SSF 1033 assignment

The Creation of ‘Malay’ Ethnicity

• Previously, peoples of Southeast Asia – spoke mother
tongue languages
• Great diversity in SE Asia
• Malay – language of regional trade
• With coming of the Portuguese, Dutch and British – census
and classification of groups via background (region of
origin, religion and ‘ethnicity’)
• Ethnic categories driven by ideological imperatives
• British colonial practices = high level of migration =
created Malaya’s/Malaysia’s diverse/plural society.
• 1850-1920: Large scale in-migration esp. Chinese, Indian,
Java & Sumatra
• Need for census data for trade/investment purposes
• Impt to distinguish indigenous from immigrant
populations;
• Also necessary to maintain boundary between colonizer
and the colonized - defining the boundary for being a
European was essential.
• Hirschman (1987:559): British colonial authorities of
formulated a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive ethnic
categories to classify the population, changing them as
circumstances changed – Imperial policy through the empire

• Census:

▪ Straits Settlements (1871, 1881, 1891, 1901 and
1911)

▪ Federated Malay States (1901, 1911)
▪ British Malaya (1921, 1931, 1947, 1957)

• Category: ‘Race’ first appeared (1891 Straits Settlement
census appendix)

• But 1891 census utilized the term ‘Nationality’ when
describing the various sections of the population and
‘tribe’ when discussing the various Chinese dialect
groups (Merewether 1892): 11

• Strait Settlements Census (1871) reflects the ethnic
diversity in British Malaya.

•1891 census - major structural changes in the
classification of the population.

• 1911 Federated Malay States census: ‘Sakai’
recognized as a category.

• Colonial attitude towards the non-Christian
population, phrases such as ‘semi-civilized’, ‘wild’
and ‘highly civilized’ were used to describe the
indigenous population (Nathan 1922: 16, Vlieland
1932: 103).

• Jakun was recognized in the 1921 census
• 1931 census recognized additional ethnicities

– Semang, Jakun and Orang Mantra, but enumerated
them together as “Nomadic Aboriginals”(Nathan 1922: 2,
Vlieland 1932:102).

• Linguistic differences were used to determine
differences between the groups.

• 1947 census had a longer listing of ethnic
categories of Aborigines, which were Negrito,
Jakun, Semai (aka Semak, Senoi), Sisek (Besisi),
Semelai and Temiar.

COLLOQUIUMS

The Early History of the Burmese Community in Penang
by Dato' Mary J. Ritchie & Ms. Nyee Aye Toolseram, Penang
Burmese Society
We have no records of the earliest Burmese arrivals to Penang.
However, we know that after 1800, there was a large Burmese
settlement in the area between Bagan Jeramal and PulauTikus.
The Burmese also settled in BatuMaung. The earliest settlers
were fishermen who came by fishing boats and established a
colony - probably at Telok Ava, near the present Chinese
cemetery in TelokBahang. The early burial ground of the
Burmese was a plot of land in front of Casuarina Hotel,
probably the car park site.

The Filipino Community in Penang
by Catherine Lee Sue Si
By 1800, the population of the immigrant society in Penang
numbered over 10,000, only about 300 of whom were
Europeans. The 1835 census recorded 40,207 inhabitants,
with 16,435 Malays, 8751 Chinese, 9,208 Indians and only
790 Europeans. Of the 3,000 immigrants of other races
were the Filipinos, who had come here not for social or
trading purposes, but for purely economic ones. Most of
them were armed with only their musical skills, and their
adventurous spirit.

MALAYSIA / SINGAPORE AS
IMMIGRANT SOCIETIES

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SOCIETY IN THE MIGRANT
COMMUNITY

First, they are a certain external mentality, a pragmatic
termination to adopt policies that are good for the country rather
than repeating the ancient beliefs of shibboleths. There is a dynamic
willingness to adopt work that can produce innovation. Snodgrass
in 1990 agreed that what unites the country under the NEP is “a deep
commitment to the material improvements shared by all groups in
the immigrant community.”

secondly, immigrant communities are more willing to
define the object of nationalist loyalty as territorial rather than
people, prone to civic nationalism rather than ethno. Due to the
characteristics of this unified country and this Australian, it has
long been accepted for hyphens as Italian-American for Chinese-
Australians. India-Malaysia can also be imagined (thought to be
less common than Malaysian Indians), in a way that is not the
same as Indian-English, Turkish-German or Korean-Japanese.
The alternative 'blood nationalism', a dangerous feature in eastern
and Southern Europe, cannot be convincing when it needs to
embrace far and deviant places of origin. Instead there is a more
artificial racial construction of 'whiteness' (in Australia) or
'kemelayuan' (in Malaysia), which can be more snarling because
it has no foundation in the common past.

THE ARMENIANS OF PENANG

Armenians in Penang play a much larger role in economic,
social, and civic life solutions than the actual amount suggested.
These Armenians did not come from Armenia itself, located in the
southern Caucasus, but were descendants of Armenians who were
forcibly brought to Persia by Shah Abbas in the early 1600's.
When the situation in Persia later became less attractive to them,
large numbers were resettled in India or the Dutch East Indies.
Shortly after Sir Francis Light founded Penang in 1786, Armenian
traders called on trips from India to Malacca and Batavia. In 1802,
a local magistrate commented on their clear numbers; In 1807,
there were enough Armenian traders to justify the naming of
Armenian Lane, which later became Armenian Street, which still
exists today.

Although many of these merchants were temporary,
returning to live in India, a small Armenian community flourished.
In certain years, there were no more than 25 Armenians living in
Penang. From 1802 to 1956, the number who had lived in Penang
may have been under 175. But Armenians made their presence felt.
From the early years, they served in grand juries-in 1827,
accounting for three of the 14 Grand Juries – and were members
of the Appraising Committee; they also served as Justices of the
Peace, officers of the Penang Exchange, Penang Club and Penang
Racing Club.

THE INDONESIANS IN PENANG,
1786-2000

Long before the founding of the British settlement on
Penang island by the East India Company in (modern West
Sumatra) royal family in Sumatra came to Penang to make
their fortune1786, the island was already inhabited and its
dwellers included people from the 'Indonesian' archipelago.
Some years before the arrival of Captain Francis Light, the
founder of the British trading post on Penang, three brothers
connected to the Minangkabau (modern West Sumatra) royal
family in Sumatra came to Penang to make their fortune.

BY ABDUR-RAZZAQ LUBIS

The trio sought and obtained the permission of the
Sultan of Kedah, Ahmad Tajuddin, himself of
Minangkabau descent, to settle on the island. At the time,
Penang was part of Kedah, and Kedah was a vassal state
of Siam. In order of seniority, the three brothers were
Nakhoda Bayan, NakhodaIntan, and NakhodaKechil.
Between them, they controlled Bayan Lepas, BalikPulau,
Glugor, and the site of present day George Town.

INDONESIAN FOUNDERS

The Acheen Street Mosque is the oldest mosque in
George Town and still stands today. During the Aceh
War of the 1870s, as prayers were performed there for
the success of the Acehnese struggle, this mosque
became one of the focal points of the resistance against
the Dutch. Chinese Muslim influence in the architecture
is reflected in the swallow-tail ridged roof. Of the sixty-
nine mosques in Penang, seven had Indonesian founders.

BABA AND NYONYAS

Penang and in the main were bought by wealthy
Chinese merchants. They became the progenitors of
the Baba and Nyonyas (CinaPeranakan: people of
mixed Malay and Chinese descent). Chinese and
Indian (Tamil) coolies were taken to the Dutch
plantations in East Sumatra from Penang. Chong Ah
Fie of Medan and Cheong Fat Tze of Penang were
related, as is the case with many of the CinaPeranakan
in Penang with the CinaPeranakan in Medan. The
present chief minister of Penang, Tan Sri Koh Su
Koon, himself grew up and was educated in Medan.

THE JAPANESE COMMUNITY IN
MALAYA BEFORE THE PACIFIC WAR :

ITS GENESIS AND GROWTH

Genesis and Growth

Even before Japan withdrew from the rest of the world
into its cocooned era of isolation (1636-1868) its early contacts
with Malaya were inconspicuous and inconsequential. From
the period of the Ashikaga Shogunate (1338-1573) which
fostered a flourishing foreign trade to 1636 when Tokugawa
Iemitsu severed relations with the outside world (apart from
allowing a Dutch foothold at Deshima in Nagasaki), there was
little intercourse between the two countries. Japan's trade with
the Malay peninsula as carried out by middlemen, traders from
the Ryukyu Islands who called annually at Malacca where they
exchanged the produce of Japan and China for the
merchandise of the cosmopolitan port. During the first decades
of the seventeenth century when Japanese activities abroad
expanded rapidly, there was direct and official contact with the
peninsula but this was limited to an occasional visit by a
goshuin-sen4 to Malacca. Individual traders and merchant
adventurers also found their way to this part of the world but
not many were drawn to the Malay peninsula. Sizeable
communities of Japanese settlers were found in neighbouring
countries like Luzon, Siam, and Indochina but no such
settlements were found in Malaya.

LEARNING
UNIT 9

ORANG
ASLI

ORIGINS

The Orang Asli, literally known as the “Orang Asli”,
are descendants of the earliest known inhabitants of
the Malay Peninsula, arriving at the peninsula as early

as 25,000 years ago.

In other words, the Orang Asli lived long ago in West
Malaysia before the arrival of other groups – Malays,

Chinese, and Indians.

WHO ARE THE ORANG ASLI?

Subgroup Location

Negrito (Semang) Northeast Kedah
Kensiu Kedah-Perak Border
Kintak Northeast Perak and West Kelantan
Jahai North Central Perak
Lanoh Southeast Kelantan
Mendriq Northeast Pahang and South Kelantan
Batek
Senoi Northwest Pahang and South Perak
Semai North Perak and South Kelantan
Temiar Central Pahang
Jah Hut Central Pahang
Chewong Coastal Selangor
Mah Meri South Central Pahang
Semoq Beri
Aboriginal (Proto) Malay Selangor and Negeri Sembilan
Temuan Central Pahang and East Negeri
Semelai Sembilan
South Pahang and North Johor
Jakun East Johor
Orang Kanaq West and South Coasts of Johor
Orang Kuala West and South Coasts of Johor
Orang Seletar

➢ Origin (Linguistically)
• Senoi and Negrito (northern Orang Asli group)
• Mon-Khmer or Austroasiatic language family
• Propose historical links with Burmese, Thai and Indo-
Chinese natives

➢ Orang Asli Malay (south)
– Dialect belongs to the Austronesian family from the
language as Malay
– Except Semelai and Temoq Dialect – Austroasiatic!

Before WW2

• Proto-Malay – a close relationship with the
Malays for hundreds of years

• There is evidence to suggest that many modern
Malays have several Blood Proto Malays

• Many Proto-Malays have been assimilated into
the Malay community – many have entered Islam

• This does not mean that Semai and Negrito have
no contact with other communities at all.

• There is plenty of evidence to propose that
mainly Senoi obtained commodities such as salt,
forest knives (machetes) and head metal axes by
selling or changing forest produce in the form of
rattan, jelutong, bamboo and other items.

• During this period until the early 20th century,
the Malays relied on the Orang Asli as their basis
for forest products such as rattan, damar, gutta
percha and sandals for international trade
(Andaya, 2008: 204).

Occupation of Japan

• Des1941 – Feb 1942: Japanese invaders swept from Kota
Bharu in the north to Singapore

• Many individuals and organizations take refuge in hill
and forest areas.

— E.g. European tin miners, colonial administrators,
rubber plantation managers and in some cases, their
female relationships.

— Members of Chinese armed political organizations and
gang bandits, Communist Party of Malaya (CPM),
Kuomintang or Chinese National Party (KMT)

—The friendly relations made by many Chinese with the
Orang Asli before the war became invaluable during the
occupation

—Forest societies are also targets of Communist
propaganda, which is very effective coming from men
they trust and who they've known for years.

— MPAJA members carefully foster friendship with the
Orang Asli, and even they go so far as to protect the forest
community from bandit and Japanese attacks – military.

— In return, the Orang Asli helped the Communist forces
by providing coolies, guides, food, and intelligence about
the Japanese movement if the latter should venture into the
deep forest.

LEARNING
UNIT 10

MALAYSIAN
WOMAN’S
MOVEMENT

1. Unknown Story

Historical emphasis on men = women ignored
A question of social prejudice and age-old
discrimination; patriarchy in society
Women viewed as housewives, mothers,
daughters, homemakers, emotionally fragile,
gentle, caring, sweet, pretty, etc.etc. = not history
material
Reality = Women making history (herstory) but
much undocumented

2. Early Emancipation/Colonial period

Early 1900s: Educational Reform to meet
needs of modernising colonial economy
Growing bureaucracy and private-sector
needed trained and Westernised local elites
Formal schooling for girls is important
because girls from upper classes made good
wives for local elites
Early 20th Century Arab reform movements
also influenced local education (promoted
women’s education, legal reforms, rights of
women to work and end to veiling of women)
Main purpose is not to undermine women’s
traditional role, not to encourage
participation in public life but to make
women more efficient housekeepers

3. Impact of Education in Early Malaya/Malaysia

Malay women became teachers and many got
involved in women’s organisations
Chinese women got involved in political movements
reflecting situation in China, joined nationalist
(KMT) and communist movements (CPM) (e.g. Li
Qiu, Lin Guan Yin)
Indian women – joined Indian Independence

Movement led by Chandra Subha Bose (Rani of Jhansi
Regiment, Indian National Army, eg. Rasammah Bhupalan,
Janaki Athi Nahappan)

4. MWM: Non-Mainstream (Violence Against
Women Campaign)

As malaysian developed, increasing awareness of
feminism, sexual oppression, and VAW
1982: Women’s Aid Organisation (WAO) – deal
with problems of battered women and domestic
violence
1985: 5 women’s groups came together to
highlight and campaign on stopping VAW –
formed the Joint Action Group Against Violence
Against Women (JAG)

LEARNING
UNIT 11

POLITICS OF
THE LEFT/
LABOUR
MOVEMENT

A. Conflicting ideologies and
approaches between the old and the

young

• The elderly do not like the ideas
and innovations brought by the young.

• The elderly only emphasize fard
ayn and consider Islam to be related to
the hereafter only.

• Young people, on the other hand,
are of the view that the Malays must
adhere to the true teachings of Islam if
they want to progress in the economic,
political, and social fields.

B. The left during the Japanese occupation

❖ Japanese Invasion 1942
❖ Released all KMM’s leaders but only after

the Japanese had dissolved KMM.
❖ The Japanese also did not have any

intention to give independence to Malaya.
❖ On the other hands, the idea of

independence never faded away from the
ex-KMM leader’s goal.
❖ Owing to this, Ibrahim Yaacob and his

other friends ostensibly cooperated with

the Japanese and at the same time support

the MCP movements against the Japanese.
❖ In order to overthrow the Japanese, the

MCP had formed the Malayan People’s

Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA).
❖ The British supported this movement.
❖ Several regiments was formed under

MPAJA.
❖ Pasukan Pembela Tanah Air (PETA)

which was formed by Ibrahim Yaacob

continued their cooperation with the MCP.
❖ In conclusion – the cooperation between

both groups started cooperation

betweenthe races in Malaya - common

goals.
❖ Unfortunately, the Bintang Tiga Episode

(racial violence) in 1945 derailed good

ethnic relations in Malaya.
❖ However after the war, some Malay leaders

began to work closely with nonMalay

leaders to achieve common goals.

C. The Formation of labour Movements

PUTERA-AMCJA gained support from the
labour movements but also from the
Chinese Chamber of Commerce (CCC)
PUTERA-AMCJA continued their struggle
by organising a hartal – first in Kelang dan
Malacca.
Emboldened by success - PUTERA-
AMCJA decided to launch a country-wide
strike
All Malaya Hartal, on October 20, 1947 to
coincide with the opening of the session of
the British Parliament where the Federation
of Malaya’s agreement were to be tabled
and debated.
This situation challenged British authority
Britain took several measures to counter
Left Movement and Labour opposition to
Federation of Malaya and demands for
better working conditions.
To control trade unions, the Societies
Ordinance and Banishment Ordinance were
re-imposed.
Finally Emergency declared after three
estate managers were shot dead in Perak.
Internal Security Act enacted 1948.
Thousands of labour activists and political
party members detained – many without
trial.

LEARNING
UNIT 12

SECRET
SOCIETIES

✓ Secret societies have been a global the phenomenon
for a long time.

✓ This is not a new phenomenon; it has a long history.

✓ Hidden societies (Secret Societies) are a persistent
pattern of relationships that link participants in
similar secret activities, either directly or indirectly.
B.H. Erickson (B. H. Erickson) Non-members are
usually kept in the dark about secret societies rituals
and activities. Some engage in criminal activity
such as drug/human trafficking, smuggling,
kidnapping, and prostitution.

WHO INVOLVED?

➢Only a few people have access to it. Objectives

and common interests, the formation of personal
relationships among members of the organization,
as well as the employment of secret rites or rituals
to bind them together. Some people have their own
code of conduct, which can be written or spoken.

IDEOLOGY OF SECRET SOCIETIES
- Secret societies have an ideology that bound

the members to a common cause. Brotherhood,
mutual & rituals aid, rituals and of the
aspects of secret society ideology.

PROBLEMS OF THE MUSLIM
COMMUNITY

- The Muslims in Penang have been divided
because

of rivalry between the Islamic leaders.

CONCEPTS

Concept 1 : social networking terms – this refers to the
relationship between societies to stay in touch with each

other.

Concept 2 : nationalism – this refers to the spirit of
community groups to defend their country from being

oppressed.

Concept 3 : personal bonds – this refers to the personal
relationship between two person in an organization.

THEORY

Theory 1 : Malay rulers often fought among themselves.
The war among the governments made them weak. They are

easily dominated by foreign powers to ensure that
imperialism goes smoothly.

Theory 2 : No discussion with the Malay rulers. This
indicated that the colonialists did not respect the Malay
rulers. Every decision made without hearing the voice of

Malays rulers.

LEARNING
UNIT 13

MALAYSIA
STUDENTS
MOVEMENT

Introduction.

The student movement was a new social
force to bring awareness and struggle on
politics, economic and social change.
Student movements nurtured in every
country.
Several names such as Red Guard
(China), New Left (Canada), Students
for a Democratic Society (USA);
Sumpah Pemuda (Indonesia), National
Union of Students, Radical Student
Movement (UK) etc. Were names given
to student movements.
Consist of young, fresh and energetic
students - pressure groups to oversee the
government’s role and its policy.
Exposition of their learning and
condition of people’s lives encouraged
students to champion local and
international issues.
Educational institutions as places of
meeting would unite different
backgrounds of students with same ideas
and same struggles

The formative years.

➢Student movements in Malaysia can be

traced back to the influence of Islamic
movements in Middle East and South
Asia.

➢Foreign students and the reform

influence of Pan Islamic movements led
Malay students to organize themselves
in student organizations.

➢Malay and Indonesian students formed

several welfare and Islamic
associations such as Jami’ah Al-
Khairiah (Egypt), Talabah Indonesia
Malaya Association (Saudi Arabia) and
Indonesia-Malaya Association (India).

Indonesia’s influence

➢The Indonesia’s influence upon Malay

student movements was quite profound
– 1930s.

➢Books and magazines imported from

Indonesia as reading material to college
students in the Sultan Idris Training
College (SITC).

➢Therefore, embedded Indonesian

nationalist ideas among SITC students.

The SITC

❖ SITC - produced many nationalist students
such as Ibrahim Ya’akub.

❖ Ibrahim received lots of influence from the

student movements and nationalist

movements of Indonesia.
❖ The Sumpah Pemuda Indonesia became

encouragement for Ibrahim to organize the

student movements in SITC.
❖ Ibrahim supported the idea of “Indonesia

Raya” and wanted to unite students in

unified organization.
❖ This idea began to materialize by

formation of Young Student’s Alliance

(Ikatan Pemuda Pelajar) and

PeninsulaBorneo Students Alliance (Ikatan

Pelajar Semenanjung Borneo).
❖ The formation of these oraginzation led to

emerging of Kesatuan Melayu Muda

(KMM) nationally.
❖ KMM became new vehicle for the young

Malay to struggle against the British but

later was banned by the Japanese as well.

UMSU

The University of Malaya Students
Union (UMSU)
University of Malaya Malay language
Society (PBMUM)
The Socialist Club (SC)
Three key new organizations which
organized the student movement in
Malaysia
In UM, the students tried to became
more independent and wanted more
autonomy.
Therefore any control by authorities
(Suitability Certificate 1964) was
protested
UMSU had its own newspaper –
Mahasiswa Negara -, own bus and
canteen.
In 1966, Speaker’s Corner was
introduced.

Telok Gong, Selangor.

Persistent poverty despite independence.
Issue exploded after Hamid Tuah
opened up land in Teluk Gong,
Selangor.
They tilled the land and built houses.
Government reaction – destroyed the
crops and demolished the houses.
Hamid Tuan and several followers were
arrested.
The students denounced the government
action.
The students had demonstration in front
of The Selangor State Building and
demanded the release of Hamid Tuah.
The student also collected money and
clothes to be donated to the landless
peasants in Teluk Gong.

Election 1969.

Student movement was involved in 1969 election but not as
electoral candidates
Instead, voiced out their thought from politics, economics to
social issues.
They released their own manifesto and had road tour in 13
parliamentary seats (9 of the seats fall to opposition).
They urged people to vote for candidates who supported
their manifesto.

The government strikes back.

In order to control the students, the government introduced
the University And University College Act, 1971.
This brought protests and demonstrations by students.
Demonstrations led to clashes between students and the
police
Many student leaders were arrested.

International issues.

Students were also involved in international issues.
Demonstration against the Soviet Union’s invasion on
Czechoslovakia (1968).
Support for the Pattani Liberation Movement Persatuan
Mahasiswa Islam Universiti Malaya (PMIUM) - demo
against visiting Thai Prime Minister – Thanom Kittikachorn
(June 1971).
Arab-Israel conflict (1973), Malaysian students opposed US
Govt’s support for Israel.
Demonstration was organized on 13 and 16 October.
Lincoln Cultural Center targeted by the students.

The government responds.

ISA detentions – student leaders - Anwar Ibrahim, Idris
Sanusi and Ibrahim Ali.
Hishamuddin Rais fled overseas.
UUCA was amended – made harsher.
All student organizations were dissolved.

The Student Representative Councils (SPC) was reconstituted -
little power and freedom.

To look after the student affairs – Student Affairs
Department (Bahagian Hal-Ehwal Pelajar) was set up.