Sexuality in Africa Magazine - arsrc.org

SeinxAuafrliticya ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○
MAGAZINE
VOL 2 ISSUE 1 2005

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Versions of
Masculinity

Kopano Ratele

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Male Sexuality In
The Context of
Socio-Economic
Change In Rural
And Urban East
Africa

Margrethe Silberschmidt

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Hypothesis On
The Origin Of
Hegemonic 1

Masculinity

C. Otutubikey Izugbara

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Credit: © R van Vuuren / AfriPics.com.

Published by
Africa Regional Sexuality Resource Centre, Lagos, Nigeria
Electronic copy available on website - www.arsrc.org
A project of Action Health Incorporated

Sexuality in Africa Magazine is published In This Issue
in Lagos by Africa Regional Sexuality
Resource Centre (ARSRC) and is
distributed without charge until otherwise
indicated

Sexuality in Africa

Africa Regional Sexuality Resource Centre○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

PO Box 803, Sabo-Yaba Feature
Lagos, Nigeria
3 Versions Of Masculinity

Phone : (234) 1- 7919307 Issue in Focus
Fax: (234)-1-3425470
Email: [email protected] ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○
Website: www.arsrc.org
7 Male Sexuality in The Context of Socio-
Economix Change In Rural And Urban
East Africa

Editorial Team: Region Watch○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
‘Nike O. Esiet
Dr. Richmond Tiemoko 9 It’s Hard To Be A Boy, South Africa
Arit Oku-Egbas Survey Shows

Editorial Advisory Board: ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Dr. Elias H.O. Ayiemba (East Africa) Research Notes

Mr. Kopano Ratele (Southern Africa) 11. Masculinity And Aggression In South
Ms. Petrida Ijumba (Southern Africa) Africa

Prof. Friday Okonofua (West Africa)

Stephen Kwankye (West Africa) ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

All the views expressed in this publication Viewpoint
are solely those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the ARSRC/ 13 Hypothesis On The Origin Of
Hegemonic Masculinity

2 AHI or any organisation providing support.○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Any part of this publication may be copied

or adapted for use to meet the local needs 15 Notes to Contributors
without permission from the ARSRC, pro- Guidelines for Submissions

vided that the parts copied are distributed○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

free or at no cost (not for profit) and that

the source is identified. The ARSRC would 15 About the Contributors
appreciate receiving a copy of any materi-
○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○
als in which the text is used.

ISSN 0189-7667 16 Sexuality Resources

© ARSRC 2005

1 Feature ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Versions of ○○○○○○○○○○ By Kopano Ratele,
Masculinity Professor of Psychology,
Women & Gender Studies
and Psychology
Department, Western
Cape University, South
Africa

Winning Letter not do. If you do something wrong, you 3
The letters page of the newest and will bear responsibility. Why is it not so in
Side by side with the struggles around biggest South African newspaper, the my country? Or is this democracy, the ruler
women’s gendered lives, there has also been Daily Sun, of Friday 7 January 2005, of my beloved country, right or wrong?
a build-up of work around men and boys. carries a letter by Thembinkosi-ka-
Photo by Peter Frank Mthwana from Dobsonville, Soweto. “Abortion is legalised. Gay marriage is
The letter is entitled, ‘What is happening legalised. Children are allowed to lay
to South Africa?’; this part more likely charges against their parents. Men no
to have been written not by ka-Mthwana longer rule over their families. What is up
but rather by one of the paper’s editorial with this beautiful country of mine? It is
team. getting totally out of the hand of God?
Two reasons make the letter worthy of Please God, save South Africa.”
remark. The first is the big white lettering
on a red-box background announcing: Version of Masculinity
‘This letter of the day wins R100. It is important to note that the letter
WELL DONE!’ Together with this, in expresses a version of masculinity. Being
bold letters at the bottom of the letter a man is equated with being straight and
the editor writes: imbued with God-given social power.
You certainly have raised some interesting Hence, in this man’s view, the social order
points. What do other Daily Sun readers is near collapse, a great gender and sexual
think? In the meantime please accept R100 upheaval underway.
for the winning letter of the day. To be sure, this is correct. There is such
Signal Views distress. But in a country where there
Clearly, what this communicates is that were over 50 000 reported cases of rape
in that letter are contained signal views last year and a long history of persecution
about society. Leading from this is the of homosexuals, it is not women, girls,
second reason for the noteworthiness of transgendered, gay and lesbian subjects
the letter: the articulated views and to whom the state should step up their
assumptions of the letter. In other words, protection efforts and legitimise. It is
what is it that makes this a winning letter? straight males who face wretchedness.
Rather than summarise it, and for its South Africa is lawless because (straight)
brevity, men no longer get the respect that’s
let me quote the letter in toto. theirs, homosexuals can marry, women
“Oh my lawless country! Allow me to can decide about their bodies, and only
express my views on my beloved country, prayer can help bring society back under
South Africa. This country is lawless. Other control.
countries enforce their laws whether the Given such troubles the continent faces
community is for or against them. In other as the government-sponsored ethnic-
countries everything is in order. The motivated destruction of Darfur, the
community knows what one may or may deepening poverty, the recent crisis in
Togo, and the mind-numbing rates of
HIV/AIDS in Southern Africa, it is

perhaps hard to think of much else than
trying to deal with these problems. There
seems to be little time to give thought to an
insignificant ranting letter writing man. Nevertheless, there does appear to be some

However, to leave unsurfaced the writing consensus that there is a problematic that has
below this troubling picture of the continent
would be error. to do with being a man. And the

Such ‘winning’ assumptions about gender problematisation of manhood is visible in
and sexuality as read in the newspaper are several spheres, from activism to the state and
what lie beneath the visible cultural and
political intolerance. Therefore, it needs to
be made known that there are many scholarship

organisations and individuals whose work
seek to show that doing good toward developing a body of research and
females and homosexual citizens a society programmes on masculinities. In a How the current interest is different is
can do no better for all of itself. context where sexual and gender in its focus on boys and men as a gender.
based rights still raise the heckles of In other words, the studies on men are
Signposts of Advances editors and letter-writers it is indeed distinguishable by an approach which
Some of these individuals and crucial to stress the importance of this seeks to point out that it was not simply
work showing the centrality of African people who were oppressed
organisations have in the last year alone held under colonial rule but instead that it
dialogues on and been rewarded for
showing the genderedness of different gendered and sexual politics and
aspects of society, economics, politics and practices. was African as at the same time subjects of
culture that would take up all the space given Crisis of Masculinities gender and sexual power.
In addition to differentiating between
for this article. The emergence of work around the sexes, one of the key insights from
I should still like to mention a few: (i) A masculinities in Africa follows the critical men’s studies is that each sex/
attention around the world to the gender is internally differentiated. What
conference was held at Fort Hare in July same. From different parts of the this points to is that any analysis of
2004 and aimed at providing a range of world that attention has been focused political or economic disadvantage gains
stakeholders an opportunity to exchange on what has been seen as a crisis of immeasurably from a focussing on sexual
information on gender equality in health; masculinities. The nature of the crisis and gender practices/subjectivities of
(ii) Two conferences, one on Gender & has always been unclear though, with males. The advantage in politicising
Visuality in August 2004, hosted by
University of Western Cape History some men’s movements and scholars men’s practices/subjectivities, in looking
Department and Women & Gender Studies, of masculinities arguing for restoring closely at doing masculinity, is realising
and the other the Writing African Women traditional values of manhood while their tenuous hold on and struggles
conference hosted at the same university. others posit a critical view. around the demands to be ‘the’ man.
Perhaps there is no better signpost of these There are thus varying motivations
advances and encouragement for their for the engagement with boys and But it’s been clear to anyone who is
continuance than the efforts of Wangari men’s genders. Nevertheless, there interested that for example there have
Maathai who got the 2004 Nobel Peace Prize does appear to be some consensus always been rich old gay men who are in
for leading the Green Belt Movement. The that there is a problematic that has to different position to poor young
singularity of the award was not only for do with being a man. And the bisexual men, and violent straight white
being given to the first African woman; it problematisation of manhood is urbanites in contrast to pacifist bisexual
was also in highlighting the importance of visible in several spheres, from Muslim villagers. The politics and
seeing the interwoven nature of activism to the state and scholarship. psychologies of men’s gender thus reveal
the instability of masculinities, the idea
environmental concerns, peace, and gender In scholarship the attention can be of there being vital distinctions amongst
struggles. seen across many disciplines, from men.
Men and Boys African studies to theology and In other words, when society is looked
Side by side with these struggles around history, and straddling concerns from
4 women’s gendered lives, there has also been the HIV/AIDS epidemic to at through the view of men as
a build-up of work around men and boys. sociological, psychological and transgendered, bisexual, straight, or HIV
These efforts are focussed on critiquing historical concerns. positive subjects, in addition to being
around ideas such as those contained in the poor/rich, African/American, it is
letter above, and more generally around the Critical Men’s Studies enabled to understand that masculinities
production of masculinities, as well as how Now it is important to note that change with circumstance, history and
males can be mobilised into working scholars within critical men’s studies culture, that in fact one can only talk
towards gender and sexual justice. For have noted that masculinities and about several masculinities within a
men have never been absent from society. Politicising masculinities offers
example, since 1997 when scholars gathered academic writing as they have not society to see that at any point in time
together in Durban, South Africa, to talk been from the centre of economy, there is no single idea of how to be a
about masculinities, there have been three culture and politics. They have man. Knowing that there are dominant
other conferences on the same theme: one pointed out that academics have masculinities, and alternative and
hosted by the Gender Education and traditionally had a habit of presenting subordinate ones, a challenge can then
Training Network in 2003, another at Wits the world from a male perspective be mounted.
University in 2004, and the last at Western and that gendered power has always
Cape University in 2005. been embedded in political and
To go with this, there has also been intellectual work.

2 Issue
in Focus

Male Sexuality in the ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ By Margrethe
Context of Socio- Silberschmidt, PhD,
Economic Change in Rural Associate Professor, the
and Urban East Africa Institute of Public
Health, Department of
Women and Gender
Research in Medicine,
University of
Copenhagen

Introduction with increasing burdens and 5
The AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan responsibilities [2]. In the development
A man changes his infant’s diaper. Thanks to Africa has thrust sexuality, sexual debate, though, and also in research, the
community education, men are now able to practices and sexual behaviour into the situation of men and particularly the
perform tasks once considered feminine. spotlight as a major public health issue. changes to which this situation has been
Credit: © 2003 RUINET, Courtesy of However, although sexual and subjected during the process of socio-
Photoshare reproductive health behaviour in Sub- economic development in the twentieth
Saharan Africa is drawing increasing century has been seriously neglected -
attention there is an inadequate contrary to that of women.
understanding of the structures and
processes influencing sexuality and Based on my research, this paper
sexual behaviour in general and male pursues the following arguments: Socio-
sexuality and male sexual behaviour in economic change in rural and urban East
particular 1 Africa has increasingly disempowered
Research by this author in rural and men. This has resulted in men’s lack of
urban East Africa suggests that HIV/ social value and self-esteem. With
AIDS prevention campaigns have unemployment and incapable of
missed the point by neglecting the above fulfilling social roles and expectations,
issues and concentrating their efforts on male identity and self-esteem have
the promotion of ABC (Abstinence, become increasingly linked to sexuality
Be faithful, Condom use), women’s and sexual manifestations. Multi-
empowerment and women’s ability to partnered sexual relationships and
negotiate safe sex. The need for a much sexually aggressive behaviour seem to
wider understanding of the dynamics have become essential to strengthen
of HIV/transmission, sexuality and masculinity and self-esteem. Linked to
sexual behaviour in a Sub Saharan this, this paper addresses the following
context has become increasingly crucial issue: To what extent are men in East
as a direct consequence of the escalating Africa who are faced with
HIV/AIDS epidemic [1]. marginalisation, lack of social value and
Men Disempowered disempowerment at all motivated for
Over the past three decades, it has been responsible sexual behaviour and HIV/
widely documented that socio- AIDS prevention?
economic change and breakdown of
traditional social institutions in Sub- Research
Saharan Africa have left women in a My research – mainly based on
disadvantaged and vulnerable situation qualitative interviews with both men
and women, case studies, life histories
and focus group discussions - was

carried out, first, in rural and then in
urban East Africa. Focus for the research
was on changing gender roles and Multi-partnered sexual

relations as well as sexual and relationships and sexually
reproductive health and behaviour by
men and women. aggressive behaviour seem to
Research in Kisii (Kenya) was carried have become essential to

out at different periods from the mid
1980’s to the mid 1990s [3, 4, 5]. All
interviewees belonged to the Gusii ethnic strengthen masculinity and self-
group in South-western Kenya. The vast
majority had not completed primary esteem.
education. The research in urban
Tanzania took place during a one year the state rather than the household. The increasingly aware of their important
field study (1996-97) in three low ideology of male breadwinner and positions in the household. Thus, over
income squatter areas of Dar es Salaam: household head survived, however. the past several decades, Kisii has
experienced an ongoing process of
Mabibo, Tandale and Vingunguti/ New Values socio-economic
Buguruni. The majority of interviewees Over the years new values were created fundamental
had a primary education. - meshing with old ones. Men’s transformation with escalating gender
difficulties in providing financial antagonism and domestic violence.
Findings from Kisii.
Kisii is one of Kenya’s most productive assistance to the household undermined Men’s position as heads of household is
cash and food crop regions. HIV/AIDS their social roles and their social value. challenged, and some women see men
infections are alarming with more The disappearance of cattle camps had a just as ‘figureheads’ of household.
women than men infected [6]. negative effect on bride price payment. However, land is still owned by men,
Unemployment is a serious problem, ‘Unions’ with no transfer of bride price and most men consider themselves
because land is not enough to secure increasingly substituted marriage. This farmers [5].
survival. Before colonial rule men were made women’s access to their means of Findings from Dar es Salaam
warriors, cattle herders and took active production insecure. Therefore, women About thirty percent of the sexually
part in political decisions. Cattle had to learn how to make ends meet - active population is HIV positive [6].
represented wealth and power, and without any assistance from their In the 1980’s large numbers of workers
constituted the major part of bride price. husbands. And they did. Male control lost their jobs, and thus, only a small
Through marriage a man controlled his over women weakened. fraction is employed in the formal sector.
wife’s sexual and reproductive powers. In my interviews in Kisii, recurrent Salaries, though, are far from enough to
Masculinity was closely linked to self- comments from the women were the support a family. Thus, the informal
control and dignity. following: ‘a woman is better off sector has become overcrowded with
without a husband’; ‘if only he was myriads of market vendors - men and
Men as Breadwinners
Colonial rule introduced taxation, as dead’; ‘men are so delicate; they break so women. Like in Kisii, the ideology of
men were recruited to construct railroads easily’; ‘our sons have nobody to take as men as breadwinners is forcefully alive.
and urban centres and many women a model’. Men interviewed would Stereotyped notions shared by both
were left for years to manage the farms. immediately emphasise their status as genders are that ‘a man should be the
After World War II, a shift towards head of household and right to correct head of his family’; ‘he should provide a
production of industrial goods began. (= beat) an obstinate wife. However, house (and land), pay school fees and
By the 1940’s and 50’s the household typical comments by men (and also clothes for wife and children’. Such a
had become dependent on men’s women) were that ‘men drink to drown man has social value and respect.
financial aid. Matching these changes, their problems - and they are many’, However, a majority of men suffer the
men got a new social and ideological role ‘men drink and are rude to women to same fate as those in Kisii: they cannot
- that of a breadwinner. With time, the forget that they cannot provide the fulfill expectations and withdraw from
6 colonial power’s introduction of family with blankets’. household responsibilities. Even if many

migrant work initiated a shift from men’s New Social Roles men use enormous amounts of energy
dominance and responsibility as head of The intensification of their roles and and ingenuity to get an income, it is well
household to a pattern of absent tax- responsibilities made women known that it can only feed a family for
paying men with responsibility towards a few days.
Consequently, men cannot fulfill their
breadwinning role, and men’s status as
head of household is seriously challenged.
According to men in Kisii ‘a However, when asked about their ‘status’

man needs at least three wives: in the household it was obvious to all
53 men interviewed that they were the
‘born’ head of households. That was a
one to bear his children, one to ‘God given’ fact. Just like ‘women are

work and one for pleasure’. like children and should be guided by
men’. ‘Men are the lions, and women are
the sheep’. While most men, therefore,

had a negative attitude towards women’s
activities most men and women
interviewed agreed families cannot To what extent are men willing to
survive unless women contribute let go of ‘hegemonic’ masculinities?
income. To what extent are disempowered
men in East Africa motivated for
Male Sexual Behaviour
Recurrent observations by men as well responsible sexual behaviour…?
as women interviewed were that ‘a real
man needs to demonstrate that he can
handle more than one partner’ –
especially when a man needs to strengthen
his self-esteem. According to men in
Kisii ‘a man needs at least three wives:
one to bear his children, one to work referred to and also used, in particular underline a surprising discrepancy 7
and one for pleasure’. However, most in the urban contexts, interviews also between ‘say’ and ‘do’. Men in Dar es
men had not even been able to provide clearly demonstrate that when a man has Salaam and particularly in Kampala are
a bride price for their present ‘wife’2. had intercourse with a new partner a few well aware of the HIV/AIDS threat and
times, that person is no longer a stranger, how to avoid it. Nevertheless, risk is
Hurt Pride and condom use is stopped. It is a well- seriously neglected and priority is given
According to my male and female known fact that it is extremely difficult - to pleasure and performance. Condoms,
informants ‘when husbands are crushed not to say almost impossible - for women men complain, spoil the pleasure not
down economically they suffer from (married women in particular) to only of men but also of women (and
feelings of inferiority’; ‘a man’s ego is negotiate safer sex measures – even if women agree). Moreover, condoms
hurt’. As a result, ‘men lose their vigour women in many cases have the upper reduce performance and constrain a
and women take over’. And ‘when a man hand in the household. Women man’s number of ‘goals’. The number
has lost control over his household and interviewed would all agree that to ask of goals that a man can score especially
is humiliated by his wife his pride is hurt’. the husband to use a condom – when with an extramarital partner is very
In this situation, there was general they know that he has been with other significant in order to show his strength
agreement among men interviewed that partners - would be to disclose their – and reputation.
in order to ‘build up our pride’ and disrespect too openly. It was well-known
‘boost our ego’, we men need to ‘relax’ that many nyamba ndogos gave comfort Authority Threatened
and to be ‘comforted’. Relaxation and to more than one man because the Although, the main axis of patriarchal
comfort are provided by ‘extra-marital’ financial assistance from one man was power is still the overall subordination
partners. not enough to support her household. of women and dominance of men – my
‘Outside Partners’ However, as relations with these ‘outside’ research from both Kisii and Dar es
Men as well as women also agreed that partners were considered permanent, Salaam clearly indicate that the
it is impossible for a man to stick to one condom use was not an issue. deteriorating material conditions have
partner, only. Men have a constant need seriously undermined the normative
for sex – contrary to women. ‘Outside Low Risk Assessment order of patriarchy in both Kisii and Dar
partners’ can be more or less casual Risk assessment in terms of contracting es Salaam. While men are in power
partners, more permanent partners or a STD or HIV infection is low among structurally and in theory, men have
‘nyamba ndogos’ (small houses) as they the men interviewed. A general attitude become increasingly marginalised and
were referred to in Dar es Salaam. These by men interviewed - who admitted disempowered in practice. While men do
latter partners are seen as serious threats having several partners at the same time, have a relative freedom, compared to
by ‘wives’, as husbands tend to leave and who were well aware of the risk of women, particularly in sexual matters,
whatever little income they may have to contracting HIV/AIDS – was ‘why lack of access to income earning
the nyamba ndogos and not to their own should it hit me?’ Other reasons given opportunities has made men’s role as
household. were that ‘condoms hurt a man’s ego’; heads of household and breadwinners a
Safer Sex ‘semen is valuable and should not be precarious one. Being reduced to
Even if condoms are now more widely thrown away’. ‘figureheads’ of households, men’s
Data from my current research authority has come under threat and so

has their identity and sense of self-
esteem.
Women interviewed would all Masculinities and Sexuality
agree that to ask the husband to While, on the one hand, masculinity
- almost world-wide - has increasingly
become constructed from men’s wage-
use a condom – when they know earning powers, on the other - and more
fundamentally - notions of masculinity
that he has been with other are also closely associated to male virility,
sexuality and sexual performance [7, 8,
partners - would be to disclose 9]. Men (and also women) in both Kisii

their disrespect too openly. and Dar es Salaam would certainly agree.

The same observations are made in many most men do not welcome the Weenman & B. V. Zonen.
other parts of the world [10]. traditional safe sex messages, including 3. Silberschmidt, M. (1991)
However, as has also been widely ‘sticking to one partner’. Therefore,
observed, whereas for men there is a strategies to empower women and Rethinking Men and Gender

strong correspondence between improve their deteriorating sexual and Relations. An Investigation of Men,

masculinity, sexual activity and status, this reproductive health are only meaningful Their Changing Roles Within the

is the inverse for the female system [7, if they are balanced against efforts to deal Household, and the Implications for

Gender Relations in Kisii District,
8,11]. In fact, research findings from with men’s increasingly frustrating Kenya. CDR Research Report.
both Kisii and Dar es Salaam clearly situation. This, I have argued, is a major No.16. Copenhagen.
indicate that while sexual potency gives development issue that has so far 4. Silberschmidt, M. (1992). Have
social potency, value and self-esteem to remained unnoticed both on the men become the weaker sex?
men, sexual modesty gives social value to development agenda and also in the Changing life situations in Kisii
women - but certainly not to men [5, existing efforts to ‘involve men’. District, Kenya. The Journal of
12]. Modern African Studies 30 (2) 237-
8 Men in Kisii as well as Dar es Salaam Notes 253.
1. Before the ICPD (International 5. Silberschmidt, M. (1999). Women
are clearly aware of their precarious Forget That Men Are the Masters.
position. While they might perhaps Conference on Population and Nordic Africa Institute. Stockholm:
admit this to the researcher during in Development) in Cairo, September Almquist & Wiksell International.
depth discussions - as was often the case 1994, men, their role as (responsible) 6. UNAIDS Update (2002).
– this was certainly not what they were partners and also their own sexual and 7. Cornell, R. W. (1995).
prepared to admit or even discuss with reproductive health needs had not Masculinities. Cambridge: Polity
their wives/partners. For men it was received much attention - in spite of Press
important to insist on their privileges, men’s prominent sexual and 8. Bourdieu, P. (1998). La
their position as head of household and reproductive role. The final ICPD Domination Masculine. Paris:
to demonstrate their control over document (1994), as well as Editions Seuils.
women. Many did so by using violence. documents from follow-on meetings 9. Morell, R., ed. (2001). Changing
(Cairo + 5) clearly recognise the need Men in Southern Africa. University
Consequently, with masculinity and to address and involve men, in order of Natal Press & Zed Press.
the phallus being at stake, and with men to improve women’s reproductive 10. Lindisfarne, N. (1994). Variant
benefiting from inherited definitions of health. Operational attempts, masculinities, variant virginities.
femininity and masculinity the questions though, to reach men are very few, Rethinking honour and shame. In
raised at the beginning of this article and have not yet been given high Dislocating Masculinity. Comparative
become relevant: To what extent are men priority by local governments, donor Ethnographies, ed. A. Cornwall and
willing to let go of ‘hegemonic’ agencies, NGO’s, or by researchers. N. Lindisfarne, pp. 82-96.
masculinities? To what extent are 2. In the 1970s, 33 percent of the London: Routledge.
disempowered men in East Africa households in Kisii were still 11. Ortner, S. B. and Whitehead, H.
motivated for responsible sexual polygamous (Population and (1989). Introduction: Accounting
behaviour and HIV/AIDS prevention? Development in Kenya, 1980). for sexual meanings. In Sexual
Survey findings in 1986 by this Meanings. The cultural
Conclusions author indicate that less than 10 Construction of Gender and
In order to understand men, percent lived in polygamous unions.
masculinity and sexuality in rural and
urban East Africa it has been necessary
to locate men and women within the References Sexuality, ed. S.B. Ortner and H.
complex and changing social, political 1. UNAIDS (2001). Regional Whitehead, pp. 1-27. Cambridge:
and economic systems. Men in my statistics end of 2001. Cambridge University Press.
research studies are perfectly aware that 2. Boserup, E. (1980). African 12. Silberschmidt, M. (2001).
they are in a process of losing control women in production and Dispowerment of men in rural and
household. In Presvelou, Cloi and
8 over women. In this situation, and faced Saskia Spijkers-Zwart (eds.). The urban East Africa: Implications for
with increasing demands for women’s male identity and sexual behaviour.
empowerment and rights, including World Development 29 (2), 657-
Household, Women and Agricultural
Development. Wageningen: H.
their sexual and reproductive rights, 671.

3 Region
Watch

It’s Hard To Be A Boy, South ○○○○○○○○ From
Africa Survey Shows IRINNEWS.ORG -
South Africa: Focus on
the “Burden” of
Manhood

Introduction advancement of blacks and women, examined how masculinity is
It is hard to be a boy in South embodied in affirmative action constructed and maintained in

Africa these days. A recent survey of programmes. Among black males, schools to better understand how
30 schools in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) women’s new status, coupled with deeply-held notions of masculinity
province found that, across all races, poverty and unemployment, lead to high-risk behaviour for HIV

male students and teachers reportedly fuels a sense of futility and infection among men and women.
experience uncertainty about their hopelessness. The findings were presented
role and status and a sense of
The Study [recently] at a conference on men and
displacement due to the loss of their
privileged space in society. The study by Graham Lindegger AIDS, organised in Pretoria by the
and Pamela Atwell, from the School Regional AIDS Initiative of Southern
White males feel threatened by the of Psychology at Natal University, Africa of Voluntary Services

Overseas. Activists and researchers 9
from Southern and East Africa
Boys in a classroom. Schools are institutions where “masculinities” are actively made, discussed how to enlist men in the
negotiated and regulated. Photo Credit: USAID Photo Gallery
response to the pandemic.
Troubled Manhood
Twenty years into the AIDS

pandemic, the bulk of studies and
interventions have focused on women
and girls. While a key theme has been

“men drive the epidemic”, little
funding and effort has gone into
working with men, especially young

men.
Schools being institutions where

“masculinities” are actively made,

negotiated and regulated, the KZN
study throws light on the troubled
perception of manhood in the new

South Africa.
“Men and boys carry a burden of

anxiety about being a man,” said

Lindegger.
Conflicting Views
A key finding was that both

sexual encounter among boys was

under 15 and just over 15 for girls.

The bulk of studies and interventions Nearly half of the girls and three-
have focused on women and girls. quarters of the boys were sexually
active. Risk perception, however,

While a key theme has been “men was low: 47 percent of girls and 43
percent of boys expressed no concern

drive the epidemic”, little funding and about becoming infected with HIV.
effort has gone into working with men,
According to the Southern Africa

HIV/AIDS Information

especially young men. Dissemination Service, boys in the
region start experimenting with sex

as early as aged 10 or 12, marry later
teachers and students hold varied rooted male sexuality and superiority. than women and spend more time
and conflicting views about Teachers at black township schools unmarried, experimenting with
masculinity. They are aware of in KZN reported a conflict between many sexual partners and becoming
changes in gender relations, but still traditional Zulu beliefs on vulnerable to sexually transmitted
hang on to old notions. masculinity and more Western diseases and HIV.

Among these, certain elements in notions in intellectual thought of Challenging Stereotypes
the concept of masculinity appear to sexual equality.
“ We need to challenge this
transcend racial, cultural and class HIV/AIDS
destructive concept of manhood that
boundaries. These include Noting the conflicting discourses men make all decisions, men need
heterosexuality, an “uncontrollable” about gender, the findings suggested many sex partners, men don’t feel
sex drive, multiple sexual conquests, that the dominant form of comfortable discussing our
danger and risk taking, success and masculinity was changing. However, sexuality,” said Regis Mtutu, of
responsibility, dominance and the study found “a deep level of Zimbabwe’s Men Forum Padare/
control. conservatism” in the notion of Enkudleni.

“It is difficult for boys to look at masculinity, which does not bode Padare seeks to change gender
girls as equals,” said a pupil quoted well for HIV/AIDS prevention.
stereotypes, reaching boys and men
in the study. “Teenage boys are hot On the positive side, the study in schools, pubs, sports clubs and
flesh,” said a principal. “To be a real found “some reassuring evidence” churches, where they can debate, in
man is to be a person who is not that both black and white girls act a non-threatening space, issues of
afraid to take risks,” said a teacher. more assertively and refuse to sexuality, masculinity and power.
Among white students, risk taking comply with traditional stereotypes. Participants agreed that such
centres on alcohol abuse, fast But their assertive behaviour could efforts should be grounded in a
driving, heterosexual success and provoke aggression from boys.
culture of human rights that can
breaking rules. In black township Overt sexual harassment of girls bridge cultural differences and span
schools, it includes sexual prowess, remains a problem, especially at the variety of situations men
criminal activity and violence, the township schools. Interviewees experience, for example, rural and
study said. attributed this behaviour to the need urban, old and young, heterosexual

At the same time, conscious of for boys to prove themselves in front and gay, single and married. The
10 changing patterns of masculinity, of their peers. “For boys, sex is still notions set out in the UN
teachers speak of the need to be a huge conquest thing,” said one Declaration of Human Rights
gentle and caring, to respect women teacher.
provide a common ground for the
and to accept gender equality as Similar conclusions from other complex task of renegotiating
expressed in South Africa’s Southern African countries were gendered power relations, they said.
constitution. presented at the conference.
“Besides deep changes in structures
Most white teachers said that the In Malawi, a survey among 3,000 of society, what we need is a deeply
traditional macho stereotype is students in 50 secondary schools by spiritual transformation in the
restricting and damaging, but at the Population Services International identity of men,” concluded
same time they assume a biologically reported that the mean age for a first Lindegger.

Article is culled from IRINNEWS.ORG - http://www.irinnews.org/
report.asp?ReportID=32407&SelectRegion=Southern_Africa, March 15, 2005

4 Research
Notes

Masculinity And
Aggression In South
Africa ○○○○○○○ By Russell Luyt,
University of Cape
Town, South Africa

Introduction relationship between masculinities and consistent and contradictory with
Mainstream (‘malestream’) academia has violence. Gender theorising that stresses hegemonic masculinity. In particular
by and large neglected the critical the importance of power proved useful differences emerge along social axes such
examination of men. This is certainly true – in this case Connell’s [2] often-cited as ‘race’, class, and sexuality. These
in the study of violence. Foster notes that concept of hegemonic masculinity. This differences act as the basis for
men have been disproportionately concept: contestation surrounding its definition
exposed to its ill effects either as [2]. Hegemony is therefore never total.
perpetrators or victims [1]. South “provides a way of explaining that Literature suggests that aggression and/
African history paints a vivid portrait of though a number of masculinities or violence often accompanies such
the close association between men and coexist, a particular version of contestation, where the enactment of
violence. masculinity holds sway, bestowing power either, serves as a marker of a man’s
Fortunately interest in the study of and privilege on men who espouse it and masculinity[4].
masculinity has blossomed over the last claim it as their own” [3:608].
two-and-a-half decades. Feminist This research sought to explore the
theoretical advances and the politics of Hegemonic masculinity serves to variable endorsement of hegemonic
the gay liberation movement have sustain male power both in relation to masculinity by South African men and
encouraged the development of Men’s women and subordinate masculinities. its relationship to aggression. It adopted
Studies. The current study identified with All men therefore benefit within this a constructionist perspective. Male
this development. In doing so it gender order. As such most support it aggression is not considered essential. It
attempted to problematise the despite their frequent departure from the finds perpetuation in society, in part, due
hegemonic ideal. That is to say every male to its close association with the social
incorporates elements that are both construct of masculinity. Literature also
suggests that age [5] and education [6]
are related to aggression. Accordingly 11
this research explored the core hypothesis
Young men at a local basketball pitch. Photo credit stock.xchng that: low age and education, together
with strong hegemonic masculine
approval, are predictive of high
aggression whilst high age and education,
together with weak hegemonic masculine
endorsement are predictive of low
aggression. Eight variables were initially
included in the analysis: age, education,
masculine toughness score, masculine
control score, masculine sexuality score,
total masculinity score, transformed
frequency aggression score, and
transformed duration aggression score.

Method
Stratified purposive sampling across

age and education provided a means with variance in aggression [F(3.36) = 4.62; Further avenues for research emerged.
which to isolate 432 suitable p < 0.001]. Only main effects were The discovery that ‘sexuality’ surfaced as
participants. Involvement was restricted considered in this analysis. a significant predictor of aggression
to Afrikaans, English and Xhosa speaking Two independent samples t-tests were rather than masculine ‘toughness’ or
male South Africans. Participant age conducted. The first explored the ‘control’ holds particular interest. The
ranged between 15 and 87 years old and hypothesis that men diverging in age, traditional masculine norm of ‘sexuality’
averaged approximately 37. The Male education, and their support for arguably involves processes of social
Attitude Norms Inventory-II [MANI- traditional masculinity (total masculinity categorisation to a greater extent than
II] [7] was utilised as a multi- score) would differ significantly in either ‘toughness’ or ‘control’. It is
dimensional measure of masculinity aggressive response. Comparison plausible that individual male violence
ideology. Its three sub-scales served to between mean aggression scores revealed may be encouraged through such
guide construction of a multi- significant results (t (56) = 2.40; p < processes. The relationship between
dimensional model of masculinity. This 0.01). Young, poorly educated men social categorisation and the masculine
model provided a blueprint for the who strongly supported traditional norm of ‘sexuality’, in encouraging
construction of three similar sub-scales. masculinity (M = 139.74; Valid N = aggression, should be explored further.
Principal factor analytic procedures 23) were found to aggress more readily Social dominance theory [11] may be a
(Communalities Multiple R²) rendered than older, well educated men who worthwhile conceptual tool in an
single-factor solutions in each case. Each endorsed traditional masculinity to a undertaking of this kind.
also demonstrated firm overall [Total lesser extent (M = 110.17; Valid N = The correlation result, indicating that
Scale (a = 0.90)] and individual 35). The second t-test was undertaken as men got older they increasingly
[Toughness Sub-Scale (a = 0.69); in order to explore the surprising finding supported traditional masculinity, also
Control Sub-Scale (a = 0.86); Sexuality that age was significantly positively deserves further exploration. It could be
Sub-Scale (a = 0.74)] internal reliability. correlated to the four masculine variables. argued that the highly traditionalist
An adaptation of the Buss Aggression Comparison between mean total culture among older ‘black’-African men
procedure [8] was used to assess masculinity scores also produced [12], who comprised a substantial
individual predisposition toward significant results (t (253) = -6.49; p < proportion of the entire sample (65.7%),
aggression. Buss’s original experimental 0.01). Young Xhosa men (M = 107.39; may have contributed toward this
procedure guided the construction of Valid N = 128) were found to support finding. Even so a future study
an ‘aggression machine’. Individuals were hegemonic masculinity to a significantly comparing traditional masculine
required to participate in a task in which lesser extent than older Xhosa men (M endorsement across culture and age may
they supposedly administered electric = 119.20; Valid N = 127). Post hoc prove insightful.
shocks to a research confederate. An comparisons were not conducted. An Acknowledgements
individual’s willingness to administer analysis of variance may prove interesting This paper draws on research
‘shock’ treatment served as a measure of at a later stage. undertaken under the auspices of the
their aggression. Discussion Department of Psychology at the
Results The research hypothesis was University of Cape Town. Research
Multiple correlation indicated supported. Low education and high funds were partially made available
significant relationships (a = 0.05) endorsement of traditional masculine through the University. Particular thanks
between most of the variables and by- sexuality was seen to be significantly go to Jenny Luyt for her unreserved
and-large confirmed theoretical predictive of aggression. Low age, encouragement, Gillian Finchilescu for
assumptions. However the relationship although not uniquely contributory to her statistical advice, and Don Foster for
between age and the four masculine aggression, was found to contribute his overall supervisory guidance and
variables was unexpected. That is to say meaningfully to the overall predictive support.
age was significantly positively correlated model. This model only accounted for a
12 to masculine toughness (r = 0.19), small proportion of the variance in References
control (r = 0.31), sexuality (r = 0.34), aggression. Klineberg usefully reminds 1. Foster, D. (1997). Perpetrators of
and the total scale (r = 0.34). This us “it is impossible to find a single cause
suggested that as men got older they of all forms of violence. We are dealing Gross Violations of Human Rights.
increasingly supported traditional here clearly with a multidimensional Cape Town, South Africa: Report
masculinity. phenomenon, and our understanding made to the Truth and
of it demands that we keep many facets Reconciliation Commission.
Three predictor variables were found simultaneously in mind” [9:122]. 2. Connell, R.W. (1987). Gender and
to contribute meaningfully to a Future studies should explore the
regression model accounting for contribution of additional variables in Power: Society, the Person and Sexual
aggression using the transformed predicting aggression. Nevertheless the Politics. Stanford, California:
frequency aggression score. Both the current findings are easily understood. Stanford University Press.
masculine sexuality score (Beta = 0.12; Some studies suggest that aggression 3. Morrell, R. (1998). Of boys and
p < 0.05) and education (Beta = - and/or violence plays a pivotal role in men. Journal of Southern African
0.12; p < 0.05) made a significant the lives of young disempowered males Studies, 24, 605-630.
contribution to the model. Age (Beta = [10]. With few alternatives available, 4. Breckenridge, K. (1998). The
- 0.10; p = 0.08) failed to do so despite young males adopt these behaviours, and allure of violence: Men, race and
making a useful contribution to the in so doing reinforce their status as ‘true’ masculinity on the South African
model as a whole. The overall regression men. goldmines, 1900-1950. Journal of
model accounted for 3.8 % of the Southern African Studies, 24, 669-
693.

(Continued on Pg 14)

5 Viewpoint

Hypothesis On The ○○○○○○○○○○ By C. Otutubikey
Origin Of Hegemonic Izugbara, Department of
Masculinity Sociology & Anthropology,
University of Uyo, Akwa
Ibom State,
Nigeria

Introduction this interesting book to anybody primitive construction of the form,
Often a man is asleep and it is awake, who has the penis or knows content, and role of the penis.
and many times a man is awake and it someone who does. As this book In the main, I hypothesize that
is asleep. Many times a man wants to shows, the discursive practices masculinity is a mentally created
use it, and it does not want it, many surrounding the penis have depicted ‘world’ which men are expected to
times, it wants to, and man forbids it. it as having a mind of its own and inhabit. Primitive mind identified
- Leonardo da Vinci (On the often capable of controlling its the presence of the penis as the sign
Penis) owners. Such discursive systems or symbol for including persons in
however divorce the penis from its this iconic world referent. This
The above exegesis underscores socio-cultural context and conceal world of masculinity is thus only
the historic fascination, which the processes whereby the penis and an extrapolation of the excision
surrounds the penis and its activities. its activities connect with the established by the logic of an equally
Critical reviews of history and production and sustenance of iconic sign (the penis) onto the world
mythology indicate that the human mainstream m a s c u l i n i t y. of things (onto the
penis has occupied an interesting Consequently, questions about the phenomenological world of
place in cultural history. David historic role of the penis in the social perception). It is a world seen and
Friedman’s book: A Mind of its Own: construction of masculinity are interpreted, first by our primitive
A Cultural History of the Penis [1], currently difficult to answer. relatives, through the sign -the penis.
documents the penis as a contested Hypothesis The Primitive Gaze
organ, which has fascinated people In this short formulation, I The human penis evidently
of all ages and I hereby recommend summarize my new hypothesis about attracted the intense gaze and
the origins of hegemonic wonderment of the primitive mind.
masculinity. My hypothesis At the birth of a child, primitive 13
people, like we currently do,
centralizes the penis. I posit that it carefully looked out for the presence
was in the primitive background that or absence of the penis. The penis
the penis emerged as a culturally therefore entered primitive cultural
invested and coded significatory imaginary as a powerful sign. The
element and became grafted onto a presence of the penis at birth helped
semiotic category and content primitive people to classify a
regarding how all those who possess newborn into a cultural category.
it ought to behave. This hypothesis, Those without the penis, primitive
which is fully elaborated in my man thought, must be the opposite
forthcoming book; Simulacral of those with it. The penis or its
absence in a given human body thus
Sexuality; The Primitive Mind and the became a vital signifier of a certain
Human Penis, suggests that value; and here must be where the
masculinity is actually a referent, and
thus merely simulacral; a product of

presence or absence of this i.e. the major outcomes associated value. This involves adopting a new
biological organ called the penis with penile activity and penetration gaze at the penis; that is seeing it
began to assume critical cultural centred on loss of virginity and differently from the way our exotic
significance and meaning. pregnancy thereby inscribing on the ancestors gazed at it. This new gaze
Sociologists agree that meaning is penis the power of life and death. at the penis will aim at divesting it
the making of man. The primitive Origins of Hegemony of the unmerited privileges which
site of the constitutive dialectic of Primitive articulations constituted the primitive gaze had invested in
the meaning of masculinity was the the penis and its possessors (men) it, and repositioning it as a mere part
penis. Through it, primitive people as the powerful, respect-worthy, and of the human body which can,
framed the meaning of being a man. preferred category. Persons born nevertheless, be positively and
The meaning of the penis was itself with the penis became important effectively engaged as a transitional
actualised in the identical act of objects of huge social and emotional object in intimate, responsible and
which schematising its constitutive investment, who quite early on, were respectful relationships.
features is essentially reflective. The socialized to believe that they are References
penis thus became descriptive of worth more than, and are superior 1.Friedman, D.M. (2001) A Mind
certain values upon which primitive to those persons who do not possess of Its Own: A Cultural History of the
households based the socialization the penis. This, to me, is the origin Penis. New York : The Free Press.
of their members who happened to of hegemonic masculinity; the
possess the penis. The meanings the cultural ideology which inscribes Masculinity and Aggression

(Continue from Pg 12)

primitive mind attached to the penis superiority, power, vigour, strength, 5. Turner, B.F. (1992). Gender
derived from primitive and brutality to men. Within this differences in old age in ratings of
understandings of (1) its ‘expressive schema, male dominance, genital aggression/assertiveness. Current
activities’ and (2) its ‘significative activity, penetrative heterosexual Psychology: Research and Reviews,
functions’. relation, sexual aggression, and 11, 122-127.
indifference to the voices and
Powerful Invader concerns of those who do not possess 6. Harris, M.B. & Knight-Bohnhoff,
In terms of expressive activity; the penis i.e. women, emerged as K. (1996). Gender and aggression:
that is how the penis behaves, ideal male qualities. Primitive II. Personal aggressiveness. Sex
primitive mind saw the penis as a penis-centred constructions continue Roles, 35, 27-42.
powerful staff of office, which the to dominate mainstream discourses
gods bestowed on those they liked. of masculinity. Male children are not 7. Luyt, R. (2005). The Male Attitude
The unabashed, protrusive only globally preferred but also Norms Inventory-II: A measure of
appearance of the penis combined continue to constitute a highly valued masculinity ideology in South
with its tendency to get hard, bolder, social category. Africa. Men and Masculinities,
and stronger on stimulation A New Gaze forthcoming
suggested to the primitive mind that Hegemonic masculinity is
the penis has power! Primitive mind dangerous. Empirical studies point 8. Buss, A.H. (1961). The Psychology
also thought the penis to be a to the role of the ideology of of Aggression. New York: John Wiley
powerful invader. The invasive hegemonic masculinity in the and Sons.
nature of the penis derived from development crisis and HIV/AIDS
primitive understanding of the pandemic in Sub-Saharan Africa. 9. Klineberg, O. (1981). The causes of
meaning of penetration. The liquid The ideology encourages sexual risk- violence. In J. Domenach, H.
(semen), which it emits during taking and irresponsibility among Laborit, A. Joxe, J. Galtung, D.
ejaculation, was also viewed as a sort men and prevents women from Senghaas, O. Klineberg, J.D.
of venom, which weakened women. challenging men’s sexual conduct Halloran, V.P. Shupilov, K.
It registered as a tool with which and behaviour. Hegemonic Poklewski-Koziell, R. Khan, P. Spitz,
to demobilize, invade, and disvalue masculinity is male- privileging and P. Mertens, E. Boulding (Eds.),
14 women. In this sense, the penis was, encourages men to rape women, Violence and its Causes (pp. 111-
to primitive man, a weapon, a sort 123). Paris: Unesco.
of ancient tool of competition beat them, and take decisions for
between the two sexes. Primitive them. It also explains why women 10.Mooney, K. (1998). ‘Ducktails, flick-
man actually used it to invade and conceal their sexual abuse and knives and pugnacity’: Subcultural
keep women in their place. express shame about their bodies. and hegemonic masculinities in
Primitive women, like their By depicting men’s control and South Africa, 1948-1960. Journal
‘modern’ counterparts, were not subordination of women as natural, of Southern African Studies, 24, 753-
expected to see the penis or openly this ideology makes it difficult to 774.
talk about it. This socially reinforced promote rights to choices, sexual
practice of hiding the penis was freedom, and positive, healthy, and 11.Sidanius, J. & Pratto, F. (1999).
actually part of the primitive politics respectful sexuality. This ideology
of hiding and showing a powerful frustrates positive change in sexual Social Dominance: An Intergroup
instrument of intrusion. behaviour and gender relations. To
challenge the ideology of hegemonic Theory of Social Hierarchy and
Power of Life, Death masculinity, we need to strip the Oppression. Cambridge: Cambridge
The primitive view of the penis and divest it of its primitive University Press.
significative functions of the penis 12.Carton, B. (2001). Locusts fall from
the sky: Manhood and migrancy in
KwaZulu. In R. Morrell (Ed.),

Changing Men in Southern Africa
(pp. 129-140). Pietermaritzburg,
South Africa: University of Natal
Press.

Notes to
Contributors

Guidelines for Submissions

The editors welcome submissions that have not been previously very strong views or opinion.
on the thematic focus of future published, already published Length
issues of the Magazine, as well as material may be considered Feature articles : 1,000 -1,500
other areas of sexuality, sexual depending on how relevant the words
health and rights. Themes for subject area and focus is to Research issues : 800-1,000 words
upcoming 2005 issues include: ARSRC's work. However, for Opinion articles : 400-500 words
„ Sexuality and Religion already published articles, full Photos
„ Sexuality and the Media, and details of previous publication and We welcome photos with or
„ Sexual Violence and HIV/ where to seek permission for without articles and will give
reprint must accompany the appropriate credit when photo is
AIDS article. used.
ARSRC seeks articles for We particularly welcome articles Presentation
submission which are objective, related to our thematic focus for Please submit initially, an abstract
analytical and mirror current / the following sections : with your name, contact address,
contemporary issues and debates Region Watch: Topical issues with phone number, email address and
in the areas of Sexuality, Sexual a country or sub regional focus details about yourself as you
Health and Rights in Africa. Programme Feature: best practices would wish it to appear on the
Articles should reflect a holistic from programme implementers list of contributors
/comprehensive approach to Research Notes: Focus on *****All contributors will receive
sexuality; taking sexuality relevant research and a copy of the issue in which their
discourse beyond health to methodologies contribution has been published.
incorporate broader issues of the Viewpoint: Reactions to previous
expression of sexuality without magazine issues or on a subject area
guilt, fear or ill-health. While that a reader wishes to expresses
priority would be given articles

About Contributors to this Edition 15

C. Otutubikey Izugbara is a widely published anthropologist with teaching and research interests in sexuality,
health, gender and the environment. He lectures in the Department of Sociology & Anthropology, University of
Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.
Kopano Ratele is Professor of Psychology based in Women & Gender Studies and Psychology Department at
Western Cape University, South Africa.
Margrethe Silberschmidt, PhD, is Associate Professor at the Institute of Public Health, Department of Women
and Gender Research in Medicine, University of Copenhagen. She has carried out research on gender and sexual
and reproductive health over the past 20 years in rural and urban East Africa. She is currently doing a comparative
study in low income areas in Dar es Salaam and Kampala on the ‘Construction of masculinities and how they interact
with male sexual and reproductive behaviour’. Quantitative (150 men, 50 women) and qualitative data (20 focus
group discussions, 40 in-depth interviews) have already been collected and are now in the process of being
analysed.
Russell Luyt now works in the Institute of Social Psychology at the London School of Economics. He has a
longstanding interest in gender studies and, in particular, the critical exploration of masculinities. His published
work includes exploration into masculinities and gang culture, rhetorical representations of masculinities, and
the measurement of masculinity ideology. He is currently continuing to explore the reproduction of masculinities
in South Africa.

Sexuality Resources

Men and Masculinities in Modern Africa
Editors : Lisa A. Lindsay and Stephan F. Miescher
Publisher: Heinemann, Portsmouth, 2003
ISBN: 0-325-00243-1 (Paperback)

Over the last twenty years, gender has become a major
research focus in African Studies, resulting in a surge of
rich material. Yet men have rarely been the subject of gender
research in Africa, and Africanist scholars have yet to fully
address how shifting meanings of gender have affected
African men or how the understandings and practices of
masculinity have been contested and transformed during
the colonial and postcolonial eras.

The collection examines the concepts and issues involved
in exploring African men and the constructions of
masculinity in sub-Saharan Africa.

Changing Men in Southern Africa
Editor: Robert Morrell
Publisher: University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg, 2001
ISBN: 0-86980 983 0 (Paperback)
Despite claims in some quarters that men are in crisis, in Southern
Africa they still dominate the domestic and public realms. But
the power of men is not fixed, nor is it the case that all men share
the spoils of dominance.
Changing Men in South Africa looks at the different kinds of
masculinity that exist in southern Africa. Distancing itself from
biological explanations of male behaviour, Changing Men
demonstrates that dominant interpretations of masculinity still
sanction violence against women, gay people, younger men and
those belonging to other racial and ethnic groups.

Recreating Men : Postmodern Masculinity Politics
Author : Bob Pease
16 Publisher: Sage Publications Ltd, London, 2000

ISBN: 0 7619 6206 5 (Paperback)
One of the most central issues for women’s prospects for
equality is whether men can and will change. Changing the
social relations of gender will involve changing men’s
subjectivities as well as their daily practices. Recreating Men
argues that it is possible.
Driven by practical as well as theoretical concerns, the book
develops strategies that will promote the process of change
towards equality in gender relations. Drawing on a critical
postmodern theoretical framework, Bob Pease argues that it is
possible for men to reposition themselves in patriarchal
discourses and to reformulate their interests in challenging
gender domination.

The materials featured here are available for use in the Africa Regional Sexuality Resource Centre