The History Book

HISTTHOE RY
BOOK



HISTTHOE RY
BOOK

DK LONDON PRODUCER, PRE-PRODUCTION First American Edition, 2016
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CONTRIBUTORS

REG GRANT, CONSULTANT EDITOR PHILIP PARKER

R. G. Grant has written extensively in the fields of military Philip Parker is a historian specializing in the classical
history, general history, current affairs, and biography. and medieval world. He is the author of the DK Companion
His publications have included the DK books Flight: Guide to World History, The Empire Stops Here: A Journey
100 Years of Aviation, Battle at Sea, and World War I: Around the Frontiers of the Roman Empire, The Northmen’s
The Definitive Visual Guide. Fury: A History of the Viking World, and general editor
of The Great Trade Routes: A History of Cargoes and
FIONA COWARD Commerce Over Land and Sea. He was a contributor to DK
History Year by Year and DK History of the World in 1000
Dr. Fiona Coward is Senior Lecturer in Archaeology and Objects. He previously worked as a diplomat and a publisher
Anthropology at Bournemouth University, UK. Her research of historical atlases.
focuses on the changes in human society, from the very
small social groups of our prehistory to the global social SALLY REGAN
networks that characterize people’s lives today.
Sally Regan has contributed to over a dozen DK titles
THOMAS CUSSANS including History, World War II, and Science. She is also
an award-winning documentary maker for Channel Four
Thomas Cussans, writer and historian, has contributed and the BBC in the UK.
to numerous historical works. They include DK’s Timelines
of World History, History Year by Year, and History: The PHILIP WILKINSON
Ultimate Visual Guide. He was previously the publisher
of The Times History of the World and The Times Atlas Philip Wilkinson has written many books on historical
of European History. His most recent published work subjects, heritage, architectural history, and the arts. As
is The Holocaust. well as bestsellers such as What The Romans Did For Us
and widely-praised titles such as The Shock of the Old
JOEL LEVY and Great Buildings, he has contributed to numerous
encyclopaedias and popular reference books.
Joel Levy is a writer specializing in history and the history
of science. He is the author of more than 20 books, including
Lost Cities, History’s Greatest Discoveries, and 50 Weapons
that Changed the World.

6

CONTENTS

10 INTRODUCTION 40 Attachment is the 66 By this sign conquer
root of suffering The Battle of Milvian Bridge
HUMAN ORIGINS Siddartha Gautama
preaches Buddhism 68 The city which had
200,000 YEARS AGO–3500 BCE taken the whole world
42 A clue to the existence was itself taken
20 At least as important as of a system of picture- The Sack of Rome
Columbus’s journey to writing in the Greek lands
America or the Apollo The palace at Knossos 70 Further events
11 expedition
The first humans arrive 44 In times of peace, sons THE MEDIEVAL
in Australia bury their fathers, but WORLD
in war it is the fathers 500–1492
22 Everything was so who bury their sons
beautiful, so fresh The Persian Wars 76 Seek to enlarge the
Cave paintings at Altamira empire and make it
46 Administration is in
28 The foundations of the hands of the many
today’s Europe were and not of the few
forged in the events Athenian democracy
of the late Ice Age
The Big Freeze 52 There is nothing more glorious
impossible to he Belisarius retakes Rome
30 A great civilization arose
on the Anatolian plain who will try 78 Truth has come and
The settlement at Çatalhöyük The conquests of Alexander falsehood has vanished
the Great Muhammad receives the
32 Further events
54 If the Qin should ever get divine revelation
ANCIENT
CIVILIZATIONS his way with the world, 82 A leader in whose
then the whole world shadow the Christian
6000 BCE–500 CE will end up his prisoner nation is at peace
The First Emperor unifies China The crowning of Charlemagne
36 To bring about the rule
of righteousness 58 Thus perish all tyrants 84 The ruler is wealthy but
in the land The assassination of the state is destroyed
The Law Code of Hammurabi Julius Caesar The An Lushan revolt

38 All the lands have fallen 86 A surge in spirit and an
prostrate beneath his awakening in intelligence
sandals for eternity The founding of Baghdad
The temples of Abu Simbel
94 Never before has such a
terror appeared in Britain
The Viking raid on Lindisfarne

96 The Roman church
has never erred
The Investiture Controversy

7

98 A man destined to become 112 Give the sun the blood 156 War has become
master of the state of enemies to drink very different
Minamoto Yoritomo The foundation of Tenochtitlan The Battle of Castillon
becomes Shogun
118 Scarce the tenth person 158 As different from ours
100 That men in our kingdom of any sort was left alive as day and night
shall have and keep all The outbreak of the Black The Columbian Exchange
these liberties, rights, Death in Europe
and concessions 160 My conscience
The signing of the 120 I have worked to discharge is captive to the
Magna Carta heaven’s will Word of God
Hongwu founds the Martin Luther’s 95 theses
102 The most potent man, Ming dynasty
as regards forces and 164 He began war in Bohemia,
lands and treasure, that 128 Cast down the which he subjugated and
exists in the world adversaries of forced into his religion
Kublai Khan conquers my Christian people The Defenestration
the Song The fall of Granada of Prague

104 I did not tell half of 130 I have newly devised 170 Royalty is a remedy
what I saw, for I knew 28 letters for the spirit of rebellion
I would not be believed King Sejong introduces The conquests of
Marco Polo reaches Shangdu a new script Akbar the Great

106 Those who until now 132 Further events 172 They cherished a great
have been mercenaries hope and inward zeal
for a few coins achieve THE EARLY The voyage of
eternal rewards MODERN ERA the Mayflower
The fall of Jerusalem
1420–1795 174 We will cut off his head
108 The work of giants with the crown upon it
The construction of Angkor Wat 138 As my city falls, I shall The execution of Charles I
fall with it
110 He left no court emir nor The fall of Constantinople 176 The very being of the
royal office holder without plantations depends
the gift of a load of gold 142 Following the light upon the supply of
Mansa Musa’s hajj to Mecca of the sun we left Negro servants
the Old World The formation of the Royal
Christopher Columbus African Company
reaches America
180 There is no corner where
148 This line shall be one does not of talk shares
considered as a The opening of the
perpetual mark Amsterdam Stock Exchange
and bound
The Treaty of Tordesillas 184 After victory,
tighten the cords
152 The ancients never raised of your helmet
their buildings so high The Battle of Sekigahara
The beginning of the
Italian Renaissance 186 Use barbarians to
control barbarians
The Revolt of the
Three Feudatories

8

188 I have in this treatise 243 Better to abolish serfdom
cultivated mathematics so from above, than to wait
far as it regards philosophy for it to abolish itself
Newton publishes Principia from below
Russia emancipates the serfs
189 As far as I think it
possible for man to go 244 Government of the people,
The voyages of Captain Cook by the people, for the
people, shall not perish
190 I am the state from the earth
Louis XIV begins personal The Gettysburg Address
rule of France
216 Let us lay the cornerstone of 248 Our manifest destiny
191 Don’t forget your American freedom without is to overspread
great guns, the most fear. To hesitate is to perish the continent
respectable arguments Bolívar establishes The California Gold Rush
of the rights of kings Gran Colombia
The Battle of Quebec 250 America is God’s
220 Life without industry is guilt crucible, the greatest
192 Assemble all the Stephenson’s Rocket melting pot
knowledge scattered on enters service The opening of Ellis Island
the surface of the earth
Diderot publishes 226 You may choose to look the 252 Enrich the country,
the Encyclopédie other way, but you can never strengthen the military
again say you did not know The Meiji Restoration
196 I built St. Petersburg The Slave Trade Abolition Act
as a window to let in 254 In my hand I wield the
the light of Europe 228 Society was cut in two universe and the power
The founding of St. Petersburg The 1848 revolutions to attack and kill
The Second Opium War
198 Further events 230 This enterprise will
return immense rewards 256 I ought to be jealous of the
CHANGING The construction of the Eiffel Tower. She is more
SOCIETIES Suez Canal famous than I am
The opening of the
1776–1914 236 Endless forms most Eiffel Tower
beautiful and most
204 We hold these truths to wonderful have been 258 If I could, I would annex
be self-evident, that all and are being evolved other planets
men are created equal Darwin publishes On the The Berlin Conference
The signing of the Origin of Species
Declaration of Independence 260 My people are going to
238 Let us arm. Let us fight learn the principles of
208 Sire, it’s a revolution for our brothers democracy, the dictates
The storming of the Bastille The Expedition of the of truth, and the
Thousand teachings of science
214 I must make of all The Young Turk Revolution
the peoples of Europe 242 These sad scenes of death
one people, and of Paris and sorrow, when are 262 Deeds not words
the capital of the world they to come to an end? The death of Emily Davison
The Battle of Waterloo The Siege of Lucknow
264 Further events

9

THE MODERN 302 The name of our 318 We shall defend it with
WORLD state shall be Israel our blood and strength,
The establishment of Israel and we shall meet
1914–PRESENT aggression with
304 The Long March is a aggression and evil
270 You often wish you manifesto, a propaganda with evil
were dead force, a seeding-machine The Suez Crisis
The Battle of Passchendaele The Long March
322 The Iron Curtain
276 History will not forgive 306 Ghana, your beloved is swept aside
us if we do not assume country, is free forever The fall of the Berlin Wall
power now Nkrumah wins
The October Revolution Ghanaian independence 324 All power to the people
The 1968 protests
280 This is not peace. 308 We’re eyeball to eyeball,
This is an armistice and I think the other 325 Never, never, and
for 20 years fellow just blinked never again
The Treaty of Versailles The Cuban Missile Crisis The release of Nelson Mandela

281 Death is the solution to 310 People of the whole 326 Create an unbearable
all problems. No man— world are pointing situation of total
no problem to the satellite insecurity with no hope
Stalin assumes power The launch of Sputnik of further survival or life
The Siege of Sarajevo
282 Any lack of confidence 311 I have a dream
in the economic future The March on Washington 327 Today, our fellow citizens,
of the United States our way of life, our very
is foolish 312 I am not going freedom came under attack
The Wall Street Crash to lose Vietnam The 9/11 attacks
The Gulf of Tonkin Incident
284 The truth is that men 328 You affect the world by
are tired of liberty 314 A revolution is not a what you browse
The Reichstag Fire bed of roses The launch of the first website
The Bay of Pigs invasion
286 In starting and waging 330 A crisis that began in
a war, it is not right that 316 Scatter the old world, the mortgage markets
matters but victory build the new of America has brought
Nazi invasion of Poland The Cultural Revolution the world’s financial
system close to collapse
294 The Final Solution of The global financial crisis
the Jewish Question
The Wannsee Conference 334 This is a day about our
entire human family
296 All we did was fly Global population
and sleep exceeds 7 billion
The Berlin Airlift
340 Futher events
298 At the stroke of the
midnight hour, when the 342 GLOSSARY
world sleeps, India will 344 INDEX
awake to life and freedom 351 QUOTE ATTRIBUTIONS
Indian independence 352 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
and partition

INTRODU

CTION

12 INTRODUCTION

T he ultimate aim of history into the truth of the past; they did sought to create a narrative of the
is human self-knowledge. not differentiate between what had rise of Rome—a “big picture” that
In the words of 20th-century really happened and the events would help to make sense of events
historian R. G. Collingwood: “The manifest in myth and legend. on a large timescale. Although
value of history is that it teaches restricted to the Roman world, this
us what man has done and thus Ancient historical narrative was the beginning of what is
what man is.” We cannot hope to It was the Ancient Greek writers sometimes called “universal history,”
understand our lives without it. Herodotus and Thucydides in the which attempts to describe progress
5th century bce who first explored from earliest origins to the present as
History itself has a history. From questions about the past through a story with a goal, giving the past
earliest times, all societies—literate the collection and interpretation of apparent purpose and direction.
or pre-literate—told stories about evidence—the word “history,” first
their origins or their past, usually used by Herodotus, means “inquiry” At the same period in China,
imaginative tales centering around in Greek. Herodotus’s work still historian Sima Qian (c.145–86 bce)
the acts of gods and heroes. The contained a considerable mixture of was similarly tracing Chinese
first literate civilizations also kept myth, but Thucydides’ account of history over thousands of years,
records of the actions of their rulers, the Peloponnesian War satisfies from the legendary Yellow Emperor
inscribed on clay tablets or on the most criteria of modern historical (c.2697 bce) to the Han dynasty
walls of palaces and temples. But study. It was based on interviews under Emperor Wu (c.109 bce).
at first these ancient societies made with eyewitnesses of the conflict
no attempt at a systematic inquiry and attributed events to human Moral lessons
agency rather than the intervention As well as making sense of events
Those who cannot and actions of the gods. through narratives, historians in
remember the past are the ancient world established the
condemned to repeat it. Thucydides had invented one tradition of history as a source of
George Santayana of the most durable forms of history: moral lessons and reflections. The
the detailed narrative of war and history writing of Livy or Tacitus
The Life of Reason (1905) political conflict, diplomacy, and (56–117 ce), for instance, was in part
decision-making. The subsequent designed to examine the behavior
rise of Rome to dominance of the of heroes and villains, meditating
Mediterranean world encouraged on the strengths and weaknesses
historians to develop another genre in the characters of emperors and
of broader scope: the account of generals, providing exemplars for
“how we got to where we are today.” the virtuous to imitate or shun. This
The Hellenic historian Polybius continues to be one of the functions
(200–118 bce) and the Roman of history. French chronicler Jean
historian Livy (59 bce–17 ce) both Froissart (1337–1405) said he had

INTRODUCTION 13

written his accounts of chivalrous Renaissance Humanism became a familiar figure in elite
knights fighting in the Hundred Whatever the undoubted merits circles, rummaging among ancient
Years’ War “so that brave men of other civilizations’ traditions of ruins and building up collections
should be inspired thereby to follow history writing, it was in Western of old coins and inscriptions. At the
such examples.” Today, historical Europe that modern historiography same time, the spread of printing
studies of Lincoln, Churchill, evolved. The Renaissance—which made history available to a much
Gandhi, or Martin Luther King, Jr. began in Italy in the 15th century, wider audience than ever before.
perform the same function. then spread throughout Europe
lasting until the end of the 16th The Enlightenment
The “Dark Ages” century in some areas—centered By the 18th century in Europe, the
The rise of Christianity in the late upon the rediscovery of the past. methodology of history—which
Roman Empire fundamentally Renaissance thinkers found a fertile consisted of ascertaining facts by
changed the concept of history in source of inspiration in classical criticizing and comparing historical
Europe. Historical events came to antiquity, in areas as diverse as sources—had reached a fair level of
be viewed by Christians as divine architecture, philosophy, politics, sophistication. European thinkers
providence, or the working out of and military tactics. The humanist had reached general agreement on
God’s will. Skeptical inquiry into scholars of the Renaissance period the division of the past into three
what actually happened was usually declared history one of the principal main periods: Ancient, Medieval,
neglected, and accounts of miracles subjects in their new educational and Modern. This periodization
and martyrdoms were generally curriculum, and the antiquary was at root a value judgment, with
accepted as true without question. the Medieval period, dominated
The Muslim world, in this as in To live with men of by the Church, viewed as a time
other ways, was frequently more an earlier age is like of irrationality and barbarism and
sophisticated than Christendom travelling in foreign lands. separating the dignified world of
in Medieval times, with the Arab René Descartes the ancient civilizations from the
historian Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) newly emerging, rational universe
railing against the blind, uncritical Discourse on Method (1637) of modern Europe. Enlightenment
acceptance of fanciful accounts of philosophers wrote histories that
events that could not be verified. ridiculed the follies of the past.

Neither Christian nor Muslim The Romantic spirit
historians produced a work on the In stark contrast, the Romantic
scale of the chronicle of Chinese movement that swept across Europe
history published under the Song from the late 18th century found
dynasty in 1085, which recorded an intrinsic value in the difference
Chinese history spanning almost between the past and the present. ❯❯
1,400 years and filled 294 volumes.

14 INTRODUCTION

The Romantics drew inspiration from Philosopher and social revolutionary accumulation of “facts” was its
the Middle Ages, and instead of Karl Marx (1818–83) later adapted avowed purpose. A gap opened up
seeing the past as a preparation for Hegel’s scheme into his own theory between “serious” history—often
the modern world, as had previously (“historical materialism”), in which heavy on economic statistics—
been the case, Romantic historians he claimed that economic progress, and the colorful literary works of
tried the imaginative exercise of which caused conflict between the popular historians, such as Jules
entering into the spirit of past ages. social classes, would inevitably one Michelet (1798–1874) and Thomas
Much of this was associated with day result in the proletariat seizing Macaulay (1800–59).
nationalism. The German Romantic power from the bourgeoisie, while
thinker Johann Gottfried Herder the capitalist world order collapsed The rise of social history
(1774–1803) burrowed into the past under its own inner contradictions. In the 20th century, the subject
in search of roots of national identity Arguably, Marxism was to prove matter of history—which had
and an authentic “German spirit.” the most influential and durable always focused on kings, queens,
As nationalism triumphed in Europe of all historical “grand narratives.” prime ministers, presidents, and
in the 19th century, much of history generals—increasingly expanded
became a celebration of national Like other areas of knowledge, to embrace the common people,
characteristics and national heroes, in the 19th century history under- whose role in historical events
often veering into myth-making. went professionalization and it became accessible through more
Every country wanted to have its became an academic discipline. in-depth research. Some historians
sacred heroic history, just as it had Academic history aspired to (initially those in France) chose to
its flag and its national anthem. the status of a science, and the disregard the “history of events”
altogether, preferring instead to
The “Grand Narrative” History is little more than study social structures and the
In the 19th century, history became the crimes, follies, and patterns of everyday life, beliefs,
increasingly important and took on and ways of thinking (“mentalités”)
the quality of destiny. Arrogantly, misfortunes of mankind. of ordinary people in different
European civilization saw itself as Edward Gibbon historical periods.
the goal to which all history had
been progressing and constructed The History of the Decline and Fall A Eurocentric approach
narratives that made sense of the of the Roman Empire (1776) Broadly speaking, until the second
past in those terms. The German half of the 20th century, most world
philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich history was written as the story of
Hegel (1770–1831) articulated a the triumph of Western civilization.
grand scheme of history as a logical This approach was as implicit in
development, which culminated in Marxist versions of history as in
the end point of the Prussian state. those histories that celebrated the

INTRODUCTION 15

progress of technology, enterprise, people in the West, although often The book begins with the origins
and liberal democracy. It did not without putting any satisfactory of humans and “pre-history” and
necessarily imply optimism—there alternative version in place of the then progresses through different
were numerous prophets of decline old. For example, the puzzlement historical ages to the present day.
and doom. But it did suggest that that resulted can be seen in the In reality of course there were no
essentially history had been made, response to the 500th anniversary such clear breaks between epochs,
and was still being made, by Europe in 1992 of Christopher Columbus’s and where there is an overlap on
and European offshoots further first voyage to the Americas. It dates, entries are included in the
afield. For instance, it was deemed would once have been expected most appropriate ideological era.
acceptable for respected European to excite widespread celebration
historians to maintain that black in the United States, but was in As this book illustrates, history
Africa had no significant history at practice acknowledged with some is a process rather than a series of
all, having failed to contribute to embarrassment, if at all. People are unconnected events. We can only
the onward march of humanity. no longer sure what to think about speculate on how the events we
traditional history, its Great Men, experience today will shape the
Postcolonial revisionism and its epoch-making events. history of tomorrow. No one in the
In the course of the second half early 21st century can possibly
of the 20th century, the notion of a A 21st-century perspective claim to make sense of history, but it
single, purposeful, historical “grand The content of The History Book remains the fundamental discipline
narrative” collapsed, taking Euro- reflects this abandonment of “grand for anyone who believes, as the poet
centrism with it. The postcolonial, narratives” of human progress. It Alexander Pope did, that “the proper
postmodernist world was seen as aims to present a general reader study of Mankind is Man.” ■
requiring a multiplicity of histories with an overview of world history
told from the point of view of many through specific moments, or events, We are not makers of history.
different social identities. There which can act as windows upon We are made by history.
was a surge of interest in the study selected areas of the past. In line
of black history, women’s history, with contemporary concerns, this Martin Luther King, Jr.
and gay history, as well as histories book also reflects the long-term
narrated from an Asian, African, or importance of key factors such as Strength to Love (1963)
American Indian standpoint. The population growth, climate, and
marginal and oppressed in society the environment throughout human
were reassessed as “agents” of history. At the same time, it gives
history rather than passive victims. an account of matters of traditional
popular historical interest, such as
A riot of revisionism upturned the Magna Carta, the Black Death,
much of the history of the world and the American Civil War.
as commonly known to educated

HUMAN O

200,000 years

RIGINS

ago–3500 bce

18 INTRODUCTION

The first humans (Homo Paleolithic people start to A period of intense cold, Jericho (in the
sapiens) emerge in East create art (sculptures known as the “Big modern-day West Bank)
Africa; Neanderthals of animals and cave is settled; to this day it
(Homo neanderthalensis) paintings) and artifacts Freeze,” occurs. People remains one of the oldest
(jewelry and decorative and animals in northern continuously inhabited
are living in Europe tools and weapons).
and West Asia. regions die out or towns in the world.
migrate southward.

c.200,000 years ago c.40,000 years ago c.23,000 years ago c.9000 bce

c.45,000 years ago c.35,000 years ago c.15,000 years ago c.7500 bce

Humans have spread The first examples of Humans start to arrive in A settlement at
across the globe and human figurines emerge, North America, either Çatalhöyük, central
inhabit most of Eurasia across the land bridge Turkey, is established;
and Australia, which they usually representing evidence of complex
have reached by boat women and carved or connecting Asia and
from Southeast Asia. sculpted from bone, ivory, North America (now the rituals indicates
Bering Strait) or by sea. social cohesion.
terracotta, or stone.

I t is widely believed that the their way of life through the creation it left no documents for historians
origins of the human race lie in of tools, languages, beliefs, social to study. However, in recent years
Africa. By the usual processes customs, and art. By the time they a wide range of new scientific
of biological evolution and natural were painting exquisite pictures of methods—including the study of
selection, the genus Homo evolved animals on the walls of caves and genetic material and radiocarbon
in East Africa over millions of years carving or sculpting figurines out dating of organic remains—have
alongside the chimpanzees, its near of stone or bone, they had marked been added to the long-established
relatives. By the same biological themselves out uniquely from other techniques of archaeology, enabling
processes, Homo sapiens—modern animals. Their transformation was scholars to shine at least a flickering
humans—evolved alongside other slow in the early years, but it was light upon the pre-literate era.
hominins (the relatives of humans, set to gather incredible momentum
including Neanderthals, who died over millennia. Humans had become The narrative of the distant
out 40,000 years ago). the only animals with a history. human past is under constant
revision as new discoveries and
About 100,000 years ago or so, Discovering history research—its findings frequently
the scattered bands of hunting and The early development of human disputed—create radical shifts in
foraging humans would have been cultures and societies presents a perspective. The fresh investigation
almost indistinguishable from the particular problem to historians. of a single cave, a burial site, or a
other great apes. But at some point The first writing was not invented human skull can still throw large
(precisely when is hard to define) until quite late in the human story— areas of accepted knowledge into
humans began to change in a new about 5,000 years ago. Traditionally, question. However, in the 21st
way, not by the process of biological the period before writing tended to century much of the history of early
evolution but by cultural evolution. be dismissed as “pre-history,” since humans can be described with a
They developed the ability to alter reasonable degree of confidence.

HUMAN ORIGINS 19

There is evidence of copper The Bronze Age Cuneiform script, one Stones are raised at
smelting in Serbia and the begins in the Near of the world’s oldest Britain’s Stonehenge, at
East, and the Indus writing system, is the center of an earthwork
wheel is invented in the Valley Civilization invented in Sumer, in enclosure constructed 500
Near East, probably for the years previously; the stones
production of pottery rather emerges on the southern Mesopotamia
Indian subcontinent. (modern-day Iraq). are later rearranged.
than for transport.

c.5000 bce c.3300 bce c.3000 bce c.2500 bce

c.4000 bce c.3100 bce c.2700 bce c.1800 bce

Civilizations develop Narmer unifies Upper The first stone pyramids Alphabetic writing
in Mesopotamia, in the and Lower Egypt, are constructed as (Proto-Sinaitic script,
Tigris–Euphrates valley becoming king of monumental tombs based on hieroglyphs)
(modern-day Iraq, Syria, and the First Dynasty; in Egypt; the Great emerges in Egypt; it
Kuwait), where irrigated is the ancestor of most
agriculture is established. Egyptian hieroglyphs Pyramid of Giza is built
are prevalent. two centuries later. modern alphabets.

Nomadic hunter-gatherers stage was not necessarily benign. obtainable without excessive effort,
All historians agree that until about There is a disturbing coincidence and suffered very few diseases.
12,000 years ago humans were between the spread of human If this is true, it is not clear what
hunter-gatherers, using stone tools hunters across the planet and the then motivated so many human
and living in small, mobile groups. extinction of megafauna such as beings all over the world to settle
This period is referred to as the woolly mammoths and mastodons. in permanent villages and develop
Paleolithic Era (or Old Stone Age). Although human hunting is far agriculture, growing crops and
Humans were a successful species, from being identified as the sole domesticating animals: cultivating
expanding their numbers to perhaps cause of these extinctions—natural fields was grindingly hard work,
10 million and spreading to most climate change may well have been and it was in farming villages that
parts of the Earth. Generally, they a contributing factor—from our epidemic diseases first took root.
adapted well to the major natural modern perspective they can seem
climate changes that occurred over to set a troubling precedent. Whatever its immediate effect
tens of thousands of years, although on the quality of life for humans,
they were temporarily driven out of The farming revolution the development of settlements and
northerly areas, such as Britain and The hunter-gatherer lifestyle, which agriculture indisputably led to a
Scandinavia, during the coldest can reasonably be described as high increase in population density.
phase of what is popularly known “natural” to human beings, appears Sometimes known as the Neolithic
as the Ice Age. to have had much to recommend Revolution (or New Stone Age), this
it. Examination of human remains period was a major turning point in
Humans existed in an intimate from early hunter-gatherer societies human development, opening the
relationship with their natural has suggested that our ancestors way to the growth of the first towns
environment, but their effect on usually enjoyed abundant food, and cities, and eventually leading
that environment even at this early to settled “civilizations.” ■

20

TAAATSOPOLCALEMOLALEOSURT1MIC1ABASEUOXSIMPR’SEPTDOJHIORTEUTIOARNNNTEY

THE FIRST HUMANS ARRIVE IN AUSTRALIA
(c.60,000–45,000 YEARS AGO)

IN CONTEXT Homo sapiens evolves in Africa.

FOCUS Homo sapiens spreads After moving into southern
Migration into the Near East but Asia, Homo sapiens groups
retreats to Africa, only later
BEFORE reaching Europe and follow the coastline to
c.200,000 years ago Homo Southeast Asia.
sapiens (modern human) western Asia.
evolves in Africa.
In western Eurasia, Homo sapiens Homo sapiens
c.125,000–45,000 years ago encounters other hominin species, arrives in
Groups of Homo sapiens the Neanderthals and Denisovans. Australia.
expand out of Africa.
All hominin species except Homo sapiens die out.
AFTER
c.50,000–30,000 years ago M odern humans are the particular, many researchers think
Denisovan hominins are only truly global mammal that humans’ ability to exploit
present in south-central Russia. species. Since evolving coastal environments was key
in Africa around 200,000 years ago, to their rapid spread along the
45,000 years ago Homo Homo sapiens has rapidly expanded southern coasts of Asia.
sapiens arrives in Europe. across the world—testament to
our species’ curiosity in exploring Even the radically different flora
c.40,000 years ago The its surroundings and creativity in and fauna of Australia proved no
Neanderthals die out. Their adapting to different habitats. In barrier; humans may have arrived
last known sites are on the on the continent as early as 60,000
Iberian peninsula.

c.18,000 years ago Homo
floresiensis fossils date from
this time.

c.13,000 years ago Humans
are present near Clovis, New
Mexico, but may not be the
continent’s first humans.

HUMAN ORIGINS 21

See also: Cave paintings at Altamira 22–27 ■ The Big Freeze 28–29 ■ The settlement at Çatalhöyük 30–31

Remains of Homo floresiensis were competition. By the time humans The human blitzkrieg across
found on the Indonesian island of Flores reached Europe, Neanderthals America testifies to the
in 2003. Some studies suggest that its had already been there for around
small size was due to disease rather 250,000 years, having evolved incomparable ingenuity and
than indicating a new species. from an ancestor they shared the unsurpassed adaptability
with modern humans, Homo
years ago, although the earliest heidelbergensis, and they were of Homo sapiens.
dates are controversial. Small well adapted to life in the region. Yuval Noah Harari
groups may have visited much
earlier, but the bulk of the evidence Further east, at Denisova Cave Sapiens (2011)
suggests widespread colonization in Russia’s Altai Mountains, there is
of Australia only around 45,000 evidence of a mysterious species— from the c.13,000-year-old “Clovis
years ago, at much the same time the Denisovans—known only from culture” were once thought to have
as Homo sapiens arrived in Europe. their DNA. And on the island of belonged to the earliest humans
Flores in Southeast Asia, fossils of in the New World. Older sites are
Other hominin species another possible species—the short, now known, but many of the earlier
Homo sapiens was the first hominin small-brained Homo floresiensis— dates, particularly in South America,
to arrive in Australia. However, in date from just 18,000 years ago, remain highly contentious.
parts of Eurasia, humans did face although some researchers believe
these were simply modern humans The social network
afflicted with some form of disease. Until more evidence is found, the
fates of the Denisovans and Homo
Of all these species, Homo floresiensis remain unknown, while
sapiens is the only one to have the most recent research suggests
survived and gone on to colonize Neanderthals died out around 40,000
the New World. Beringia, a land- years ago. Many researchers believe
bridge between Russia and Alaska, the resourcefulness of Homo sapiens
exposed when sea levels dropped was crucial to its success in other
as a result of the Ice Age, allowed species’ home territories in the face
humans to reach the Americas of climate change around the time of
from northeast Asia. The exact date the Last Glacial Maximum. In
remains controversial: stone tools particular, it is thought that they
could also rely on more extensive
Homo sapiens: the only remaining hominin social networks than those other
species—an asset that would have
There is no evidence of violence as the Ice Age progressed. proved crucial both to survival in
between humans and other They developed new stone lean times and to helping them
species. Indeed, modern human tools, as well as techniques colonize the unfamiliar environments
DNA shows small traces of that made use of resources such they encountered as they expanded
Neanderthal and Denisovan as bone and antler. They also across the globe, perhaps following
genes, suggesting that a few established extensive networks animal herds. ■
individuals from each species of support, enabling various
interbred, albeit rarely. groups to pool resources across
large distances, enhancing
Although Neanderthals were their chances of survival. This
skilled manufacturers of stone cultural adaptability may have
tools and excellent hunters, been what allowed humans
modern humans may have been to outcompete their cousins
quicker to adapt, and therefore for access to increasingly
better able to cope with the unpredictable resources.
rapid climatic changes occurring

BSEVEEORAYTUFHITNRGIEFWAUSSLHSO

CAVE PAINTINGS AT ALTAMIRA
(c.40,000 YEARS AGO)



24 CAVE PAINTINGS AT ALTAMIRA

IN CONTEXT T he Altamira cave complex, Spain. They include not only
near Santander on the finely detailed images of animals,
FOCUS northern coast of Spain, but also engraved and painted
Paleolithic culture comprises a series of passages signs, symbols, and handprints.
and chambers extending for nearly Archaeologists remain divided over
BEFORE 984ft (300m) that boast some of the meaning and function of Stone
c.45,000 years ago Modern the best examples of Stone Age, or Age art. One explanation is simply
humans arrive in Europe. Paleolithic, cave art yet discovered. that these people appreciated the
So impressive are the paintings that aesthetic qualities of art—just as
c.40,000 years ago The when the cave was discovered in their descendants do today. Others
earliest currently known 1880, they were widely considered suggest that the incredible detail of
examples of art in Europe are fakes and took nearly 20 years to be some of the images—the sex of the
made, such as the sculpture of accepted as the genuine creations animal or the season in which it was
the Lion Man of Hohlenstein- of prehistoric hunter-gatherers. observed can still be determined, for
Stadel, Germany. Some of the early artistic activity example—may mean the paintings
here may date from more than were a means of conveying vital
AFTER 35,000 years ago, although most of survival information, such as which
c.26,000 years ago the famous paintings were probably animals to hunt, and when and how
A triple burial is carried out created much later, around 22,000 they could be found and targeted.
at Dolní Veˇstonice, in the years ago. These include the images
Czech Republic. in the famous Bison Chamber: Hunting rituals
here the low ceiling is covered in Alternatively, cave art might
c.23,500 years ago The representations of animals including be linked to the world views or
Arene Candide “prince” is multicolored, lifelike images of religions of Paleolithic people.
buried in Italy, richly adorned bison, expertly painted across the Even today, many societies still
with dentalium shell jewelry. natural undulations of the rock in living mainly by hunting and
such a way as to make them appear gathering share animistic beliefs,
c.18,000 years ago The last almost three-dimensional. meaning they believe entities such
Ice Age reaches its height. as animals, plants, and parts of the
landscape have spirits with which
The artistic impetus humans interact during their daily
Other stunning displays of cave life. Many such societies’ religious
art are also known, concentrated specialists, or shamans, believe
in southwest France and northern

Foraging lifestyles Humans develop an Beliefs and practices
rely on the hunting and intimate knowledge emphasizing

gathering of natural of animal and plant connectedness and
resources. species and their communication
start to develop.
environment.

The need The first examples
to exchange of art, such as the
information with cave paintings at
other groups grows Altamira, appear.

stronger.

HUMAN ORIGINS 25

See also: The first humans arrive in Australia 20–21 ■ The Big Freeze 28–29 ■ The settlement at Çatalhöyük 30–31

The undulating structure of the rock
cave at Altamira enhances, rather than
detracts from, the art, with the animals
in the Bison Chamber acquiring an
almost three-dimensional quality.

with only a lamp filled with animal
fat might have been a form of
initiation test for young people—
one that would have required a
great deal of courage to endure.

they are able to communicate also often thought to be able Burials and the afterlife
with these spirits to help sick or to transform themselves into More evidence of human beings
injured people, and historically, animals to encourage them to engaging in religious or ritual
rock art has been created by give themselves up to the hunter, practices at this time comes
shamans during states of altered which could also explain depictions from burials. At the site of Dolní
consciousness, or trances, as part combining human and animal Veˇ stonice, in the Czech Republic,
of this communication, leading characteristics, such as the Lion for example, three bodies were
some researchers to suggest that Man of Hohlenstein-Stadel, in buried together in a sexually
Paleolithic societies may have Germany, or the Sorcerer of Les suggestive pose, with one of the
had similar beliefs. Shamans are Trois Frères Cave in France, a male individuals flanking a female
human-like figure with antlers. skeleton reaching toward her
Handprints in the cave of Fuente del pelvis, and the male on the other
Salín, in Spain’s Cantabria region, were Creating images of animals side buried face down. A red
probably left by youngsters, suggesting may have also been part of “magic” pigment known as ochre had
that venturing underground might have rituals designed to improve the been sprinkled across their heads
been a coming-of-age ritual. chances of success during hunting. and across the female’s pelvis.
For societies dependent on animal Interestingly, all three individuals ❯❯
resources for a significant part of
their diet, the importance of such People everywhere
rituals cannot be overstated. and throughout time have
shared the basic instinct
Initiation ceremonies to represent themselves
Other researchers have noted and their world through
that many of the handprints and
footprints found beside the images and symbols.
art in the caves seem to belong Jill Cook
to quite young individuals.
Traveling down into dark, damp, Ice Age Art (2013)
and potentially dangerous caves

26 CAVE PAINTINGS AT ALTAMIRA

share the same rare skeletal widespread until much later. It is People thought of themselves
deformities and may therefore have clear, however, that for the first as part of a living world, where
been related. Although the reasons time, people were now increasingly
why these bodies were arranged concerned with what happened animals, plants, and even
this way will probably always be a after death, and about how the dead landmarks and inanimate
mystery, it is clear that there was should enter into the afterlife. objects had lives of their own.
more to this burial than just the
functional disposal of remains. Marking territory Brian Fagan
Other researchers note that most
At other sites, some individuals “classic” Paleolithic cave art is Cro-Magnon (2010)
were buried with many “grave concentrated in southwest France
goods”—for example, the complex and northern Spain. This region borders, territories, and group
jewelry made from dentalium shells would have been a relatively identities, so European Paleolithic
at Arene Candide, in Italy, and the favorable place to live: even at the groups may have decorated caves
striking spears fashioned from height of the Last Glacial Maximum, for similar reasons at a time when
mammoth ivory at the burial site more southerly, warmer climates there was the potential for intense
of two young children in Sunghir, and hence more productive habitats competition for resources.
in Russia. Some researchers have attracted dense herds of animals.
suggested that these richly adorned As a result, people may have lived Cooperation to survive
individuals—especially the young here in fairly large numbers, packed Such complex social interactions
ones, who would not have had closely together, leading to greater may help explain how Homo sapiens
time in their short life to establish social tensions among groups vying was able to survive in the harsh
a reputation that might account for territory and resources. environments of Ice Age Europe.
for special treatment in death— Hunter-gatherers probably lived in
imply that hierarchies and status Just as human groups today— small groups scattered at relatively
distinctions were beginning to whether it be football supporters low densities across the landscape.
develop in some groups. However, or nation states—use symbols such Most archaeological sites from
they do not appear to have become as flags, costumes, and markings of this time do not demonstrate any
evidence of complex buildings or
Historians are still unsure whether or not there are precise structures, suggesting that people
meanings behind the majority of cave art. Their best guesses are moved around a lot, according
that they may relate to any one or more of several possibilities: art to the weather and the local
for art’s sake; spirituality; initiation rites; the marking of territory; environment, often following large
and a method of imparting valuable information about hunting. herds of animals like reindeer as
they migrated with the seasons.
Hunting
information Homo sapiens’ ability to forge
new relationships readily allowed
Spirituality groups of hunters to combine as and
when necessary. When resources
Art for Marking were plentiful, they would hunt
art’s sake territory together—for example, intercepting
Initiation migrating herds of reindeer at
places in the landscape where they
rites were most vulnerable, such as in

HUMAN ORIGINS 27

Hunting tools, such as this spear-
thrower, were often carved in the shape
of the animals they were used to kill,
probably as a sort of “magic ritual” to
improve chances of success in the hunt.

narrow valleys or at river crossings. over which a spear could travel animal skin and fur with much more
In leaner times, these groups would and the force with which it hit its care than their predecessors, and
split up again and range far across target. These tools were crucial to they made many other items—from
the landscape to find enough wild hunting success, so it is no surprise jewelry finely crafted from animal
resources to sustain themselves. that some of these atlatls were teeth and shell, to figurines carved
beautifully carved and decorated, from stone or sculpted from clay.
Early technologies often with representations of the Many of these may also have been
These hunter-gatherers expended animals being hunted. Similarly, traded, gifted, or exchanged with
considerable effort on hunting they also painstakingly carved individuals from other groups as
technology, since it could spell complex barbed harpoons from part of large-scale social networks.
the difference between life and bone and antler for fishing.
death. They hafted elaborately The unpredictable environments
worked stone tips on to spears that First seeds of a society of Europe during the Last Glacial
were then launched at the target Delicately worked bone awls and Maximum meant sharing resources
using atlatls, or spear-throwers, needles suggest Stone Age humans with other groups in times of plenty
designed to increase the distance also made warm clothes out of could pay off significantly at a
later date: if a group struggled to
find resources in one area, others
elsewhere who had previously
benefited from their generosity
would be more inclined to return
the favor. These kinds of exchange
relationships probably linked even
very far-flung groups together into
complex networks of individual
and group relationships that were
fundamental to survival in such
a tough environment. ■

Venus figurines Figurines of women carved or have played a symbolic role as
sculpted from stone, ivory, or a charm relating to childbirth
clay are a type of Paleolithic or, more generally, fertility.
art found widely across Europe.
These figurines share many Some researchers believe
striking similarities. While that the figures represent a
details such as facial features “mother goddess,” but there
and feet are largely ignored, is no real evidence for such
feminine sexual characteristics an interpretation. Others have
(breasts, belly, hips, thighs, and focused instead on the fact
vulva) are often exaggerated. that the figurines demonstrate
The focus on features related to widely shared cultural ideas
sexuality and fertility, and the and symbols. These would
round body shapes depicted have been crucial to social
(during the Ice Age fat would interactions and exchanges
have been a precious commodity) of resources, information, and
suggest that the figurines may potential marriage partners
in the Ice Age world.

28

FOTTOHOFREDTGAHFYEOE’DSULNIAENDTUTAERTHOIIECPOEEENVASWEGONEEFRTSE

THE BIG FREEZE (c.21000 bce)

IN CONTEXT Climate change results from shifts in the earth’s
position and orientation relative to the sun.
FOCUS
Climate change The Big Freeze Habitats change,
expands ice caps, and plant and animal
BEFORE lowering sea levels. species’ ranges alter
c.2.58 million years ago
The Pleistocene, or Ice Age, for survival.
begins.
Animals and humans Human groups are
c.200,000 years ago Homo colonize newly exposed faced with new
sapiens emerges as a species. low-lying land, only to be opportunities
isolated when sea levels and constraints.
AFTER
c.9700 bce The Pleistocene rise again.
ends, marking the beginning
of today’s relatively warm and S cientists have only recently (interglacials). However, toward
stable climates—the Holocene. begun to appreciate how the end of the Ice Age, these shifts
the two-way relationship became more pronounced and
c.9000–8000 bce Agriculture that exists between humans and occurred at shorter intervals,
becomes established in the our environments has affected culminating around 21000 bce in
Near East. the development of our societies. a “Big Freeze,” a period of intense
Humans evolved during the last cold known as the Last Glacial
c.5000 bce Sea level reaches Ice Age, living through periodic Maximum. People and animals
near-modern levels; low-lying shifts between very cold climatic living in northern regions died
land is submerged. conditions (glacials) and warmer out or retreated south as ice caps
periods more like those of today expanded to reach southern
c.2000 bce The last
mammoths are thought to
have died out, on Wrangel
Island, Russia.

HUMAN ORIGINS 29

See also: The first humans arrive in Australia 20–21 ■ Cave paintings at Altamira 22–27 ■
The settlement at Çatalhöyük 30–31 ■ The Law Code of Hammurabi 36–37

The forests and wetlands of the Few humans have ever
new post-glacial world offered lived in a world of such
humans many new opportunities. extreme climatic and
They hunted large forest animals environmental change.
such as red deer and wild boar,
as well as smaller mammals like Brian Fagan
rabbits, and they foraged for a
range of aquatic and coastal food Expert in human prehistory
sources. Migratory fish like salmon,
An entire mammoth was unearthed sea mammals such as seals, and
in Siberia, Russia, in 1900—the first shellfish, seasonal wildfowl, and
complete example ever found. A cast a range of fruits, tubers, nuts,
of it is on display in St. Petersburg’s and seeds all became important
Natural History Museum. dietary staples.

England. Such huge amounts of sea Changing lifestyles plant and animal species to thrive.
water froze that sea levels dropped, In areas that were particularly They started to select and care for
exposing low-lying land such as rich in natural resources, human productive plant species and sowed
Beringia, the continental shelf that groups may not have settled in the seeds of favored strains, while
connects North America and one place, sending small bands managing and controlling certain
Asia—and the route by which on forays further afield to target animals. This manipulation led to
humans first reached the Americas. specific resources. The Natufian these species becoming ever more
communities of the Eastern reliant on human input—and to
Rising temperatures Mediterranean, for example, were the development of agriculture, a
Temperatures eventually rose able to exploit abundant stands radical change in the human way
again, and today’s relatively warm of wild cereals in the Near East. of life that has since resulted in
and stable climate had become Some groups began to manipulate even more dramatic human impact
established by around 7000 bce. their environments, burning on the environment. ■
The ice caps melted, and rising sea vegetation and cutting down
levels separated Eurasia from the trees to encourage their preferred
Americas, turned Southeast Asia
into an archipelago, and made Ice cores and past environments
islands out of peninsulas such as
Japan and Britain, thereby isolating Paleoclimatologists study the in the shells of foraminifera, in
many human groups. The impact elemental composition of the roughly equal ratios. However,
on ecosystems was particularly sediments laid down over time in cold conditions most of the
severe for the large animals known on ocean floors to understand evaporated 16O does not return
as megafauna—mammoths, for how climates have changed in to the ocean but freezes as ice,
example. The open glacial steppe the past. Tiny sea creatures so sea water contains more 18O
grasslands in which megafauna known as foraminifera absorb than 16O. When foraminifera die,
thrived were replaced by expanding two different forms of oxygen, their shells sink to the ocean
forests, and across the globe the 16O and 18O, from sea water. floor, building up over time.
combination of environmental Because 16O is the lighter of the Paleoclimatologists drill into
change and human hunting drove two, it evaporates into the air the ocean floor to extract cores
many species to extinction. more easily, but during warmer of sediment and study the
periods it falls as rain and drains changing proportions of 16O and
back to the sea. So 16O and 18O 18O in different layers to see how
exist in sea water and appear climates have changed over time.

30

AAARNGOARTSEOEALTOIANCNITVPHILLEIAZIANTION

THE SETTLEMENT AT ÇATALHÖYÜK
(10,000 YEARS AGO)

IN CONTEXT Hunter-gatherers interact The climate and
closely with animal and environment stabilize
FOCUS plant species.
Neolithic revolution after the Ice Age.

BEFORE Humans start to manage Human populations
11000–10000 bce There is and control some begin to grow.
evidence of cultivation of crops
and domestication of animals animals and plants,
in West Asia. domesticating them.

c.9000 bce Maize farming The cultivation of land People build larger
begins in Mesoamerica. and crops and the settlements, such

c.8800 bce Farming lifestyles stockpiling of harvests as the one at
are well established across reduce mobility. Çatalhöyük.
West Asia.
T he Neolithic town of Since its discovery, several other
AFTER Çatalhöyük on the Konya large settlements across West Asia
8000 bce Cultivation and Plain in Turkey was have been found that attest
domestication begin in discovered by James Mellaart in to the growing scale of human
East Asia. the 1960s. It has become one of the communities during the shift from
most famous archaeological sites foraging to agricultural lifestyles,
7400–6000 bce The town of in the world due to its size, density or “Neolithic revolution,” that
Çatalhöyük is established. of settlement, spectacular wall occurred between around 10000 bce
paintings, and evidence of complex and 7000 bce. Whether rising
7000–6500 bce Agriculture religious and ritual behavior. populations forced people to find
spreads west into Europe
via Cyprus, Greece, and
the Balkans.

3500 bce The earliest cities
are built in Mesopotamia.

HUMAN ORIGINS 31

See also: The first humans arrive in Australia 20–21 ■ Cave paintings at Altamira 22–27 ■ The Big Freeze 28–29 ■
The Law Code of Hammurabi 36–37

This illustration shows the way
in which humans lived and worked
close to each other at the Çatalhöyük
site, with their domesticated animals
also kept nearby.

more stable means of subsistence remained in the community even humans. It is not clear whether
or farming allowed people to have when they died; they were buried these decorated skulls, statues,
more children, the sizes of many under the floors of the houses. and figurines represent specific
settlements increased substantially Sometimes they were later dug up individuals or heads of households
and became more permanent. New and their skulls removed; facial or lineages, or perhaps mythical
ways had to be found to resolve features were molded on some in ancestors or gods, but they may
social stresses such as disputes plaster and painted with ochre for have been part of the communal
between neighbors. display. At sites like Ain Ghazal in ideologies, rituals, and social
Jordan, large statues made of lime practices that helped smooth over
Early villagers invested time and plaster have been found, and there tensions between individuals and
effort in planting and cultivating are many examples of clay figurines broader regional groups, who were
crops, then in storing the harvest of animals and (mainly female) establishing more formal links with
to last the year, so they could no one another for long-distance trade
longer simply move as foragers had. Farming and health and exchange of goods. Some of
the success of Çatalhöyük may
Community cohesion The adoption of farming have been due to its role as a center
It is thought that the development of established a plentiful and for the large-scale trade of items
more formal religious organization stable long-term source of food, made from the obsidian, or volcanic
and group ritual practices may have allowing for population growth. glass, of Hasan Dagˇ.
helped community cohesion. At However, there were negative
many sites, buildings were set consequences, too. Farmers The many dramatic social and
aside for such purposes; these were may have had to work harder economic changes that came with
larger than domestic structures, at times than hunter-gatherers the Neolithic revolution have helped
with unusual features such as lime did, and their more limited shape both human history and the
plaster benches and more evidence diets—focused on just a few world’s ecosystems ever since. ■
of symbolic and representational crops and animal species—led
art: Çatalhöyük boasts murals and to nutritional deficiencies. animals meant that some animal
figurines of a range of subjects diseases spread to humans—for
including wild animals such as The health of early farmers example, smallpox, anthrax,
bulls, leopards, and vultures. At also suffered in other ways. tuberculosis, and the flu. Larger
many sites, some inhabitants Living at close quarters with communities living at higher
densities allowed for such
diseases to be more easily
passed around. It also caused
problems in disposing of human
and animal waste and thus a
rise in intestinal complaints
and waterborne diseases such
as cholera and typhoid, while
irrigation created breeding
grounds for mosquitoes and
parasites, infecting humans
with diseases like malaria.

CAINVCILIEIZNATTI

6000 BCE–500

IONS

CE

34 INTRODUCTION

Hammurabi, one of Egyptian pharaoh Democracy is The start of the Persian
the great kings of Ramesses II builds two introduced in Athens Wars between Greece
and the Persian Empire;
Mesopotamia, writes vast temples at Abu by Cleisthenes. All
a law code—the Simbel to glorify the Athenian citizens are military successes
pharaohs and assert allowed to vote directly influence the development
earliest known written dominance in Nubia. on Athenian policy. of classical Greek identity.
legal system in history.

1780 bce 1264 bce 507 bce 490 bce

1700 bce 650 bce c.500 bce c.334 bce

Knossos palace is built The high point of a Celtic Siddartha Gautama Macedonian king
on Crete by the Minoans— culture, which developed (known as Buddha) Alexander the Great
the first civilization in Europe around Halstatt, Austria, rejects material life to
seek enlightenment invades Asia Minor
to produce a system of and spread to France, and creates a vast
writing (known as the Romania, Bohemia, and preach empire; Greek culture
Buddhism in India. spreads eastward.
Linear A syllabary). and Slovakia.

A bout 5,000 years ago, exploitation as the basis of society, by bronze (the Bronze Age) and
humans began to form leading to larger-scale warfare as then predominantly iron (the Iron
societies of unprecedented states expanded into empires. Age). In the Americas, where the
complexity. These “civilizations” Olmec and Maya developed the
typically had state structures and Emerging civilizations civilizations of Mesoamerica, the
social hierarchies, they built cities The earliest civilizations developed use of stone tools persisted and
and monuments such as temples, in areas where it was possible most of the epidemic diseases that
palaces, and pyramids, and used to practice intensive agriculture, plagued Eurasia were unknown.
some form of writing. The basis for usually involving use of irrigation
the development of civilizations was systems—for instance, along the Writing and philosophy
progress in agriculture. When only rivers of the Tigris and Euphrates From around 1000 bce, Eurasian
part of the population was required in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), the civilizations found an innovative
to work in the fields to produce food, Nile in Egypt, the Indus in northern momentum. The use of writing
the rest could inhabit towns and India and Pakistan, and the Yangtze evolved from practical record-
palaces, performing a range of and Yellow rivers in China. Although keeping to the creation of sacred
specialty functions as bureaucrats, these civilizations of Eurasia and books and classic literary texts that
traders, scribes, and priests. The North Africa seem to have been embodied the founding myths and
invention of civilization undoubtedly founded independently of one beliefs of different societies, from
raised human life to a new level in another, they developed multiple the Homeric tales in Greece to the
many ways—in technology, the contacts over time, sharing ideas, Five Classics of Confucianism
arts, astronomy, the measurement technology, and even diseases. All in China and the Hindu Vedas in
of time, literature, and philosophy— followed a pattern in which stone India. Forms of writing using an
but also established inequality and tools (the Stone Age) were replaced alphabet developed in the eastern

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 35

Qin Shi Huangdi unites Julius Caesar is The Maya Classical Rome falls to the
China, previously a assassinated in Period begins; many Visigoths; the Roman
Rome by senators cities, temples, and
region of warring states, who believe he is monuments are built Empire shrinks
and begins major projects, becoming increasingly throughout Mexico and much of Europe

including building the power-hungry. and Guatemala. is invaded by
Terracotta Army. Barbarian tribes.

221 bce 44 bce 250 ce 410 ce

218 bce 43 ce 312 ce 486 ce

Military commander A Roman army led by Roman emperor Clovis, leader of the
Hannibal, from Carthage General Aulus Plautius Constantine adopts Salian Franks, defeats
(north Africa), crosses the Christianity after victory the Romans in Gaul
invades southern at the Battle of Milvian
Alps to invade Italy. England; later, Roman Bridge; Christianity rapidly and unites France
Unable to capture Rome, rule extends to Wales north of the Loire
and the Scottish border. gains popularity. under his dynasty.
he returns to Africa.

Mediterranean region and were number were under the governance a major factor, leading to political
spread by the Phoenicians—a race of the Roman Empire, which had fragmentation and a decline in the
of traders and sailors. extended its rule to the shores of quality of government. But perhaps
the Atlantic and the borders of most crucial was the geographical
The Greek city-states became Persia. In large part, the empires limitation of the civilized areas of
a test-bed for new forms of political were successful because of efficient Eurasia. Both the Roman and Han
organization, including democracy, communications by land and water, empires built walls to mark and
and the source of new ideas in the and the ruthless deployment of defend the borders of their empires,
arts and philosophy. The influence military power. Long-distance trade beyond which lived mostly nomadic
of Greek culture spread as far as routes linked Europe to India and or semi-nomadic “barbarian” tribes.
northern India, while India itself China, and cities had expanded to The civilized societies had little or
was the birthplace of Buddhism— a great degree—Rome’s population no military advantage over these
the first “world religion,” winning was estimated at over 1 million. peoples, who increasingly raided or
converts beyond its society of origin. settled within their territories. The
Civilizations in decline eastern part of the Christianized
Growing populations The causes of the decline of these Roman Empire survived until 1453,
The ancient world reached the peak powerful classical empires from and Chinese civilization revived to
of its classical period around 2,000 the 3rd century ce have long been full vigor under the Tang dynasty
years ago. The world’s population disputed among historians. Bred in from 618, but Western Europe
had grown from around 20 million overcrowded cities and transmitted would take centuries to recover the
at the time of the first civilizations along trade routes, epidemic levels of population and organization
to an estimated 200 million. About diseases certainly played a part. that it had known under the rule
50 million of these lived in a united Internal power struggles were also of Rome. ■
Han China, while about the same

36

IRTTNHOIGTEBHHRRTEUIENLLOGAEUNSAODBNFOESUST

THE LAW CODE OF HAMMURABI (c.1780 bce)

IN CONTEXT Agriculture, Local networks
population, and break down and
FOCUS mechanisms for dispute
Origins of civilizations urbanization resolution weaken.
increase.
BEFORE
c.5000 bce Copper and Hammurabi writes a new code of law
gold smelting is common in to cement his control over the region.
Mesopotamia and beyond.
Need grows for Cylinder seals (to control
c.4500 bce Uruk in tools of governance: transactions), writing, judicial
Mesopotamia is the first laws, permanent records,
settlement large enough institutions, and written
to be called a city. and judiciary. laws develop.

c.3800 bce Upper and Lower I n 1901, a six-foot-tall slab of Bronze Age Revolution
Kingdoms of Egypt established black stone was found in the Mesopotamia, which means
along the Nile Valley. ruins of the city of Susa. Carved “between two rivers,” lies between
onto its face were 280 “judgments,” the Euphrates and the Tigris, and it
c.3500 bce Development of or laws, constituting the earliest is considered to be the first human
the Indus Valley civilizations. known written legal code in history. civilization ever. Its writing, math,
The slab had originally been erected and astronomy were also the first
c.3350 bce Stone circles in Babylon, in around 1750 bce, by known, and its cities arguably the
erected in west and Hammurabi, one of the greatest world’s first true examples. Growth
north Europe. kings of ancient Mesopotamia. of its population and wealth led to

c.2000 bce Shang dynasty
builds the first cities in China.

AFTER
c.1500 bce Rise of Olmec
culture in Mesoamerica.

c.600 ce Emergence of the
Mayan civilization.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 37

See also: The settlement at Çatalhöyük 30–31 ■ The temples of Abu Simbel 38–39 ■ The palace at Knossos 42–43 ■
The conquests of Alexander the Great 52–53 ■ The founding of Baghdad 86–93 ■ The foundation of Tenochtitlan 112–17

Hammurabi the In around 2000 bce, the Amorites Nineveh, and as far up the
Law-Giver (Westerners), a semi-nomadic Euphrates as Tuttul, on the
people from Syria, swept across junction with the river Balikh.
Mesopotamia, replacing local He personally supervised the
rulers with Amorite sheikh construction of many temples
dynasties in many of the city- and other buildings.
states. By the early 18th century
bce, the three most powerful The prelude to his code, a
Amorite kings were pre-eminent tribute to Hammurabi, and
Shamshi-Adad in the north, a long historical record of his
Rim-Sin in Larsa in the south, conquests, boasts that his
and Hammurabi in Babylon in the leadership was divinely
center. Over the course of his long sanctioned by the gods who
reign, Hammurabi consolidated all passed control of humanity to
of southern Mesopotamia into his Marduk (deity of Babylon), and
kingdom and eventually extended so to its king. It also reveals he
his power as far up the Tigris as saw his role as the guarantor
of a just and orderly society.

the emergence of a hierarchy in Mesopotamian unification distinguished by the reach of his
society, led by rulers, courtiers, For much of the 4th to the 2nd empire, and by the fact that they
and priests at the top, through millennia bce, Mesopotamia was were inscribed on stelae (stone
merchants and artisans, to servants a mosaic of competing kingdoms slabs), and so recorded in perpetuity.
and laborers at the bottom. This is and city-states such as Uruk, Isin,
often referred to as “specialization”: Lagash, Ur, Nippur, and Larsa. Hammurabi’s laws and their
members of society having different Hammurabi, the Amorite king of detailed prelude reveal much about
tasks, rather than all producing Babylon, unified the region through life in what is known as the Old
food as had been the case in a combination of guile, diplomacy, Babylonian Period. They contain
previous subsistence societies. opportunism, military might, and judgments on matters ranging from
longevity. As was traditional with property disputes and violence
Mesopotamian communities conquering kings, Hammurabi against the person, to runaway
coordinated manpower to build used previous edicts as the basis slaves and witchcraft.
large structures such as defensive for his laws, but these laws were
walls and huge temples, and to Hammurabi’s legacy
mobilize armies. They utilized When Marduk sent me Although Hammurabi’s laws seem
hydrological engineering to divert to rule over men... [I] brought to have carried little weight and
river water and irrigate the alluvial were rarely followed at the time,
floodplains. Administrative needs about the well-being and despite the fact that his empire
such as bookkeeping led to the of the oppressed. disintegrated soon after his death,
development of cuneiform writing, Hammurabi his reign was a turning point for
the first known script, and of southern Mesopotamia. He firmly
complex mathematical concepts established the ideal of a unified
such as fractions, equations, and state, centered in Babylon, and his
geometry. Sophisticated astronomy laws were copied by Mesopotamian
developed for calendric purposes. scribes until at least the 6th century
Sometimes called the Bronze Age bce. They show many points of
Revolution, this great step forward similarity with, and may have
can be seen as the most important influenced, laws of the Hebrew
change in the human world before Bible, which in turn influence laws
the Industrial Revolution. in many societies today. ■

38

AFFBAOLELLNRLETEEAHTNTEEHPRLRHNAOIINSTSDYTSSRAHANTADEVAELS

THE TEMPLES OF ABU SIMBEL (c.1264 bce)

IN CONTEXT A round 1264 bce, the pharaohs for the next three
Egyptian pharaoh millennia. For instance, Narmer
FOCUS Ramesses II (c.1278–1237 is shown holding an enemy by
Pharaonic Egypt bce) had two mighty temples hewn the hair, about to smite him, and
out of the cliffs on the west bank Ramesses II was often depicted
BEFORE of the Nile in southern Egypt. The in the same way—military might
c.3050 bce Narmer unifies entrance was guarded by four vast and supernatural strength were
the kingdoms of Upper and statues of the pharaoh, seated in hallmarks of Egyptian kingship.
Lower Egypt. glory and wearing the symbols The pharaoh, like the gods, was
of divine kingship, including the frequently shown much larger
c.2680 bce Khufu begins double crown that signified his than ordinary mortals.
construction of the Great authority over Upper and Lower
Pyramid in Giza— it is the Egypt. The temples were designed The geographical situation of
largest pyramid in history. to signify and embody the unique Egypt—with its stark contrasts
status, ambition, and power of the between the fertile Nile Valley and
c.1480 bce Thutmose III ancient Egyptian pharaohs. its delta, which empties in the
conquers Syria, extending his
empire as far as the Euphrates. The pharaonic tradition The magnificent temple complex at
Ramesses II inherited a tradition Abu Simbel was, remarkably, moved
AFTER that was already very ancient: 656 ft (200 m) inland and 213 ft (65 m)
c.1160 bce Ramesses III about 1,800 years earlier, King higher up in 1964–68 to rescue it from
fights off invasions of Egypt Narmer (called Menes by the the rising waters of the Nile during the
by Libyans and raiding tribes ancient Greek historian Herodotus) construction of the High Aswan Dam.
known as the Sea People. first unified the kingdoms of the
Upper (southern) and Lower
c.1085 bce Collapse of the (northern) Nile. Narmer’s deeds
New Kingdom; Egypt is were recorded on a stone palette,
divided with Libyan rulers in which was recovered from a temple
the north and Theban priest- at Hierakonpolis in the 19th century
kings ruling in the south. and provides one of the earliest
known depictions of an Egyptian
7th century bce Egypt is king. The palette is inscribed with
invaded by Assyrians and many of the symbols and traditions
then Persians. that would come to typify the

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 39

See also: The Law Code of Hammurabi 36–37 ■ The palace at Knossos 42–43 ■
The conquests of Alexander the Great 52–53 ■ The assassination of Julius Caesar 58–65

I, [the creator], give you and the Mediterranean. In the Old 1550 bce, with the XVIII dynasty—
Ramesses II, constant Kingdom the predominant gods arguably the greatest and most
harvests... [your] sheaves were Ra, the sun god; Osiris, the important—coming to power and
are as plentiful as the sand, god of the dead; and Ptah, the establishing the New Kingdom. By
your granaries approach creator. In the Middle and New this time, immortality was believed
heaven and your grain Kingdoms that followed, which to be available not just to the
heaps are like mountains. were ruled by families from Thebes, pharaoh, but to priests, scribes, and
Inscription in temple at Amon became the main deity. As others who could afford offerings,
Abu Simbel, c.1264 bce supreme ruler, the pharaoh was spells, and mummification, and
closely associated with the gods, many tombs were dug into the
north into the Mediterranean Sea, and was believed to be the living Valley of the Kings to be filled with
and the surrounding expanses of incarnation of certain deities. extraordinarily rich grave goods.
uninhabitable desert—gave rise to
the kingdom’s unique culture and The New Kingdom Under expansionist pharaohs,
civilization. The pharaoh was In the 23rd century bce, the Old such as Thutmose III and Ramesses
viewed as a living god who could Kingdom collapsed. After what is II, Egyptian control was extended
control the order of the cosmos, known as the Intermediate Period, into Asia as far as the Euphrates
including the annual flooding of the the Middle Kingdom dynasties River, and up the Nile into Nubia.
Nile, which brought fertilizing silt restored unified control of Egypt It was no coincidence that
to replenish the soil. Pharaohs were from 2134 bce until around 1750 bce, Ramesses built Abu Simbel in
also often depicted as farmers in when they were invaded by the Nubia: as well as representing the
agricultural scenes, representing Hyksos (probably Semites from divine glory of Egypt’s pharaohs
their role as guardians of the land. Syria). The Hyksos, in turn, were generally, the temple was a symbol
expelled from Egypt in about of Ramesses’ control over the
The Old Kingdom recently conquered territory. ■
The Old Kingdom that followed
Narmer was ruled by a succession The Nile Valley is bordered by inhospitable desert,
of dynasties that were led by but is highly fertile because the longest river in
powerful pharaohs, who channeled the world flows through it and irrigates it.
the bureaucratic and economic
might of the unified kingdom into A sophisticated, Trade and conquest
monumental building projects, such coherent, and unified boost the economy and
as the construction of the pyramids. civilization develops over a
These, in turn, stimulated scientific, vast stretch of terrain. population levels.
technological, and economic A large, prosperous
development, increasing trade with kingdom emerges.
other kingdoms in the Near East
Vast monuments, such as the Abu Simbel temple
complex, are constructed, reflecting Egypt’s
power, wealth, and belief systems.

40

ARTOTOATCOHFMSENUTFFIESRTINHGE

SIDDARTHA GAUTAMA
PREACHES BUDDHISM (c.500 bce)

IN CONTEXT Siddartha rejects Ashoka the
material life and preaches Great conquers
FOCUS India and unifies
The spread of Buddhism Buddhist philosophy.
the empire.
BEFORE
1200 bce Vedic (aka Aryan) Ashoka makes Buddhism the state religion
culture extends across and spreads it across South and East Asia.
northern and central India.
After the collapse Buddhism flourishes
1200–800 bce Oral Vedic of the Mauryan Empire, in Sri Lanka, Southeast
traditions are written down Buddhism declines Asia, China, Japan, Tibet,
in Sanskrit as the Vedas.
in India. and Central Asia.
c.600 bce The
Mahajanapadas, the 16 S iddartha Gautama, better the material world. Siddartha
competing kingdoms of Vedic known as the Buddha, was developed a similar philosophy
India, emerge. born at the end of the Vedic based on mystical Hinduism, but
Age (1800–600 bce) into a South he also rejected the increasingly
AFTER Asia in transition. In the country’s rigid strictures of Vedic ritual and
322 bce Chandragupta Maurya caste system, the priestly Brahmins the inherited piety of the Brahmins.
founds the Mauryan Empire. and the warrior-elite Kshatriyas Renouncing material possessions,
ranked highest, and it was into he sought and eventually found
3rd century bce Sri Lanka this latter group that Siddartha enlightenment, and became the
converts to Buddhism. Gautama was born. Buddha. He preached in northeast
India and founded the Sangha—the
185 bce The Mauryan Empire India was then a ferment of sects monastic order of Buddhism—to
collapses. and new ideologies, some of which continue his ministry.
espoused a philosophy renouncing
1st century ce Buddhism
arrives in China and Japan.

7th century Buddhist
missionaries are invited to
establish a monastery in Tibet.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 41

See also: The conquests of Alexander the Great 52–53 ■ The Indus Valley Civilization collapses ■
The construction of Angkor Wat 108–09 ■ The conquests of Akbar the Great 170–71

Given that separation He extended Mauryan control and, Stone reliefs depicting the life of
is certain in this world, his Buddhism proving a powerful Buddha decorate gateways of The Great
is it not better to separate unifying force, succeeded in joining Stupa at Sanchi, commissioned by the
oneself voluntarily for all of India, except the southern tip, emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century bce.
into an empire of 30 million people.
the sake of religion? including Zen Buddhism, Theravada
Siddartha Gautama A world religion or Hinayana Buddhism, Mahayana
Having established Buddhism as Buddhism, and Varayana Buddhism.
For the next two to three centuries, the state religion, Ashoka founded
Buddhism remained one among monasteries, and sponsored The first religion to have spread
several minor sects but, under the scholarship. He sent Buddhist widely beyond the society in which
Mauryan emperor Ashoka the Great missionaries to every corner of the it originated—so the first “world
(304–232 bce), it became India’s subcontinent and abroad as far as religion”—Buddhism is also one of
state religion. Ashoka’s reign had Greece, Syria, and Egypt. His the oldest, having been practiced
proceeded initially through bloody missions established Buddhism since the 6th century bce. ■
conquest, but in around 261 bce he initially as an elite pursuit, but the
had a change of heart. From then he religion went on to take root at all
embraced a new model of kingship levels of society in Sri Lanka,
and religious philosophy based on a Southeast Asia, along the Silk Road
creed of tolerance and non-violence. in the Indo–Greek kingdoms (in
modern-day Pakistan and
Afghanistan), and later in China,
Japan, and Tibet. In India—its
birthplace—Buddhism started to
decline after Ashoka’s death in 232
bce, affected by a resurgence of
Hinduism and then the arrival of
Islam. Outside India, however, its
tradition and scholarship flourished,
evolving into multiple strands

The Buddha The life history of Siddartha six years wandering and
Gautama is obscured by the myth meditating, he achieved
and legend that has grown up enlightenment and became
around him. Different traditions the Buddha, but instead of
give different chronologies for his ascending to nirvana, the
birth and death, but many agree transcendent state that is the
on 563–483 bce. Said to have been goal of Buddhism, he chose
born miraculously through the to remain and preach his new
side of his mother, Siddartha was message, the dharma.
raised in luxury in the palace of
his father, King Suddhodana Gathering followers who
Tharu, leader of the Shakya clan. formed the Sangha, a monastic
order, the Buddha pursued his
Aged 29, Siddartha rejected ministry until he died, at age 80.
this luxurious life and left his wife He urged his disciples to follow
and child, renouncing material the dharma, instructing them:
things to seek enlightenment “All individual things pass
through asceticism. Having spent away. Strive on, untiringly.”

42

IOEANXFCITPSLHIUTCEEETNGTUCROREEETEO-HKWFELRAAISTNIYDNSSGTEM

THE PALACE AT KNOSSOS (c.1700 bce)

IN CONTEXT Minoan society becomes I n the 1890s, British historian
highly prosperous through Arthur Evans came across
FOCUS agriculture and trade. some ancient clay seals for sale
Minoan Crete in Athens. They originated from the
Social stratification relatively unexplored Mediterranean
BEFORE develops, with a wealthy island of Crete, and for Evans they
c.7000 bce Initial colonization offered a tantalizing hint at the
of Crete. elite controlling trade. existence of the first writing system
Elaborate palace in Europe.
c.3500 bce Beginning of the
Bronze Age in Crete. complexes are built Following the seals to their
to store commodities Cretan source, Evans decided to
AFTER excavate a promising parcel of
c.1640 bce Massive eruption for redistribution. land at Knossos, in the north of the
of volcano Thera devastates The need for record- island, where he uncovered a vast
Minoan colonies and coastline. keeping gives rise to palace complex. The iconography
“writing” in the form of of the palace centered on a bull-cult,
c.1500 bce Deeper including frescoes that depicted the
stratification of Minoan hieroglyphs. sport of bull-leaping. Evans named
culture; local administration the civilization “Minoan” after the
is devolved to large villas. Hieroglyphs evolve mythical Cretan King Minos, who—
into Linear A according to Greek legend—built a
c.1450 bce The Mycenaean labyrinth to contain the Minotaur: a
invasion of Crete. syllabary at Knossos. fearsome half-man, half-bull creature.
In the process, Evans discovered
c.1100 bce The Sea Peoples that the Minoans had indeed
terrorize the Mediterranean invented an early type of alphabet,
world, leading to the final which he called Linear A.
decline of Minoan civilization.
The Palatial Period
1900 ce Arthur Evans begins The Minoans were a people of
the excavation of Knossos. unknown origin (possibly from
Anatolia), who settled on Crete in
1908 Italian archaeologist the Neolithic era, in about 7000 bce.
Luigi Pernier discovers the They farmed crops, herded sheep,
Phaistos disc.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 43

See also: The settlement at Çatalhöyük 30–31 ■ The Law Code of Hammurabi 36–37 ■ The Persian Wars 44–45 ■
Athenian democracy 46–51 ■ King Sejong introduces a new script 130–31 ■ The fall of Constantinople 138–41

and worshipped in caves, on top of controlled trade with other Bronze The Phaistos disc
mountains, and at springs, but by Age civilizations around the
2400 bce they had begun to build Mediterranean, such as Byblos in Found in 1908 in the ruins of
large palace complexes. By 1900 bce, Phoenicia (now Lebanon), Ugarit the Minoan palace at Phaistos,
in what is known as the Palatial in Syria, pharaonic Egypt, and southern Crete, the Phaistos
Period of the Minoan civilization, Mycenaean Greek settlements in disc (shown above), made
palaces at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, the Cyclades and further afield. from fired clay and about 6in
and Chania had been constructed (15cm) across, is printed with
in broadly similar forms, with the Linear A script symbols in an unknown script.
one at Knossos being the largest. The Minoans developed their own Although dated to 1700 bce, it
It was destroyed, possibly by fire or script, probably initially for record- was made using the technique
perhaps a tsunami, around 1700 bce, keeping and administration of woodblock printing, which
but it was rebuilt soon after on the purposes. It began as hieroglyphic was not thought to have been
same site. At its peak, in about picture-writing, but later evolved invented for another 2,000
1500 bce, Knossos palace and the into the Linear A syllabary, in which years or so (in China), making
city that grew up around it covered symbols denote syllables (rather the disc one of the great
185 acres (75 hectares) and had a than letters, as is the case with the archaeological mysteries. The
population of up to 12,000. alphabet). The Minoan language as symbols, many of which are
recorded in Linear A script remains recognizable as everyday
The Minoan palaces all had large undeciphered to this day, but in objects, are arranged in a
central courts, flanked by many- around 1450 bce the Minoans were spiral and divided into words
chambered buildings, and were invaded by the Mycenaeans from by vertical lines. Some scholars
highly decorated with frescoes of mainland Greece, who adapted the have drawn parallels between
flora and fauna. In the extensive Minoan script into Linear B, which certain symbols in Cretan
magazines (storehouses), the rulers— was used to write archaic Greek. hieroglyphics and Linear A,
who may have served dual roles as suggesting that the writing on
priest-kings or priest-queens— Not long after the Mycenaeans the disc may be an elaborated
gathered many commodities for invaded Crete, Minoan civilization form of an existing Minoan
redistribution. Minoan rulers also collapsed completely. However, the script. There are many theories
legacy of Minoan writing lives on about the disc’s significance—
This bull-leaping fresco in the through its connection with the some consider the inscription
palace at Knossos in Crete is the most Phoenician alphabet, which in turn is a hymn to a goddess, others
completely restored of several taureador would come to form the basis of the that it tells a story, or that the
stucco panels. Bull-handling was a Latin alphabet that is used in many disc is a calendar or a game.
common theme in art at this time. parts of the world today. ■ Some experts even believe the
disc to be a clever fake.

44

IIBNNUTWRIYMARTEHSIETOIIRFSFPTAEHTAEHCEFERATSSHOEBNRUSST
WHO BURY THEIR SONS

THE PERSIAN WARS (490–449 bce)

IN CONTEXT L eonidas of Sparta A hoplite—or Greek citizen-solider—
stood before his band vanquishes his Persian adversary in
FOCUS of 300 warriors facing the this decoration inside a 460 bce wine
The Persian Empire mightiest army the world had cup. The winged horse Pegasus adorns
ever seen. The envoy of his enemy the victor’s shield.
BEFORE demanded that he lay down his
7th century bce The Medes arms at the feet of the Persian Turkey), which brought the Ionian
establish a powerful kingdom god-king. “Come and take them” Greeks under Persian rule. Cyrus’s
in modern-day Iran. was Leonidas’s laconic reply. successors Cambyses II and Darius
extended the empire into Egypt
c.550 bce Cyrus the Great The Persian Wars (490–449 bce), and the Balkans, where Thrace and
rebels against Median rule also known as the Greco–Persian Macedon gave the Persians
and founds the Achaemenid Wars, pitted a vast and cosmopolitan a foothold in Europe.
Persian Empire. empire against a small band of
city-states in the south of Greece. The Achaemenids established
c.499 bce Greek city-states The conflict profoundly influenced Persian rule as a model for later
rebel against Persian control, the development of Classical Greek empires. Despite its vast size, the
but their revolt fails. identity and culture, leaving a vivid state embraced a degree of multi-
trail in Western literature and myth. culturalism, allowing conquered
AFTER By contrast, the story of the Persian peoples to keep liberty of religion,
431 bce Athens and Sparta Achaemenid Empire remains language, and culture. There was
clash for supremacy in Greece comparatively neglected, belying investment in infrastructure—like
in the Peloponnesian War. the significance of that great
Middle Eastern civilization.
404 bce Artaxerxes II becomes
ruler of the Achaemenid The Achaemenids
Empire. The first Persian Empire, ruled
by the dynasty known as the
331 bce Alexander the Great Achaemenids, grew rapidly. At its
defeats Darius III and conquers height it may have ruled over half
the Persian Empire. the world’s population. It began in
around 550 bce, when the Persian
312 bce Persia becomes part of king Cyrus the Great overthrew the
the Seleucid Empire, founded ruling Medes, going on to conquer
by one of Alexander’s generals. Babylonia, and Lydia (now in

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 45

See also: The Law Code of Hammurabi 36–37 ■ Athenian democracy 46–51 ■ The conquests of Alexander the Great 52–53 ■
The Peloponnesian Wars 70 ■ Muhammad receives the divine revelation 78–81

the Romans, the Persians built a All other expeditions... Persia, leaving a large force to carry
network of roads to hold their empire are as nothing compared on the fight, but at the Battle of
together—and the military, and with this. For was there Plataea in 479 bce the Greeks, led by
devolution of administration to the Spartans, crushed the Persians,
local provinces. Under the a nation in all Asia who also lost to the Spartans at
Achaemenids, the Middle East was which Xerxes did Mycale. Greek success can probably
united under a single umbrella not bring with him be ascribed to Xerxes’ difficulties
culture for the first time. against Greece? in keeping his vast army supplied
and supported after naval defeat,
Conflict with the independent Herodotus although Herodotus ascribed it to
Greeks arose after the city-states the moral superiority of their cause.
of Athens and Eretrea supported of 1,700,000 men—but modern
an unsuccessful revolt by the historians believe the maximum The Delian League
Ionians against Persian rule in figure to be closer to 200,000. The Greeks now began to go on the
499 bce. Darius responded by offensive, forming the Delian League
invading mainland Greece, but was The second Persian invasion, to oppose Persia. In 449 bce, the
defeated by the Athenians and in 480 bce, was held up by the Persians finally concluded peace,
their allies at Marathon in 490 bce. heroic defense of Leonidas and his conceding the independence of the
He planned an even larger invasion, 300 Spartans at Thermopylae, Ionian states.
but it was only after his death that and by Greek naval resistance at
his son Xerxes began mustering a Artemisium. Later the Athenian The Persian War had reinforced
huge army to execute the plan. navy lured the Persian fleet into a Greek identity and bolstered
trap at Salamis. Xerxes returned to cultural and military confidence,
Father of Lies most significantly in Athens. The
The main source for the Greco– country’s rising power sparked
Persian Wars is the ancient conflict with Sparta, leading to the
Greek historian Herodotus of Peloponnesian War of 431–404 bce.
Halicarnassus, known as both The Persian Empire had reached
the Father of History and the Father the limits of its expansion, but
of Lies. Herodotus estimated that remained strong until defeated by
Xerxes’ land army was made up Alexander the Great in 331 bce. ■

Cyrus the Great The founder of the Achaemenid diverting the Euphrates and
Empire was Cyrus II, later known marching his army along the dry
as “the Great.” In around 557 bce, riverbed into the great city. This
he became king of Anshan, victory brought him the lands of
a vassal of the Median king. the neo-Babylonian Empire,
including Assyria, Syria, and
According to legend, he won Palestine. He liberated the Jews
the Persian army’s support by from their Babylonian bondage
making them spend one day and allowed them to rebuild the
clearing thorn bushes, and the Temple in Jerusalem. The Greek
next banqueting, then asking writer Xenophon saw him as an
why they remained slaves to the example of the ideal ruler.
Medes when, by backing his
revolt, they could live in luxury. Cyrus died in 530 bce while
on campaign in Central Asia.
Some ten years later he had He was buried in a great tomb
conquered Media, and Sardis and inside the royal palace he had
Lydia in Asia Minor. He conquered built at Pasargadae in Persia.
Babylon seven years after that by

THE MANYIASDIMNITNHIESHTARNADTSIOONF

AND NOT OF THE FEW

ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY (c.507 bce)



48 ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY

IN CONTEXT T he term “democracy” To the Athenian the
comes from the Greek fruits of other countries
FOCUS words demos (people) and are as familiar a luxury
Greek politics kratos (rule). The democracy that
and philosophy developed in ancient Athens as those of his own.
around 507 bce and flourished in Pericles
BEFORE its purest form from 462 to 322 bce,
14th–13th centuries bce albeit with some interruptions, machinery of state, appointing
Mycenaean settlement at provided the model for what has officials and serving as a civil
Athens, with fortification become the dominant form of court, while the lower classes
of the Acropolis. government in the world: by 2015, (thetes) were excluded from office.
125 of the world’s 195 countries
c.900 bce Political union of were electoral democracies. The However, the development of the
small towns in Attica into a democracy of ancient Athens, “hoplite” model of citizen-soldiery in
city-state centered on Athens. however, differed from its modern the 8th to 7th centuries bce proved
form, reflecting the history of disruptive to those who were in
c.590 bce Reforms of Solon Athens and the warring Greek power, as it led to a certain level of
open the political machinery states of the age. egalitarianism. Hoplites were men
of Athens to all citizens, in the heavy infantry, mainly free
regardless of class. Oligarchs and hoplites citizens, whose primary tactic was
After the chaos of the ancient the phalanx—a military formation
AFTER Greek Dark Ages—a period that in which soldiers stood in tightly
86 bce Athens sacked by followed the breakdown of packed ranks, with each man’s
Romans under General Sulla. Mycenaean civilization around shield protecting the hoplite to his
1100 bce and lasted until about left. Any man who could afford the
c.50 bce Beginning of the the 9th century bce—most of the arms and armor would be putting
Roman philhellenic movement; emergent city-states evolved into his life on the line to defend the
Athens becomes the focus of oligarchies, with powerful nobles state. As a result, a kind of middle
imperial benefactors. monopolizing government and class emerged, which declared that
serving their own interests. In service should bring full citizenship
529 ce Christian Emperor Athens, the Areopagus—a council and political representation. At the
Justinian I closes Plato’s school and law court consisting of men of same time, the lower classes were
and drives out pagan scholars. aristocratic birth—controlled the also making demands, and tensions
between them and the higher
Pericles He is also believed to have orders over key issues, such as land
helped drive Athens’ assertive reform and debt slavery, threatened
Pericles (c.495–429 bce) became foreign policy as the city sought to lead to civil breakdown.
Athens’ most famous democrat to exploit its dominance of the
and the leading man of the Delian League. During the Solon and Cleisthenes
city-state for about 30 years. In Athens, some of these tensions
He came to prominence around 440s and 430s bce, Pericles were eased around 594 bce by the
462 bce, when he helped the was involved in an ambitious reforms of the statesman Solon. He
politician Ephialtes dismantle public building program that
the Areopagus—the last bastion provoked controversy at home,
of oligarchic control. After where he fought off revolt, and
Ephialtes’ death, Pericles abroad, where he was
undertook further reforms, condemned for requisitioning
including the introduction of pay money from the Delian League
for those serving in the courts, to pay for the Parthenon.
making it possible for even the Nonetheless, he was popular
poorest citizen to have his say. and was elected as general

every year from 443 bce.