.0 m/s, what is its final speed?
A = x m/s - 2 m/s / 5 sec
4 m/s2 = x m/s / 5 sec
20 m/s = x m/s
7. A helicopter’s speed increases from 25 m/s to 60 m/s in 5 seconds. What is the acceleration of
this helicopter?
A = 60 m/s - 25 m/s / 5 sec
A = 35 m/s / 5 sec
A = 7 m/s2
8. As she climbs a hill, a cyclist slows down from 25 mi/hr to 6 mi/hr in 10 seconds. What is her
deceleration?
A = 6 mph - 25 mph / 10 sec
A = -19 mph /10 sec
A = -1.9 mi/s2
9. A motorcycle traveling at 25 m/s accelerates at a rate of 7.0 m/s2 for 6.0 seconds. What is the
final speed of the motorcycle?
Vf = Vi + (a * t)
Vf = 25 m/s + (7.0 m/s2 * 6.0 sec)
Vf = 25 m/s + 42 m/s
Vf = 67 m/s
10. A car starting from rest accelerates at a rate of 8.0 m/s/s. What is its final speed at the end of 4.0
seconds?
Vf = Vi + (a * t)
Vf = 0 + (8 m/s/s * 4 sec)
Vf = 0 + 32 m/s
Vf = 32 m/s
11. After traveling for 6.0 seconds, a runner reaches a speed of 10 m/s. What is the runner’s
acceleration?
A = (V2 - V1) / T2
A = (10 m/s - 0 m/s) / 6 sec
A = 10 m/s / 6 sec
A = 1.67 m/s2
13. A skateboarder traveling at 7.0 meters per second rolls to a stop at the top of a ramp in 3.0
seconds. What is the skateboarder’s acceleration?
A = (V2 - V1) / T2
A = (7 m/s - 0 m/s) / 3 sec
A = 7 m/s / 3 sec
A = 2.33 m/s2
Quiz:
Formulas:
A= v2 −v1 V2 = V1 + (a * T) T= V2−V1
T2 a
1. After traveling for 14.0 seconds, a bicyclist reaches a speed of 89 m/s. What is the runner’s
acceleration?
A = (V2 - V1) / T2
A = (89 m/s - 0 m/s) / 14.0 sec
A = 89 m/s / 14 sec
A = 6.36 m/s2
2. A car starting from rest accelerates at a rate of 18.0 m/s2. What is its final speed at the end of
5.0 seconds?
V2 = V1 + (a * t)
V2 = 0 + (18.0 m/s2 * 5.0 sec)
V2 = 0 + 90 m/s
V2 = 90 m/s
3. A cyclist accelerates at a rate of 16.0 m/s2. How long will it take the cyclist to reach a speed of
49 m/s?
T = V2 - V1 / a
T = 49 m/s - 0 m/s / 16.0 m/s2
T = 49 m/s / 16.0 m/s2
T = 784 sec
3. During an Apollo moon landing, reflecting panels were placed on the moon. This allowed
earth-based astronomers to shoot laser beams at the moon's surface to determine its distance.
The reflected laser beam was observed 4.6 seconds after the laser pulse was sent. The speed of
light is 3.0 × 108 m/s. What was the distance between the astronomers and the moon?
D=V*T 4.6 / 2 = 2.3 sec
D = 3.0 * 108 m/s / 2.3 sec
D = 6.9 * 108 m
D = 690,000,000 meters
Directions: Choose 4 or 5
4. It is now 10:29 a.m., but when the bell rings at 10:30 a.m. Suzette will be late for French class
for the third time this week. She must get from one side of the school to the other by hurrying
down three different hallways. She runs down the first hallway, a distance of 65.0 m, at a
speed of 5.2 m/s. The second hallway is filled with students, and she covers its 32.0 m length
at an average speed of 1.46 m/s. The final hallway is empty, and Suzette sprints its 60.0 m
length at a speed of 7.3 m/s.
a. Does Suzette make it to class on time or does she get detention for being late again?
5. The tortoise and the hare are in a road race to defend the honor of their breed. The tortoise
crawls the entire 1000. m distance at a speed of 0.35 m/s while the rabbit runs the first 200.0
m at 1.85 m/s The rabbit then stops to take a nap for 1.200 hr and awakens to finish the last
800.0 m with an average speed of 4.2 m/s. Who wins the race and by how much time?
Tortoise Rabbit T = D/V
T = D/V T = D/V T = 800 m / 4.2 m/s
T = 1000 m / 0.35 m/s T = 200 m /1.85 m/s
T = 2857.14 sec T = 108.11 sec T = 190.48 sec
Tortoise: 2857.14 sec The rabbit wins the race.
Rabbit: 101.11 + 190.48 = 291.59 sec
6. What is the Acceleration of the Cart on the Ramp? Determine the Angle of the Ramp (A)
Angle Chart: h ttps://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4RmhXJlHvo1YXZhcDNMSDNSMXc
Ramp A = opposite/hypotenuse Ramp B = opposite/hypotenuse
Ramp A = 50 m / 100 m Ramp B = 100 m / 100 m
Ramp A = 0.5 m Ramp B = 1 m
Ramp A = 30° Ramp B = 90°
Which Angle had the greatest Acceleration? Write a Conclusion based on your findings. Create
a Graph if you have time.
Ramp A has the greatest acceleration.
Height of
Ramp Velocity Velocity
2 Acceleration
(Opposite) Dist. 1 Time 1 1 Dist. 2 Time 2
50 m 100 m 10 sec. 10 m/s 100 m 5 sec. 20 m/s 5 m/s2
100 m 100 m 5 sec. 20 m/s 100 m 2 sec. 50 m/s 3 m/s2
Conclusion:
The purpose of this experiment is to figure out which height and angle has the greatest
amount of acceleration. If the ramp is lower, then the cart accelerates faster. If the height is
higher, though, the velocity increases. This is shown because when ramp A has a shorter
opposite, its acceleration was calculated to be faster than ramp B’s. Ramp B has a higher
velocity, causing it to take less time down the ramp, but never result in as much difference in
acceleration.
EXTRA CREDIT:Light from another star in the galaxy reaches the earth in 46 minutes. The
speed of light is 3.0 × 108 m/s. In k ilometers, how far is the earth from the star?
Answer must be in scientific notation
D=V*T
D = 3.0 * 108 m/s * 2760 sec
D = 8280 * 108 mi/s
D = 8.280 * 101 1
D = 828,000,000,000 mi
D = 8.280 * 101 1 / 1.60934
D = 5.14 * 101 1
D = 514,000,000,000 km
Atomic Structure/Mass
Atomic Structure Project:
Reading: https://www.livescience.com/37206-atom-definition.html
*Use this site for notes
1. Cover Page: Atomic Structure and Periodic Table
2. History of the Atom
● 13.7 billion years ago, atoms were created by the Big Bang
● The hot universe cooled and quarks & electrons could form
● Quarks combined to make protons and neutrons
● Became nuclei
● The above all happened in a few minutes of the universe’s existence
● It was another 380,000 years before the universe was cold enough for slow electrons
● The electrons could then be captured by the nuclei, and create atoms
● The earlier atoms were mostly hydrogen and helium
● Gravity turned clouds of gas into the first stars
● Heavier atoms were made in the stars and sent out into space through a supernov
● Everything else was made over time
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSAgLvKOPLQ&t=490s
Link2: Picture for every person
a. Dalton
● Thought that atoms were the smallest thing, and were indivisible
b. Thomson - V ideo
● In 1897, discovered the electron
● Used a cathode ray tube experiment
● Discovered that electrons are a lot smaller than atoms
● Proved that atoms are not indivisible
● Made the “plum pudding model”
● Thought that the negative electrons were stuck in a positively charged
“dough”
● Two pieces of metal in a tube, and connected them to a power source
● A ray shot from the first piece of metal, through the second one, and kept
going until the end of the tube
● Created a glowing spot at the end of the glass, which was coated in a
special substance
● With two pieces of metal on either side of the tube, finds out that the ray is
attracted to a positive charge
● That means the ray has a negative charge
● Concludes that cathode rays are made of negative electrons
● Also figures out that the particles that make a cathode ray are 1,000 times
smaller than a Hydrogen atom (which is the smallest atom)
● All metals give off cathode rays
c. Rutherford
● Discovered that atoms have a nucleus in 1919
● Gold foil experiment
● Thought that all the positive charge was collected in the middle, as the
nucleus
D. Bohr
● 1913, thought of orbiting electrons
● Thought that electrons spin around the nucleus like planets around a sun
3. Structure of the Atom
Video
Video2 atom builder, chart/table
a. Nucleus, protons, neutrons, electrons
● Protons are positively charged and in the middle of the atom
● Neutrons have a neutral charge and are with protons
● Electrons have a negative charge and go around the atom in orbits
● First ‘orbital’ can hold 2 electrons, the second can hold 8, and the 3rd can
hold 8
***Use models to explain the difference between:
Sodium Chloride and Magnesium Chloride or Sodium sulfide and C alcium Sulfide
Sodium Chloride
Magnesium Chloride
Sodium Chloride, more commonly known as salt, and Magnesium Chloride have a few
minor differences in structure and looks. Sodium Chloride, just viewing it without any
microscope or tools, has a sort of cube-like shape. When zoomed in to see its structure, one
can see that the structure is also in the shape of a cube. Magnesium Chloride, on the other
hand, appears to be made up of flakes when looked at with the naked eye. When examining its
structure, it is generally in a rectangular shape made up of many atoms in some sort of zig-zag
pattern.
4. Isotopes
Link: h ttps://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/isotopes-and-atomic-mass
a. Provide Example
b. How are they used by Scientists?
5. Families of the Periodic Table
*Describe the life of Mendeleev and how he created the Periodic Table.
Dmitri Mendeleev The first periodic table
Dmitri Mendeleev was born on February 8, 1834. He graduated Main Pedagogical
Institute, St. Petersburg, in 1855. In 1856, he received his master’s degree and started his
research in organic chemistry. Studying abroad for two years at the university of Heidelberg, he
created a laboratory in his apartment. By 1860, Mendeleev went to the International Chemistry
Congress and discussed atomic weights, chemical symbols, and chemical formulas. He later
became a professor at the University of St. Petersburg in 1867 and taught inorganic chemistry.
Finding that he did not like the textbooks, he decided to write another one. He was in the middle
of writing a chapter, comparing halogen elements and alkali metals, when he noticed a pattern
in the atomic weight. Mendeleev continued to explore these patterns and discovered the
periodic law, allowing him to create the periodic table.
*What makes the elements the similar in each family?
When elements are part of the same family, they usually have the same charge and
similar properties. During chemical reactions, the families tend to lose or gain the same amount
of electrons. Some families are very unreactive, while others are heavily reactive.
*What are some trends in the Periodic Table?
a. Alkali Metals
Alkali metals regularly lose one electron in chemical reactions. They are highly
reactive metals and are often found combined with other elements in nature. These
metals have exceptional conductivity of heat and electricity.
b. Alkaline Earth Metals
Alkaline earth metals usually lose two electrons during a chemical reaction, and
are very reactive. They look nonmetallic, are insoluble in water, and unaffected by fire.
c. Halogens
In chemical reactions, halogens gain a single electron. Since they are so
reactive, halogens aren’t typically found in nature. Generally, halogens are almost
exactly the same in chemical behavior and properties of their compounds with other
elements.
d. Noble Gases
Noble gases are very unreactive. They require very specific conditions in order to
react. They are all colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonflammable.
Average Atomic Mass Worksheet:
1. Rubidium has two common isotopes, 8 5Rb and 87Rb. If the abundance of 8 5Rb is 72.2% and
the abundance of 8 7Rb is 27.8%, what is the average atomic mass of rubidium?
85 x 0.722 + 87 x 0.278
61.37 + 24.186
85.556 amu
2. Uranium has three common isotopes. If the abundance of 2 34U is 0.01%, the abundance of
235U is 0.71%, and the abundance of 2 38U is 99.28%, what is the average atomic mass of
uranium?
234 x 0.0001 + 235 x 0.0071
0.0234 + 1.6685
1.6919 amu
3. Titanium has five common isotopes: 46Ti (8.0%), 4 7T i (7.8%), 4 8T i (73.4%), 49Ti (5.5%), 5 0T i
(5.3%). What is the average atomic mass of titanium?
46 x 0.08 + 47 x 0.078 + 48 x 0.734 + 49 x 0.055 + 50 x 0.053
3.68 + 3.666 + 35.232 + 2.695 + 2.65
47.923 amu
2. The element copper has naturally occurring isotopes with mass numbers of 63 and 65. The
relative abundance and atomic masses are 69.2% and 30.8% respectively. Calculate the
average atomic mass of copper.
63 x 0.692 + 65 x 0.308
43.596 + 20.02
63.616 amu
3. Calculate the average atomic mass of sulfur if 95.00% of all sulfur isotopes are Sulfur-32,
0.76% are Sulfur-33 and 4.22% are Sulfur-34.
32 x 0.95 + 33 x 0.0076 + 34 x 0.0422
30.4 + 0.2508 + 1.4348
32.0856 amu
4. The four isotopes of lead are shown below, each with its percent by mass abundance and the
composition of its nucleus. Using the following data, first calculate the approximate atomic mass
of each isotope. Then calculate the average atomic mass of lead.
82p 82p 82p 82p
122n 124n 125n 126n
1.37% 26.26% 20.82% 51.55%
204 x 0.0137 + 206 x 0.2626 + 207 x 0.2082 + 208 x 0.5155
2.7948 + 107.224
+ 54.0956 + 43.0974
2 07.2118 amu
5. There are three isotopes of silicon. They have mass numbers of 28, 29 and 30. The average
atomic mass of silicon is 28.086amu. What does this say about the relative abundances of the
three isotopes?
This says that the most abundant isotope of silicon is silicon-28, because the average
atomic mass is closest to 28. Silicon-29 and silicon-30 are less common, since the average
atomic mass is farther from their mass.
Chemical Reactions
Notes:
Reaction 1
Reactants Products
____ NaHCO3 → ____Na2CO3 + _____ H2O + _____ CO2 <------ subscripts
Observations:
Determine the Weight (AMU) of the reactants and the products
Decomposition
Reaction 2
2 M g + 1 O2 → 2 MgO(xide)
Observations:
Determine the Weight (AMU) of the reactants and the products
500g + 28g = 528g
Synthesis
Reaction 3
____ CH3 C H2 OH + ____ O2 → ____ CO2 + ____ H2 O
Observations:
Determine the Weight (AMU) of the reactants and the products
Combustion
Reaction 4
___ Na2C O3 + ___ CaCl2 → ___CaCO3 + 2 NaCl
Observations:
Determine the Weight (AMU) of the reactants and the products
Double Replacement
Reaction 5
2 Cu + ___ AgNO3 → ___ Ag + ___ Cu(NO3 ) 2
Observations:
Determine the Weight (AMU) of the reactants and the products
Single Replacement
Reaction 6
___ Fe + ___ S → ___ FeS
Observations:
Determine the Weight (AMU) of the reactants and the products
Classifying Matter/Mixtures
Group Assignment:
Weight of cup: 1 .8g
Total Weight of Mixture and Cup: 59.2g
Total weight of everything minus the cup: 57.4g
Total weight of the Marshmallows minus the cup: 7.3g
Total weight of the M&M’s minus the cup: 28.5g
Total weight of the Skittles minus the cup: 1 7.8g
Total weight of the Pretzel M&M’s minus the cup: 5g
Substance 13 Marshmallows 30 M&M’s 18 Skittles 2 Pretzel
M&M’s
Total Weight of 7.3g 28.5g 17.8g
Substance 5g
Marshmallows
7.3/57.4= 0.127 * 100 = 12.7%
M&M’s
28.5/57.4= 0.51 * 100 = 51%
Skittles
17.8/57.4= 0.310 * 100 = 31%
Pretzel M&M’s
5/57.4= 0.087 * 100 = 8.7%
Quiz:
I. Directions: I dentify the following as either a Heterogeneous Mixture, Homogeneous Mixture,
Element or Compound. Write the following letters in Column B for your choices:
A. Heterogeneous
B. Homogeneous
C. Element
D. Compound
Column A Column B
Salad A
Copper C
Lemonade A
Rocks, sand, gravel A
Salt Water D
Gold C
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) B
Air (Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide…) C
K2S O4 B
Twix, snickers, pretzels, popcorn in a bag A
II. Directions: Determine the Mass % of each mixture and construct the appropriate graphs.
Mixture A Mass (g) %
Large Rocks 125 52
Small Rocks 75 31
Coarse Sand 32 13
Iron 9 4
Mixture B Mass (g) %
Large Rocks 205 53
Small Rocks 58 15
Coarse Sand 97 25
Iron 29 7
Calculation Examples ( Provide 2 Examples showing how you determined the Mass %)
A. 1 25 + 75 + 32 + 9 = 241
(125/241) * 100 = 52%
B. 205 + 58 + 97 + 29 = 389
(205/389) * 100 = 53%
Graphs:
Mixture A
Mixture B
Part III. Determine the Mass % of Elements in each Compound:
K2 SO4 - Potassium Sulfate
(Show Math Here)
K(2)39 = 78 78/174 = 0.448 * 100 = 45%
S(1)32 = 32 32/174 = 0.183 * 100 = 18%
O(4)16 = 64 64/174 = 0.367 * 100 = 37%
---------
174
Na3PO4 - Sodium Phosphate
(Show Math Here)
Na(3)23 = 69 69/164 = 0.420 * 100 = 42%
P(1)31 = 31 31/164 = 0.189 * 100 = 19%
O(4)16 = 64 64/164 = 0.390 * 100 = 39%
---------
164
Graphs:
K2 SO4
Na3PO4
IV. Conclusion:
1. Explain the difference between Mixtures and Compounds using data. Compare the pie
charts.
A Mixture is a mix of anything; candy, rocks, salad, etc. A Compound is a mix of
Elements, like Potassium Sulfate and Sodium Phosphate (the Compounds in the graphs). In a
mixture, the things in it are generalized; like large rocks and small rocks. They do not have to
have any specific mass or volume to be sorted into a group. In a Compound, everything is
specific.
2. E xplain how you separated the Salt from the Sand. Use as much new vocabulary as you
can.
To separate the salt from the sand, we put a filter over a funnel (coffee filter), and poured
the sand into the filter. Then, we slowly poured the solute, water, into the sand. This made the
salt dissolve into the water, and then be carried down the funnel, leaving only sand behind.
Density
Data Table:
Volume Before Volume After Volume Object Density
Object Mass (g) (mL) (mL) (cm3) (g/cm3)
A 68.3 g 50 mL 58 mL 8 cm3 8.53 g/cm3
B
C 267.3 g N/A N/A 27 cm3 9.9 g/cm3
D
E 72.5 g 50mL 58 mL 8 cm3 9.06 g/cm3
F
G 28.8 g 50 mL 53 mL 3 cm3 9.6 g/cm3
H 29 g 50 mL 54 mL 4 cm3 7.25 g/cm3
Unknown
Objects 29 g 50 mL 54 mL 4 cm3 7.25 g/cm 3
22 g 50 mL 57 mL 7 cm3 3.14 g/cm3
29.6 g 50 mL 61 mL 11 cm3 2.69 g/cm3
Volume Volume Volume Density
Mass (g) Before After Object (g/cm3)
1 28.7 g 50 mL 53 mL 3 cm3 9.6 g/cm3
2 29 g 50 mL 54 mL 4 cm3 7.25 g/cm3
3 267.2 g 50 mL 81 mL 31 cm3 8.62 g/cm3
4 68.3 g 50 mL 58 mL 8 cm3 8.5 g/cm3
5 29.1 g 50 mL 54 mL 4 cm3 7.27 g/cm3
6 29.5 g 50 mL 61 mL 11 cm3 2.68 g/cm3
7 72.5 g 50 mL 58 mL 8 cm3 9.06 g/cm3
8 22 g 50 mL 58 mL 8 cm3 2.75 g/cm3
Lab Template:
Problem Statement:
How can density be used to identify unknown metals?
Hypothesis:
If density is known, then unknown metals can be correctly identified because every metal has
its own specific density.
Independent Variable:
Levels of IV
copper bronze aluminum zinc brass tin
Dependent Variable:
Density (g/cm3)
Constants: Units Same procedures
Volume of Water
Control:
The density of water is 1.
Data Analysis/Conclusion
The purpose of this experiment was to match numbered metals with lettered metals
(labels) using density, and eventually figure out what metals they are. The hypothesis is “If
density is known, then unknown metals can be correctly identified because every metal has its
own specific density.” In this experiment, we measured the mass of each metal and recorded it
on a table. Then, using a graduated cylinder, we measured the volume of each metal - starting
off with 50 mL of water each time. Using the mass and volume, we solved for the density of
every metal.
Heat
Math Example
A. Heat Gained (Water) = mass of water * Change in Temperature * Specific
Heat of Water
Heat Gained (Water) = 100 g * (25 C - 22 C) * 1 cal/gC
Heat Gained (Water) = 300 calories
*Now use the Heat gained to be your Heat Lost by the metal
Heat Gained = Heat Lost
B. Heat Lost (Metal) = mass * Change in Temperature of Metal * Specific Heat
of Metal
300 calories = 65 g * (75 C -25 C) * X
300 = 65 g * 50 C * X
300 = 3250 X
300/3250 = X
0.092 cal/gC = Specific Heat of Metal
Heat Project
Conduction - t he Heat - a form of Insulator - A Calorie - e ither of
substance that two units of heat
process by which energy transfer does not readily energy.
allow the passage Small Calorie
heat or is among particles in of heat. - the energy needed
to raise the
transmitted through a substance (or Second Law of temperature of 1
Thermodynamics - gram of water
a substance when system) by means states that the through 1 °C (now
entropy of any usually defined as
there is a difference of kinetic energy. isolated system 4.1868 joules).
always increases.
of temperature Turbine - a
machine that
between adjoining produces power
with a wheel or
parts, without rotor, typically with
vanes, and revolves
movement of the by a fast-moving
flow of water,
material.
Convection - the Temperature - t he
movement caused intensity or lack of
within a fluid by the
tendency of hotter heat present in a
and less dense
material to rise, and substance or
colder, denser
material to sink object.
under the influence steam, gas, air, or
of gravity. This other fluid.
results in the
transfer of heat.
Radiation - the Heat Engine - a Specific Heat - the Generator - a
heat required to dynamo or similar
emission of energy system that raise the
temperature of the machine for
as electromagnetic converts heat or unit mass of a
given substance by converting
waves or as moving thermal energy to a given amount
(usually one mechanical energy
subatomic mechanical energy, degree).
into electricity.
particles, especially which can then be
high-energy used to do
particles that cause mechanical work.
ionization.
First Law of Conductor - Kinetic Energy -
Thermodynamics - a material or device energy that a body
states that energy
cannot be created that conducts or possesses when in
or destroyed in an
isolated system transmits heat, motion.
(also known as the
especially when
Law of
regarded in terms
Conservation of
of its capacity to do
Energy).
this.
2. Provide a diagram showing molecular motion in Solids, Liquids, and gases.
*How are they different?
4. What is the difference between Heat and Temperature? Provide a definition,
picture and video link to help you review.
The heat of an object is the total energy of the molecular motion within it.
Temperature, however, is the average heat or thermal energy of a substance’s
molecules.
Heat = energy
Temperature = thermal measurement
Part II - Water, Vinegar, and Dish Soap
1. Conduct an experiment to determine the Heat Gained by 20 g of each substance
2. You must measure the mass of Vinegar and Dish Soap.
3. Research the Specific Heats of Vinegar and Dish Soap in Calories/g C not in Joules.
4. Make a data table
Substance Water Vinegar Dish Soap
Time 14 m 36 s 12 m 30 s 6 m 15 s
Boiling 100 36 90
Temp. (C)
Amount (mL) 150 13 50
Starting 25 27 29
Temp. (F)
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What happens to the molecules in each of the beakers as heat is added?
The molecules spread out more and begin to move faster, starting the process to
change into a gas.
2. Which substance showed the greatest temperature change? Least? Use data
The water had the greatest temperature change, getting from 25 to 100 degrees
C. Vinegar only got from 27 to 36 degrees C, making is have the least temperature
change.
3. Which substance does research say should show the greatest temperature increase?
Least? Why? How does this relate to Specific Heat?
The dish soap showed the greatest temperature increase because it went up to
90 degrees in a little over 6 minutes. The vinegar had the least temperature increase
because it only got up to 36 degrees in 12 and a half minutes.
7. Lab Experiment: April 28-30
*Conduct an experiment to determine the Specific Heat of 3 different metals.
A. LAB TEMPLATE
Object Mass Mass Δ Temp Δ Temp Heat Gain Heat Lost SH
Metal Water H20 Metal H20 Metal Metal
Example
Copper 65 100 27-21 = 6 75-27 = 48 600 Use
(Lopez) 600 notes
Aluminum
(Lopez) 28.4 100 24.3 - 22.5 24.3-22.5 180 180 0.103
Zinc
(Lopez) 19.6 100 25.5-22 97.8-25.5 350 350 0.247
29.3 100 25.1-23.7 75-25.1 140 140 0.0958
Isotopes
Fossil Activity:
Activity: Determine which fossil is older
Directions: Watch videos, take notes and construct the graphs below using your
spreadsheet.
Film:
https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=radiometric+dating&&view=detail&mid=0913F60FB719
BC5912690913F60FB719BC591269&&FORM=VDRVRV
Film #2:
https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=radiometric+dating&&view=detail&mid=33AAFAE1F005
C0E7E25833AAFAE1F005C0E7E258&&FORM=VDRVRV
Take notes:
● Isotopes fade away/damage over the years
● Some isotopes dissipate faster than others
● The faster the isotope disappears, the more specific a scientist can be on the age
Isotope #1 100
0 50
25
2300 12.5
4600 6.25
6900 3.125
9200 1.06
11,500 .5
13,800 .25
16,100 .125
18,400 0
20,700
23,000 100
50
Isotope #2 25
0 12.5
6.25
1500 3.125
3000 1.06
4500 .5
6000 .25
7500 .125
9000 0
10,500
12,000
13,500
15,000
Graphs:
Write an Essay that explains which fossil is older: (use your graphs)
According to the graphs, the Fusarus fossil is the oldest. There is only 18% of Fusarus
left, while 35% of Montanosaurus remains. After calculating and using the graphs, I came to the
conclusion that Fusarus is about 5,800 years old, and Montanosaurus is around 2,100 years
old. Despite their percentages being moderately close, every one percent for Fusarus is equal
to nearly 322 years, while a single percent for Montanosaurus only amounts to 60 years.
Fossil A
18% of Fusarus remaining
Estimate: 5800 years
Fossil B
35% of Montanosaurus remaining
Estimate: 2,100 years
Quiz Review:
1. Calculate the atomic mass of lead. The four lead isotopes have atomic masses and relative
abundances of 203.973 amu (1.4%), 205.974 amu (24.1%), 206.976 amu (22.1%) and
207.977 amu (52.4%).
203.973 x .014 + 205.974 x .241 + 206.976 x .221 + 207.977 x .524
2.855622 + 49.639734 + 45.741696 + 108.979948
207.217 amu
How many neutrons would each isotope have in its nucleus?
Each isotope would relatively have 122, 124, 126, and 128 neutrons in its nucleus.
2. Calculate the average atomic mass of sulfur if 95.00% of all sulfur atoms have a mass of
31.972 amu, 0.76% has a mass of 32.971amu and 4.22% have a mass of 33.967amu.
31.972 x 0.95 + 32.971 x 0.0076 + 33.967 x 0.0422
30.374 + 0.2505796 + 1.4334074
32.057987 amu
How many neutrons would each isotope have in its nucleus?
Each isotope would relatively have 16, 17, and 18 neutrons in its nucleus.
Quiz:
I sotope A Percent Isotope
Years
0 100
5730 50
11,460 25
17,190 12.5
22,920 6.25
28,650 3.125
34,380 1.06
40,110 .5
45,840 .25
51,570 .125
57,300 0
Hint: Remember to add gridlines
Graph: ( place graph here)
Questions: (Use your graph above to answer the questions below)
1. How old is the following fossil?
The fossil is about 3,750 years old, using the graph.
Fossil A - 73% of Isotope A remaining
2. How old is the following fossil?
According to the graph, the fossil is around 18,000 years old.
Fossil B - 15% of Isotope A remaining
3. What percentage of Isotope A is remaining if the fossil is 1200 years old?
(Use your graph)
About 90% of Isotope A would be remaining if the fossil is 1200 years old.
Average Atomic Mass Calculations
1. Naturally occurring chlorine that is put in pools is 75.53 percent 35Cl (mass = 34.969
amu) and 24.47 percent 37Cl (mass = 36.966 amu). Calculate the average atomic mass
of chlorine.
34.969 x 0.7553 + 36.966 x 0.2447
26.412087 + 9.0455802
35.4576672 amu
2. Calculate the atomic mass of silicon. The three silicon isotopes have atomic masses and
relative abundances of 27.9769 amu (92.2297%), 28.9765 amu (4.6832%) and 29.9738
amu (3.0872%).
27.9769 x 0.922297 + 28.9765 x 0.046832 + 29.9738 x 0.030872
25.80301094 + 1.357027448 + 0.9253511536
28.08538954 amu
Writing:
Use one of the examples above to discuss how you determine the number of neutrons for each
isotope. You also need to discuss how the %abundance contributed to the Average Atomic
Mass of the element. (HINT: Think of the M&M Lab!)
In order to determine how many neutrons an isotope has, you first have to figure out how
many protons its element contains, also known as the atomic number. Then, you subtract the
atomic number from the individual isotope’s atomic mass, and the result is the number of
neutrons, rounding if needed.
The percent abundance of a specific isotope contributes to the Average Atomic Mass of
the element because frequency affects averages. When calculating average atomic mass,
normally the isotope with the highest abundance is closest to the average. Since there are more
of that isotope than others, its numbers will appear in the data more often, causing the other
isotopes to be “irregular” and itself to be “normal”, or “average”. For example, the M&Ms
experiment; students were given a few pretzel M&Ms and many regular ones. After calculating
the weight and amount of each type of M&M, the average mass was closest to the mass of the
regular M&Ms. This means that, since there were more of them, the regular M&Ms became the
average M&M. Over all, without using percent abundances in Average Atomic Mass
calculations, one can not possibly get a correct answer.
Phase Changes
Quiz:
Calculate Heat Energy: * SH
Apply the following Equations: Boiling Heat of
Heat = Mass * Heat of Fusion Pt. (C) Vaporization
Heat = Mass * Change in Temperature
Heat = Mass * Heat of Vaporization (cal/g)
Data Table:
Metal Mass Heat of Melting Specific Heat
Fusion Pt. (C) Heat Energy
(cal/g) (cal/gC) (cal)
Water 37 g 80 0 100 540 1 26640
Silver 37 g 26 961 2212 2356 0.057 90772.359
Directions: Determine the Heat Energy required to completely evaporate the substances in the
data table.
*SHOW ALL MATH STEPS
Math Steps (____ out of 4)
A. Water
Heat = Mass * Heat of Fusion
Heat = 37 g * 80 cal/g
Heat = 2960
Heat = Mass * Change in Temperature * SH
Heat = 37 g * 100 C * 1 cal/gC
Heat = 3700
Heat = Mass * Heat of Vaporization
Heat = 37 g * 540 cal/g
Heat = 19980
Heat = 2960 + 3700 + 19980
Heat = 26640 cal
Scientific Notation:
26.640 cal
B. Silver
Heat = Mass * Heat of Fusion
Heat = 37 g * 26 cal/g
Heat = 962
Heat = Mass * Change in Temperature * SH
Heat = 37 g * 1251 C * 0.057 cal/gC
Heat = 2638.359
Heat = Mass * Heat of Vaporization
Heat = 37 g * 2356 cal/g
Heat = 87172
Heat = 962 + 2638.359 + 87172
Heat = 90772.359
Scientific Notation:
90.772359
Graph your Results:
Writing (_____ out of 4)
Questions:
1. How are Heat and Temperature different for the following pictures of boiling w ater?
Explain: (Hint: Use the Heat equation)
Heat Energy is the result of particles (atoms) moving. It can be transferred from object to
object, creating heat when temperatures are different.
If the ocean were boiling, the Heat would be a much larger number than that of a few
milliliters of water. In the Heat equation, each step (except for the last one, adding) is multiplied
by Mass. The Mass of the ocean is obviously much larger than what’s in the beaker. At the last
step of the equation, the results of the ocean and the water in the beaker will be added together.
They will have a vast difference from each other in Heat Energy.
3. Would it be possible for there to be solid oxygen on another planet? Explain:
Oxygen Melting Point: -218 C
Oxygen Boiling Point: -183 C
Yes, it would be possible; out of all planets out there, there should be many that go
below -218 C. For example, Neptune, the coldest planet in our solar system, has an average
temperature of -214 C. That’s only 4 degrees away from Oxygen’s melting point. Any degree
under -218 C should cause Oxygen to solidify. Of course, -219 C will make the process much
slower than if the Oxygen is at -250 C. In conclusion, any planet with an average temperature
under -218 C can possibly have solid Oxygen.
Potential Energy
Potential Energy Project:
Energy - t he property Joules - t he SI unit of Chemical Potential Law of Conservation
of matter and work or energy, equal Energy - The energy of Energy - the law
radiation that is to the work done by a stored in the of Conservation of
manifest as a force of one newton chemical bonds of a Energy states that
capacity to perform when its point of substance. the total energy of an
work (such as application moves isolated system
causing motion or the one meter in the remains constant — it
interaction of direction of action of is said to be
molecules). the force. conserved over time.
Kinetic Energy - Kilojoules - The Elastic Potential Gravity - A natural
energy that a body kilojoule (kJ) is equal Energy - Potential phenomenon by
possesses by virtue to one thousand (103 ) energy stored as a which all things with
of being in motion. joules. result of deformation mass are brought
of an elastic object, toward one another.
such as the
stretching of a spring.
It is equal to the work
done to stretch the
spring.
Potential Energy - t he Gravitational Mechanical Energy -
energy possessed by Potential Energy - the the sum of potential
an object because of energy an object has energy and kinetic
its position relative to due to its position energy. It is the
other objects, above Earth, energy energy associated
stresses within itself, due to its height. with the motion and
its electric charge, or position of an object.
other factors.
Resource: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/energy/Lesson-1/Potential-Energy
Gravitational Potential Energy
Determine the Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) of 3 different masses (g) at 3 different
heights.
3 objects: You, African Elephant, Chevy Camaro (research the masses)
*2.2 lbs = 1 kg
Data Table:
Height 1: 5 m Mass (kg) Gravity (9.8 m/s2) Height (5 m) GPE
45.5 kg 9.8 m/s2 5m 2229.5 J
Object
1 - Me 5909.1 kg 9.8 m/s2 5m 289545.5 J
2 - African 1869.5 kg 9.8 m/s2 5m 91605.5 J
Elephant
3 - Chevy Camaro
Height 2: 15 m Mass (kg) Gravity (9.8 m/s2) Height (15 m) GPE
45.5 kg 6688.5 J
Object 9.8 m/s2 15 m
1 - Me 5909.1 kg 868637.7 J
2 - African 1869.5 kg 9.8 m/s2 15 m 274816.5 J
Elephant 9.8 m/s2 15 m
3 - Chevy Camaro
Height 3: 25 m Mass (kg) Gravity (9.8 m/s2) Height (25 m) GPE
45.5 kg 11147.5 J
Object 9.8 m/s2 25 m
1 - Me 5909.1 kg 1447729.5 J
2 - African 1869.5 kg 9.8 m/s2 25 m 458027.5 J
Elephant 9.8 m/s2 25 m
3 - Chevy Camaro
Your data table will need: Object, mass, gravity, height, GPE
Videos: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x5JeLiSBqQY
*Video shows you how to use the GPE equation.
Determine the GPE of one of the masses on the following planets:
Star Wars Planet #1 - 17% greater than Earth’s Gravity - 11.4 m/s2
Object: Me
Mass: 45.5 kg
Gravity: 11.4 m/s2
Height: 5 m, 15 m, & 25 m
GPE = mgh GPE = mgh GPE = mgh
GPE = 45.5 kg * 11.4 m/s2 * 5 m GPE = 45.5 kg * 11.4 m/s2 * 15 m GPE = 45.5 kg * 11.4 m/s2 * 25 m
GPE = 2593.5 J
GPE = 7780.5 J GPE = 12967.5 J
Star Wars Planet #2 - 39% less than Earth’s Gravity - 5 .98 m/s2
Star Wars Planet #3 - 82% greater than Earth’s Gravity - 1 8.326 m/s2
*Use the height of your favorite Roller Coaster. You will use this to figure out the
Velocity at the bottom of the hill on the Star Wars Planets.
Boulder Dash - 110 ft
Calculations:
Choose 3 planets from the Star Wars Universe and use 3 different
Examples:
A. Star Wars Planet #1
Hoth
Gravity = 12.3 m/s2
B. Star Wars Planet #2:
Coruscant
Gravity = 5.82 m/s2
C. Star Wars Planet #3:
Endor
Gravity = 34.6 m/s2
Data Table:
Planet #1 mass (kg) gravity ? H1 = your coaster GPE
Object 45.5 kg 12.3 m/s2
Me 110 ft 61561.5 J
Planet #2 mass (kg) gravity H2 = your coaster GPE
Object 45.5 kg 5.82 m/s2
Me 110 ft 29129.1 J
Planet #3 mass (kg) gravity H1 = your coaster GPE
Object 45.5 kg 34.6 m/s2
Me 110 ft 173173 J
Use the formula: GPE = mass * acceleration due to gravity (Earth is 9.8 m/s2) * height of object
Graph:
X - axis: Planet
Y -axis: Potential Energy
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. What factors affect Gravitational Potential Energy?
The height of the object and/or its position above Earth.
2. Why did the GPE change on the other planets?
The GPE changed due to differences in their gravitational force.
3. Which planet would you be able to hit a golf ball further? Explain using data.
You would be able to hit a golf ball further on Coruscant, as it has less of a force
of gravity and the ball would take longer to fall to the ground, enabling it to move
forward for longer.
4. How does GPE relate to Chemical Potential Energy?
GPE is the amount of energy an object has from its height; it is stored energy.
Chemical Potential Energy is the energy in the chemicals of an object; also
stored energy.
5. How do Energy companies use GPE to generate Electrical Energy? Give an example
Companies who take energy from water use the GPE from falling water to
create Electrical Energy.
6. What happens to the GPE when the object falls to the ground? Describe the Energy
transformations along the way. Use a diagram.
When an object falls to the ground, the GPE turns into KE, or Kinetic Energy.
Quiz Review
1. Suppose you placed a 230 kg Siberian Tiger on the Superman Roller Coaster on the
planet Tatooine. This roller coaster has a height of 125 m and Tatooine has a gravity
that is equal to 23% greater than that of Earth’s. What would be your velocity at the
bottom of the hill?
Explain your energy transformations on the ride.
GPE = KE
Mgh = .5 mv2
230 kg * 12.054 m/s2 * 125 m = .5 230v2
346552.5 J = 115v2
√346552.5 J = √115v2
588.69 J = 10.7 v
55.01 = v
2. In 1993, Cuban athlete Javier Sotomayor set the world record for the high jump. The
gravitational potential energy associated with Sotomayor’s jump was 2130 J. Sotomayor’s mass
was 89.0 kg. How high did Sotomayor jump?
h = GP E
mg
h = 2130 J
89 * 9.8
h = 2130 J
872.2
h = 2.44 m
3. One of the tallest radio towers is in Fargo, North Dakota. The tower is 629 m tall, or about 44
percent taller than the Sears Tower in Chicago. If a bird lands on top of the tower, so that the
gravitational potential energy associated with the bird is 1250 J, what is its mass?
M = GPE/hg
M = 1250 J/629m * 9.8 m/s2
M = 1250 J/6164.2
M = .2
4. With an elevation of 5334 m above sea level, the village of Aucanquilca, Chile is the highest
inhabited town in the world. What would be the gravitational potential energy associated with a
95 kg person in Aucanquilca?
GPE = mgh
GPE = 95 kg * 9.8 m/s2 * 5334 m
GPE = 4965954 J
Quiz:
Scenario: You are an engineer for a major engineering firm that will design the lift motor and
safety restraints for the next roller coaster on the planet Hoth in Star Wars. Hoth has a gravity
equal to 37% greater than Earth’s. The Star Wars Theme Park needs to provide you with the
velocity of the roller coaster on this planet to help you with your design. Your roller coaster will
be called the Millenium Falcon and will have a height of 125 m. Your roller coaster will “The
Falcon” will have a mass of 7000 kg. You will need to compare the needs for safety on Earth to
the needs on Hoth. Explain your reasoning for the changes on Hoth.
Hoth:
Directions: Provide a data table showing the comparisons between the Millenium Falcon Roller
Coaster on Earth and Hoth. Describe the types of restraints that you would need on the faster
coaster.
Calculations:
Earth Hoth
Gravity: 9.8 m/s2 Gravity: 13.426 m/s2
GPE: GPE:
GPE = mgh
GPE = mgh GPE = 7000 kg * 13.426 m/s2 * 125 m
GPE = 7000 kg * 9.8 m/s2 * 125 m GPE = 11747750 J
GPE = 8575000 J
Velocity: Velocity:
GPE = KE GPE = KE
Mgh = 0.5mv2 Mgh = 0.5mv2
7000 kg * 9.8 m/s2 * 125 m = 0.5 * 7000 kg v2 7000 kg * 13.426 m/s2 * 125 m = 0.5 * 7000 kg v2
8575000 J = 3500v2 11747750 J = 3500v2
8575000 J / 3500 = 3500v2 / 3500 11747750 J / 3500 = 3500v2 / 3500
2450 = v2 3356.5 = v2
√2450 = √v2 √3356.5 = √v2
V = 49.5 m/s V = 57.9 m/s
Data Table: Velocity Gravity
Planet 49.5 9.8
Earth 57.9 13.426
Hoth
Graph:
Conclusion:
The purpose of this is to figure out the different needs for safety on both planets Earth
and Hoth for the new Millenium Falcon roller coaster. My hypothesis is if there is a higher
gravity, then both the GPE and Velocity will rise. This is shown in the calculations; Hoth has a
higher gravity than Earth, causing it to have an increase in GPE and Velocity for the roller
coaster. Earth’s velocity for a height of 125 meters is only 49.5 m/s, while Hoth’s would be 57.9
m/s. This we could call for better safety measures on Hoth; the rollercoaster would not work as
safely as it would when adapted to Earth’s gravitational pull. On Hoth, there are going to have to
be improvements in and out of the car. First, in order to bring the car up the slope, there has to
be a more powerful pull force because of the greater gravity. Second, seatbelts and bars within
the car; they will have to be stronger so that people don’t fall out. Lastly, the way the car is
connected to the tracks must be more secure; nobody wants the car flying off. In conclusion, the
Millenium Falcon roller coaster should have better safety procedures before anyone can go on;
the difference in gravity on Earth and Hoth affect the velocity and GPE so that Hoth needs to put
more efforts to make sure everything and everyone is secure.
Extra Problems:
1. The Millenium Falcon Roller Coaster has a mass of 3200 kg on Planet Tatooine.
The height of the roller coaster is 15 m which results in a Potential Energy of
800,000 J. What is the gravity on Planet Tatooine?
G = GPE / mh
G = 800,000 J / 15 m * 3200 kg
G = 800,000 J / 48000
G = 16.67 m/s2
2. The Tie Fighter Roller Coaster has a height of 150 m. on Planet Hoth. Hoth has a
gravity of 5.2 m/s2. This roller coaster has a Potential Energy of 600,000 J. What is the
mass of the Tie Fighter?
M = GPE / hg
M = 600,000 J / 150 m * 5.2 m/s2
M = 600,000 J / 780
M = 769.23 kg
Scientific Method/Discoveries
Scientific Discoveries Presentation:
In this presentation, we had to choose a few discoveries that we thought were the most
important, then asked other students which one they thought was the most important of all. This
graph shows how many students chose the different discoveries.
Scientific Method Scavenger Hunt:
Please visit the following websites, read carefully and respond to the questions.
Website 1: h ttp://www.biology4kids.com/files/studies_scimethod.html
Questions:
1. What is the scientific method?
The scientific method is a process used by scientists to study the world around them.
2. What sample questions are given that science can answer?
“Why do dogs and cats have hair?” and “Why do spiders spin webs?”
3. How does science allow the world to “advance, evolve and grow?”
Science builds on what has been learned before, and other people can use what has been
learned in a new way to ‘advance, evolve and grow’.
4. What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?
Website 2: h ttp://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/balancing-act/latest/balancing-act_en.html
Questions:
1. Make some changes to the Lever.
2. What are the variables that you can change?
The position of the item/weight on the right, which changes the way the lever is tilted.
3. Conduct a simple experiment and discuss your basic results.
4. What were your observations?
- The heavier the item, the more likely it is for the side it’s on to sink.
- The farther out an item is, the more force it has to bring down its side of the lever.
- Lighter items can bring heavier items into the air when they are far enough to the right (your
side of the lever).
Scientific Method Quiz:
Directions: R ead the following description of an experiment and complete the
components of the scientific method.
Experiment:
Option #2:
Option #2: Mr. Smithers believed that Caffeine may make people more alert. Mr.
Smithers tested 100 people by using their scores in the same video game. Devin had 3
different brands of drinks with 10 g, 20 g, and 30 g of caffeine respectively. He
measured their scores on a video game that had a range of 0-1000 points. Some of the
players were not given caffeine drinks. on the game
*Help Mr. Smithers design an effective experiment and write a conclusion that analyzes
your results.
Problem Statement
Does caffeine make people more alert?
Hypothesis
The more caffeine a person gets, the more alert they are.
Independent Variable Necafé Folgers
Brand of caffeinated Starbucks
drinks
Dependent Variable
The video game score (from 0-1000 points)
Constants (Pick 2) The range of points
The video game
Control
The players who were not given caffeine drinks
Basic Procedures:
(List 5-8 steps)
- Split the 100 people into groups of 25.
- Give one group one brand of drinks, another a different brand of drinks, and a third the other
brand of drinks.
- Give the last group no caffeine drinks; they will be the control.
- Have the people play the same video game.
- Record their points from a range of 0-1000
- See whether or not caffeine makes people more alert; the more points, the more alert they
are.
Data Table: (Place data table here) 345
Number of Points Scored (On 568
832
Brand of Caffeine Drink Average) 234
Starbucks(10 g)
Nescafé (20 g)
Folgers (30 g)
No Drink
Graph: (Place graph here)
Conclusion:
Purpose, Hypothesis, Description, Data or evidence, Improvements, Conclusion
The purpose of this experiment is to see whether or not caffeine makes people more
alert. The hypothesis is if a person consumes more caffeine, then they become more alert. In
this experiment, 100 people are tested with three different brands of caffeine drinks. The 100
people are split into groups of 25, the fourth one being the control; meaning no drinks. All 100
people have to play the same video game, and whichever group gets the most points on
average means that they are more “alert”. From the data collected, the control group scored an
average of 234 points. The group that drank Starbucks had an average of 345 points, Nescafé
had 568, and Folgers had 832. The different brands have different amounts of caffeine,
Starbucks being the lowest and Folgers being the highest.
In order to improve the accuracy of this experiment, the preparations will have to get
complicated. The people in each group should get the same amount of sleep, since being tired
may affect how many points someone scores in a game. Depending on the type of game, the
time the players spend playing the game should also be the same. Lastly, the skill of each
player should be balanced.
In conclusion, the players who drank the most caffeine had the highest average of points
and, therefore, caffeine does make people more alert.
Simple Machines
Simple Machines Presentation Notes:
Directions: Create a presentation that describes one simple machine per person in your group.
The presentation should cover the following:
Options: Inclined Plane, Lever, Pulley, Gear, Wheel and Axle
1. Explain how the machine works
● The pulley is just a wheel and axle with a rope, chain, or cord looped around a
groove in the wheel
● They change to the direction of the force of gravity
● Instead of pulling something up by yourself, a pulley makes you pull the rope
down, going with the force of gravity
● It’s the same amount of work, but feels easier
● The more pulleys used, the farther you have to pull the rope, but less effort is
needed
http://teacher.scholastic.com/dirtrep/simple/pulley.htm
2. How is it used in everyday life?
● Raising a flag
● Water wells
● Zip lining
● Cranes
● Clotheslines
● Exercise equipment
● Elevators
3. How is Mechanical Advantage determined for your machine?
Count the number of rope sections/wheels being used. In a one pulley system, there
would be a MA of 1, while in a two pulley system, the MA would be raised to 2.
4. How is Efficiency determined for your machine?
● No pulley system is 100% efficient
● Steps
1. Find out the mechanical advantage
Number of pulley systems
2. Calculate the velocity
Distance/Mass
3. Divide the MA by the velocity and multiply by 100
If Velocity = 34 m/s2 and MA = 3, then:
6 • 100
34 m/s2
= 0.1764 • 100
= 17.64%
Solubility
Solubility Rules Chart
Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds
Compounds Solubility Exceptions
Salts of alkali metals and Soluble Some lithium compounds
ammonia
Nitrate salts and chlorate Soluble Few exceptions
salts
Sulfate salts Soluble Compounds of Pb, Ag, Hg, Ba,
Sr, and Ca
Chloride salts Soluble Compounds of Ag, and some
Carbonates, phosphates, Most are I nsoluble compounds of Hg and Pb
Compounds of the alkali
chromates, sulfides, and metals and ammonia
hydroxides
GENERALLY SOLUBLE SOLUBILITY RULES
Na+, K+, NH4 + EXCEPTIONS
Chlorides (Cl-)
No common exceptions
Bromides (Br- ) Insoluble: AgCl, Hg2 C l2
Soluble in HOT water: PbCl2
Iodides (I-) Insoluble: AgBr, Hg2 Br2 , PbBr2
Sulfates (SO4 – 2) Moderately soluble: HgBr2
Insoluble: many heavy METAL iodides
Nitrates (NO3 - ) and Nitrites (NO2-) Insoluble: BaSO4 , PbSO4, HgSO4
Chlorates (ClO3-), perchlorates Moderately soluble: CaSO4, SrSO4 , Ag2SO4
(ClO4-) , and permanganates (MnO4-) Moderately soluble: AgNO2
Acetates (CH3 COO-) Moderately soluble: KClO4
Moderately soluble: AgCH3 COO
Graph Practice
Salt Name Chemical Tempe
Formula rature
Ammonium (○C)
Chloride 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Potassium 0
Nitrate 33.3 37.2 41.1 45.8 49.7 55.2 59.1 65.6 69.5 77.3
NH4Cl 29.4
Sodium
Nitrate KNO3 13.9 21.2 31.6 45.3 61.4 83.5 106. 140 170 205 243
0
Barium
Hydroxide NaNO3 73 79 87.6 95 102 113 122 139 148 162 180
Potassium Ba(OH)2 1.67
Chloride 28.1 2.78 3.89 6.1 8.22 14.5 20.9 61.1 101.4 ‘
KCl 8 4 7
Lithium
Chloride 31.2 34.2 37.1 40.0 42.9 45.8 48.7 51.3 54.2 56.3
Potassium
Sulfate LiCl 69.2 77.5 83.5 86.6 89.8 94.1 98.4 105. 112 120 128
5 2
Sodium
Chloride K2 S O4 7.4 9.3 11.1 13.0 14.8 16.5 18.2 19.8 21.4 22.9 24.1
Copper (II) NaCl 35.7
Sulfate 35.8 36.0 36.2 36.5 36.8 37.3 37.6 38.1 38.6 39.2
(A nhydrous)
CuSO4 14.3 17.4 20.7 24.2 28.7 33.8 40.0 47.0 56.0 67.5 80.0
Potassium
Iodide Goe
KI 128 145 144 180 162 212 176 247 192 s off 206
grap
h
* Solubility values are given in grams of salt per 100 grams of water
Velocity
Velocity Story Chart
Description Distance (m) Time (sec.) Velocity (m/s)
0.93m/s
Straight 3.7 meters 4sec 0m/s
Stop
0 2sec
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