COUNSELLING & GUIDANCE ASSIGNMENT

7/29/2021 EKLAS

CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT 1 (CA1) SLIP

 

Matric No. 012021071708 Cohort : 202107(05)BES(B3)-N1 IC No. : 981009075748
Program Session : Jul 2021
Name BES (Bachelor in Education (Science) (Honours))

NASYITAH BINTI RAJU MOHAMMAD

Subject Subject Description Credit Hour CA Type CA Submission / Test / Exam Date
Code Counselling and Guidance
Start End
ECG20103
ASSIGNMENT 05 Jul 2021 22 Aug 2021
3 ASSIGNMENT
05 Jul 2021 22 Aug 2021
PROJECT
PROJECT 05 Jul 2021 22 Aug 2021
ASSIGNMENT
3 ASSIGNMENT 05 Jul 2021 22 Aug 2021
PROJECT
EED20103 Philosophy of Education PROJECT 05 Jul 2021 22 Aug 2021
PROJECT
3 PROJECT 05 Jul 2021 22 Aug 2021
ASSIGNMENT
ASSIGNMENT 05 Jul 2021 22 Aug 2021
Status: ACTIVE
05 Jul 2021 22 Aug 2021

EHS20103 Health Science 05 Jul 2021 22 Aug 2021

05 Jul 2021 22 Aug 2021

05 Jul 2021 22 Aug 2021

05 Jul 2021 22 Aug 2021

Total Number Of Subject Taken:  3 Total Credit Hour: 9 

Printed Date : July 29, 2021 (Thursday) 04:27 PM 
Printed By    : 012021071708 

Management & Science University 
University Drive, Off Persiaran Olahraga 
Section 13, 40100 Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan 

https://eklas.msu.edu.my/app/main_page.php 1/1

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

JULY 2021

ASSIGNMENT

SUBJECT/CODE: ECG20103

NAME OF SUBJECT: COUNSELLING AND GUIDANCE

NAME OF GROUP MEMBERS:

NO NAME MATRIC NO PROGRAM PHOTO

1. Nasyitah Raju 012021071708 BES

2. Tharshini 012021071761 BEVA

Mahenthiran

3. Muhammad Zul 012021071932 BTESL
BTESL
Faizi Bin Ab
Munif

4. Parimalathevi 012021071780

Palanisamy

5. Nur Alfeeza 012021070559 BES

Alfilyna Binti
Abd Rahman

LECTURER: MADAM SHABINA REHMAN
DATE OF SUBMISSION: 25 JULY 2021

The History of Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner was an American psychologist best-known for his influence
on behaviourism. Skinner referred to his own philosophy as 'radical behaviourism' and
suggested that the concept of free was simply an illusion. All human actions, he instead
believed, was the direct result of conditioning.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born on March 20, 1904, in the small town of
Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, where he also grew up. His father was a lawyer and his mother
stayed home to care for Skinner and his younger brother. At an early age, Skinner showed an
interest in building different gadgets and devices. As a student at Hamilton College, B.F.
Skinner developed a passion for writing. After earning his undergraduate degree he decided
to become a writer, a period of his life that he would later refer to as the "dark year." During
this time he wrote only a dozen short newspaper articles and quickly grew disillusioned with
his literary talents, despite receiving some encouragement and mentorship from the famed
poet Robert Frost.

While working as a clerk at a bookstore, Skinner happened upon the works of Pavlov
and Watson, which became a turning point in his life and career. Inspired by these works,
Skinner decided to abandon his career as a novelist and two years later, Skinner decided to
pursue a new direction for his life. He enrolled at Harvard University to study psychology.
After receiving his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1931, Skinner continued to work at the university

for the next five years. During this period of time, he continued his research on operant
behaviour and operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning was first described by behaviourist B.F. Skinner, which is also
referred as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviourist, Skinner believed that it was not really
necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behaviour. Instead,
he suggested we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behaviour.

Early behaviorists focused their interests on associative learning. Skinner was more
interested in how the consequences of people's actions influenced their behaviour.

His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Edward Thorndike, who
had proposed what he called the law of effect. According to this principle, actions that are
followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by
undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Operant conditioning depends on a fairly simple thesis, actions that are followed by
reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. If you tell a
funny story in class and everybody laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that story
again in the future. If you raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher praises your
polite behaviour, you will be more likely to raise your hand the next time you have a question
or comment. Because the behaviour was followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome,
the preceding action is strengthened.

In opposite, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be
weakened and less likely to occur again in the future. If you tell the same story again in
another class but nobody laughs this time, you will be less likely to repeat the story again in
the future. If you shout out an answer in class and your teacher scolds you, then you might be
less likely to interrupt the class again.

Theoretical Assumptions B.F. Skinner

In 1930, Skinner conducted several studies on the behaviour of organisms and
summarized the information obtained from those studies into a famous book entitled The
Behaviour of Organisms (1938). Skinner has applied most of the theories he finds in the
problems facing human beings. The two basic assumptions of Skinners theory are human
behaviour follows certain laws and causes of human behaviour are outside the person, and
these can be observed and studied. Behaviourism theory can be divided into two types,
namely classical conditioning theory and operant conditioning theory.

Respondent and Operant Behaviour Skinner introduces two types of behaviour, namely
respondent behaviour and operant behaviour. Respondent behaviour is behaviour evoked by a
known stimulus. Since this behaviour is provoked by an unconventional stimulus, the
organism will produce an unconventional response. For example, all reflex movements
produced by an organism such as a person will produce saliva when there is tasty food in
front of him. Operant behaviour is behaviour that is not caused by known stimuli but
performed by the organism itself. Since operant behaviour is initially unrelated to the
prevalent stimulus, the behaviour will occur spontaneously. For example, the act of
whistling, stand up then walk and move your arms and legs at will. In short, all the daily
activities we do are operant behaviours. It is important to know that the stimuli that result in
the level of operant behaviour are unknown and we do not need to be aware of the cause or
causal factors of such behaviour. Operational behaviour is also controlled by behavioural
effects while respondent behaviour occurs is dependent on unconventional stimuli. Type S
and Type R Conditioning There are two types of conditioning, namely type S and type R
conditioning. Type S conditioning is also known as respondent conditioning and this is the
same as classical conditioning. Conditioning is known as type S because it emphasizes the
importance of the stimulus in eliciting the desired response. Conditioning that involves
operant behaviour is type R conditioning which emphasizes only the behavioural response
itself. Type R conditioning is also called operant conditioning. The strength of type S
conditioning is dependent on the influence of an unusual stimulus while for type R
conditioning it is indicated by the level of response.

Principles of Operant Conditioning There are two general principles in operant
conditioning. Among them are all the reactions or responses that are followed by
reinforcement that is one of the stimuli can encourage something that is desired to be
repeated. The presence of a reinforcement stimulus can increase the probability of the
occurrence of a desired response. The principle of operant conditioning can occur in a variety
of situations. When a desired behaviour occurs, stimuli such as positive reinforcement that is
a reward should be given at an immediate rate. This action ensures that the behaviour can be
repeated in the future. Key Concepts of Operant Conditioning Theory There are several
concepts that are often found when talking about operant conditioning including
reinforcement, punishment or punishment, response formation (shaping), generalization,
discrimination, premask principle and so on. Reinforcement (Reinforcement) Reinforcement
is a thing done to encourage a behaviour to be repeated. According to Skinner, reinforcement
is a stimulus that will increase the chances of repeating a particular operant behaviour when a
behaviour or response produced is satisfactory. Appropriate stimuli will be given as soon as
the desired operant behaviour exists. According to Raclin (1991), reinforcement is given to
firstly satisfy desires, secondly reduce stress and stimulate the brain.

Reinforcement can be divided into two types, namely positive and negative
reinforcement. Positive reinforcement Positive reinforcement is a reward given after the
appropriate behaviour is demonstrated. “Positive reinforcements (rewards) can be a very
powerful way of managing children's behaviour. This positive reinforcement given will cause
the treatment to be repeated and reinforced. When an operant response is followed by a
positive reinforcement, then the probability of an operant response or desired response will
occur more frequently. This positive reinforcement acts as a motivation or reward that
encourages the individual to repeat the operant response. In addition, positive reinforcement
is also a stimulus that can increase the probability of an appropriate and desired operant
behaviour occurring. Examples of positive reinforcement are giving praise, appreciation, gifts,
in terms of behaviour for instance, a smile, nodding to to agree, applause and any things of a
positive nature that will cause the desired operant behaviour to occur.

According to Brophy (1981), the characteristics of effective praise are sincere praise,
quick praise, praise of specific behaviours, praise of effort and success, praise without
favouritism and praise of spontaneous answers or responses. In short, it is said that giving
positive reinforcement is very important in motivating students to do something right and in
turn be able to produce high quality work. Negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement is

a stimulus that is transferred or removed intended to increase the likelihood of a reaction
occurring or reinforce a positive behaviour. For example, drive away a student who makes
noise in class to add opportunities for other students to be able to continue their learning
sessions without interruption. Negative reinforcement can also be described as an act that
hurts or avoids an individual because of his or her inappropriate or unpleasant operant
behaviour. For example, mocking an individual’s mistakes in public. This uncomfortable
stimulus such as, negative reinforcement can be avoided by creating the right or desired
behaviour. For example, a teacher often scolds her students (uncomfortable stimuli or stimuli)
for always not completing a given school work. The student will complete his school work
(correct behaviour) to avoid being scolded by his teacher.

Therefore, the action of the student who completes the school work has removed the
stimulus. The negative reinforcement that he does not want his teacher’s lethargy. Both types
of reinforcement are used to reinforce the desired operant behaviour. In all operant situations,
every unexpected individual behaviour that exists will be followed by reinforcement either
positively or negatively. Through this reinforcement, it is hoped that the probability of an
appropriate and desired operant behaviour will increase. Examples of negative reinforcement
are not giving appreciation or praise, giving extra work and also showing unpleasant
behaviours such as shaking the head, showing a disappointed face and so on. Both types of
reinforcement are used to reinforce the desired operant behaviour.

In all operant situations, every unexpected individual behaviour that exists will be
followed by reinforcement either positively or negatively. Through this reinforcement, it is
hoped that the probability of an appropriate and desired operant behaviour will
increase. Examples of negative reinforcement are not giving appreciation or praise, giving
extra work and also showing unpleasant behaviours such as shaking the head, showing a
disappointed face and so on. Both types of reinforcement are used to reinforce the desired
operant behaviour. In all operant situations, every unexpected individual behaviour that exists
will be followed by reinforcement either positively or negatively. Through this reinforcement,
it is hoped that the probability of an appropriate and desired operant behaviour will increase.

Examples of negative reinforcement are not giving appreciation or praise, giving extra
work and also showing unpleasant behaviours such as shaking the head, showing a
disappointed face and so on. it is expected that the probability of an appropriate and desired
operant behaviour will increase. Examples of negative reinforcement are not giving

appreciation or praise, giving extra work and also showing unpleasant behaviours such as
shaking the head, showing a disappointed face and so on. it is expected that the probability of
an appropriate and desired operant behaviour will increase. Examples of negative
reinforcement are not giving appreciation or praise, giving extra work and also showing
unpleasant behaviours such as shaking the head, showing a disappointed face and so on.

According to Skinner's definition, punishment is a procedure in which responses are)
the removal of a positive reinforcer. Punishment's aim is to actually decrease the frequency of
a response/behavior by the application of an aversive stimulus after the behavior has occurred.

Techniques or Skills Used In Theory

B.F Skinner’s theory is based on operant conditioning. Skinner used the term operant
to refer to any "active action that operates in the environment to produce consequences".
Skinner's theory explains how we obtain a series of learning behaviors that we exhibit every
day.

In his operant conditioning experiments, Skinner often uses a method called shapping.
When shapping, we not only reward the target behavior, but reward the continuous approach
of the target behavior. There are several skills used in this theory.

First is, reinforcement. Reinforcement is an event that strengthens or increases the
behavior that follows. There are two types of reinforcement; positive and negative
reinforcement. In operant conditioning, positive reinforcement aims to increase the desired
behavior by adding beneficial stimuli immediately after the behavior occurs. This is
rewarding someone for what they did, and this reward will encourage them to do it again.
Reinforcement stimulus is a positive reinforcement. A positive reinforcement is something
that a person usually likes or likes, so it can motivate them to repeat the target behavior.
Positive reinforcement increases an individual’s tendency to adopt a new practice over time.
For instance, a parent gives a teenager more privilege for getting good grades.

Next is, negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is a method that can be used
to help teach specific behaviors. With negative reinforcement, something uncomfortable or
unpleasant is taken away in response to a stimulus. Over time, the target behavior should
increase with the expectation that the unpleasant thing will be taken away. Teachers can use
negative reinforcement to motivate students and change their behavior. For example, a
teacher can eliminate that night's homework if the student study hard and accomplish a lot in
class. If this happens multiple times, the student will consistently work harder and be more
productive while in the classroom.

Then, punishment in operant conditioning. Punishment is the presentation of an
adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behaviour it follows. There are two
kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behaviour decreases or weakened. Positive
punishment sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavourable
event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. When a child is eating in the

class, which is against the rules and the teacher disciplining them in front of the class. The
child then stops eating in the class. This is the example of positive punishment.

Meanwhile, negative punishment also known as punishment by removal, occurs when
a favourable event or outcome is removed after a behaviour occurs because negative
punishment procedures decreases the likelihood of the behavior occurring again by removing
a stimulus, the stimulus must be pleasant or essential. For instance, a student answers his
phone in the classroom which is interrupting the teacher or disrespect the teacher. The teacher
takes away his phone for the rest of the day. Here, the teacher is hoping that by taking away
the phone as punishment, the teenager will not answer his phone in class again. This is
because they do not want the repeat punishment of losing their phone.

In a nutshell, operant conditioning theory can be used to change anyones behavior. By
using positive or negative reinforcement, we can encourage or prevent a certain trait we want.
Using this theory proposed by Skinner, we can shape behavior.

Application of Theory to Resolve Client’s Problems

Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a learning approach
credited to B.F. Skinner in which the consequences of a response affect the likelihood of that
action being repeated. Using operant conditioning, behavior that is reinforced is more likely
to be repeated, whereas conduct that is penalized is less likely to occur. This concept states
that conduct those results in pleasant outcomes is more likely to be repeated, whereas action
that results in painful consequences is less likely to be repeated. Skinner used the word
"reinforcement" to describe a new concept in the Law of Effect. Reinforced behavior is more
likely to be repeated, whereas non-reinforced behavior is more likely to fade away.

Skinner’s operant conditioning is the concept that behavior is determined by its
consequences, whether they be rewards or penalties, which increase or decrease the
likelihood of the action occurring again. Skinner felt that studying actions, rather than
internal mental processes, was the sole scientific method to psychology.

Application of theory
1) Negative Reinforcement

 The removal of something that the students do not desire is an example of negative
reinforcement. During class, you will see that pupils are willing to provide answers.
“Your involvement throughout this session was fantastic!” you may say at the end of
the lesson. “There will be no homework!” Homework is something that most
students would want to avoid (negative reinforcer). They discover that if they
actively participate in class, the instructor is less likely to give homework.

2) Negative Punishment
 When you tell your youngster to tidy his room, he does not. You decide to strip him
of his favourite gadget (negative punishment – restriction of a positive reinforcer).
He begins to cleaning. You ask him to tidy his room a few days later, but he refuses

until you threaten to take away his gadget. He cleans his room since he does not like
your threat.

3) Positive Reinforcement
 Workers are frequently provided incentives and bonuses (positive reinforcement) in
exchange for meeting their objectives on time or for showing up on a regular basis. It
motivates employees to work more so that they may continue to get bonuses and
incentives.

The promise or potential of rewards generates an increase in behavior in several of
these cases. The removal of a favourable outcome or the application of a bad consequence
may also be utilized to reduce a behaviour through operant conditioning. In the learning and
behaviour modification process, operant conditioning is still a significant and often utilized
method. Natural consequences might sometimes cause us to modify our ways. In certain
cases, incentives and punishments are intentionally provided in order to improve outcomes.
Consider which form of reinforcement or punishment would be most effective in your
circumstances, and which reinforcement schedule would produce the best outcomes.

Criticisms

B.F. Skinner’s views on behavior have drawn criticism from many who are offended
by his mechanical concept of human nature. B.F. Skinner gets more ridicule from critics
because he expresses social control derived from the principle of operant behavior. B. F.
Skinner was constantly under attack by the enemy, criticizing his views and trying to prove in
any way possible that his ideas were flawed.

We have gathered two major criticism regarding B.F. Skinner. The two major criticism
are failure to show adequate generalization in human behavior and unable to explain the
development of human languages.

1) Failure to show adequate generalization in human behaviour;
 Even though a lot of experiments have been executed that show evidence of operant
conditioning, most of the experiments are based on animals and their behaviorism.
Once K. Boulding questioned Skinner’s implementation of the principles of animal
behaviorism to the more complex human behaviorism. In using animals as human
substitutes in exploring human behavior, B.F. Skinner makes the best assumption
that animal behavior can be applied to describe human behaviourism in the human
world. But, if this assumption is proven to be wrong, then the entire track of
behaviorism will fall apart. And it been said that B.F Skinner needs to perform more
experiments with human than animals to prove the validity of his theory.

2) Unable to explain the development of human languages;
 Although B.F. Skinner’s suggestions on operant conditioning are able to explain
phobias and neurosis, but they are very much lacking in applying to the complex
human behavior of languages and memories. The theory unable to elaborate the
language phenomenon, because of this a large number of critics to dismiss the theory.
Even after B.F. Skinner has replied and explained to the criticisms, his point of view

and arguments remain weak and he was unable to prove it. Whereby people
objective stimuli act as operational stimuli for the verbal responses, concepts such as
“I’m hungry” was unable to explain. Therefore, B.F Skinner explained his four point
of view why he suggested this theory even though public were unable to verbally
response, but still his points were weak.

Conclusion

From this studies, we came to a conclusion that B.F Skinner was an American
psychologist best-known for his influence on behaviourism. After finishing his doctorate
degree and working as a researcher at Harvard, Skinner published the results of his operant
conditioning experiments in The Behavior of Organisms (1938). His work drew comparisons
to Ivan Pavlov, but Skinner's work involved learned responses to an environment rather than
involuntary responses to stimuli. Skinner’s controversial approach to psychology changed the
approach to behavior modification and his methods have shaped the educational setting.

Although, B.F. Skinner was criticized for his failed experiments. He never quit his
experiments. He was able to implement the operant conditioning. Operant conditioning
theory can be used to change behavior. By either using positive or negative reinforcement, we
can be able to encourage or discourage a certain trait that we desire. By employing this theory
proposed by Skinner we would be able to shape behavior. This can be done by either
rewarding or punishing behavior. Student behavior has improved; as positive reinforcement is
applied to the learning process builds confidence and a willingness to comply. People of all
ages are able to progress at their own pace, especially students which provides and
individualized education plan.

REFERENCES

B. F. Skinner. (1998). Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved December 12, 2007,
from: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhskin.html
Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts.

Walden II and Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971). About Behaviorism (1974).
Personalities theory b.fskinner//Copyright 1998, 2006 C. George Boeree.
“Positive reinforcements (rewards) can be a very powerful way of managing children’s
bahaviour.” (Martyn, Clare, Karen, Terri & Kieron, 2011, 6pg18).
Ramlah Jantan & Mahani Razali, b.f skinner(reinforcement) 2004, pg100.
https://www.bfskinner.org/ THE B.F SKINNER FOUNDATION ARCHIEVE

Braslau-Schneck, S. (1998). Operant Conditioning. http://www.wagntrain.com/OC/#Operant.

McLeod, S. A. (2018, Jan, 21). Skinner - operant conditioning. Simply psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html

Behaviorism as a Theory of Personality: A Critical Look. Retrieved August 1998,
From:B. F. Skinner - New World Encyclopedia