The Fashion Designers Textile Directory

THE FASHION DESIGNER’S

TEXTILE DIRECTORY

A guide to fabrics’ properties, characteristics,
and garment-design potential

GAIL BAUGH



The Fashion
Designer’s
Textile
Directory



The Fashion
Designer’s
Textile
Directory

Gail Baugh

A QUARTO BOOK

First edition for North America published in 2011
by Barron’s Educational Series, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Quarto Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means without the written permission of the
copyright owner.

All inquiries should be addressed to:
Barron’s Educational Series, Inc.
250 Wireless Boulevard
Hauppauge, New York 11788
www.barronseduc.com

Library of Congress Control No.:
2010940124

ISBN-13: 978-0-7641-4628-2

QUAR.TXD

Conceived, designed, and produced by
Quarto Publishing plc
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Senior editor: Lindsay Kaubi
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Designers: Susi Martin, Joanna Bettles
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Copy editor: Diana Chambers
Photographer: Philip Wilkins
Illustrator: Chris Taylor
Art director: Caroline Guest

Creative director: Moira Clinch
Publisher: Paul Carslake

Color separation by Pica Digital Pte Ltd, Singapore

Printed by 1010 Printing International Ltd in China

987654321

Contents 9 91
10 92
Author’s foreword 93
About this book 14 Chino 94
16 Serge 95
SECTION ONE: 96
Cavalry twill 98
Responsible design Ripstop 100
The future of fabric production 20 Ottoman 102
22 Dobby weaves for suiting 104
SECTION TWO: 24 Tweeds 106
26 Jacquard weaves 108
The language of textiles 33 Velveteen 110
The supply chain 35 Corduroy 112
Fabric orientation 40 Brushed fabrics 114
Fiber 43 Fabrics from fiber 116
Yarn 47 Melton 118
Fabrics Double knits 120
Adding color Coated fabrics 122
Finishing 48 Microporous laminated fabrics 124
Garment care 50 Film fabric 126
Leather 128
SECTION THREE: 52 Suede leather 130
56 Faux leather and suede
The textile directory 57 Bonded and fused fabrics 132
Introduction to the directory 58 Supporting structure 136
60 Interlinings for structure 137
Chapter one: Structure 61 138
Lawn 62 Chapter two: Fluidity 139
Calico 64 Chiffon 140
High-density fabrics 66 Georgette 142
Broadcloth 67 Voile 144
Poplin 68 Gauze 146
Checks and plaids 70 Lining 148
Oxford 72 Satin 149
Surface shine: ciré and chintz 73 Crêpe de Chine 150
Puckered surface: seersucker and plissé 74 Crinkled fabric 152
Dobby weaves 75 Challis 153
Taffeta 76 Surah 154
Faille and bengaline 77 Jersey 156
Shantung 78 Interlock 158
Sateen 80 Matte jersey 160
Bridal satin 81 Fine-gauge sweater knits 162
Flannel 82 Pointelle knits 164
Flannelette 84 Mesh
Linen 85 Tricot Continued
Sheeting 86 Traditional lace
Muslin 90 Mass-market lace
Canvas
Homespun
Hopsacking
Denim
Gabardine

▲

Lamé 166 Chenille 245
Textured knits 168 Terry cloth 246
Designed knit surfaces 170 The concept of quilting 248
Satin crêpe 172 Minimum-loft quilting 249
Textured crêpe suiting 174 Medium-loft quilting 250
Smooth-surface crêpe 176 High-loft quilting 252
Tricot for athletics 178 Fur in apparel 254
French terry 180 Repurposed fur 255
Polar fleece 182 Commonly used faux fur 256
Velour 184 Exotic faux fur 258
Velvet 186
Medium-weight sweater knits 260
Heavyweight sweater knits 188 Chapter five: Compression 264
190 Compression with rigid fabrics 266
Chapter three: Ornamentation 268
Contrast fabric shapes Ribbed knits 270
Contrasting fabric: creating lines and 192 Elastic ribbed knit banding 272
outlines with fabric 196 Comfort stretch: top weights 274
Functional tapes 276
Decorative ribbon: satin and velvet Comfort stretch: casual woven fabrics 278
Decorative ribbon: grosgrain and taffeta 198 Comfort stretch: stretch denim 280
Decorative ribbon: jacquard 200 Comfort stretch: stretch suiting 282
Decorative ribbon: dobby design 202 Comfort stretch: double knits 284
Passementerie trim 203 Power stretch: athletic knits 286
Fringe 204 Power stretch: underwear knits
Narrow novelty trims 205 Power stretch: elastic power mesh 288
Narrow closure trims 206 Power stretch: narrow elastic bands 290
Lace edging and appliqués 208 292
Embroidery 294
Embroidery threads 210 SECTION FOUR: 296
All-over embroidered fabrics 212 The charts 298
Garment-specific embroidery 214 Introduction to the charts 300
Embroidered denim 216 Balanced plain weave 302
217 Unbalanced plain weave 304
Chapter four: Expansion 218 Textured weave/Jacquard weave 306
Netting 220 Pile weave/Basketweave 308
Organza 222 Twill weave 310
Organdy
Crinoline Satin weave 312
Buckram 224 Weft knit 315
The concept of pleating 228 Weft pile knit/Warp knitting 316
Pleated silk fiber fabrics 230 Warp pile knit/Jacquard warp knit
Pleated cotton fiber fabrics 231 Fiber to fabric/Lace 320
Polyester plain-weave pleated fabrics 232
Crêpe and satin crêpe pleated fabrics
Stitched pleating 233 Glossary
Shirring 234 Resources
Bouclé 236 Index
237 Credits and

238 acknowledgments

239

240

242

244





Author’s foreword

I can’t remember a time when fabric wasn’t important to me. Working
in Chicago-based Marshall Field & Company’s enormous fabric
department inspired me to complete my bachelor’s degree in Textiles
and Clothing, specializing in the chemistry of textiles, with an emphasis
on apparel design.

My education was immediately useful when I became a
womenswear and menswear buyer for Macy’s. Later, as a sales agent
representing a Japanese trading company, N.I.-Teijin Shoji (USA), Inc.,
I visited textile mills throughout Asia and Europe and saw firsthand
how their behavior impacted local labor conditions and the
environment. In 2010, my master’s degree work focused on learning
how consumers’ behavior influenced the current selling and discarding
of clothing and how their practices affected local economies and
the environment.

I now teach the next generation of fashion designers and retailers
and find that my students are eager to learn how to create a cleaner,
less exploitative fashion industry. Further, the challenge of climate
change is motivating the industry to explore new manufacturing and
production methods throughout the traditional textile and garment
supply chain.

This book represents my commitment to an ever-changing fashion
industry that demands new information to implement new concepts.
It is my aim that this book inspires designers and retailers whose
decisions will truly express social and environmental values in the
fashion industry.

The Fashion Designer’s Textile Directory is a visual guide to fabric,
focused on the way designers are trained to create apparel, rather than
on how fabric is produced. This book simultaneously instructs in fabric,
while also developing skills for the design room. Unlike many textile
books, this text speaks to how a fabric will look on the body. And, for
the first time, this directory acknowledges the environmental
consequences of a designer’s fabric choice.

Gail Baugh

About this book

This comprehensive guide to fashion textiles
comprises four sections: an introduction to the
role of the designer; an examination of the textile
industry; an exhaustive directory of the textiles
available to the designer, and a series of at-a-glance
charts: it is a go-to reference for the designer.

Section one: The future of
Responsible design fabric production
(pages 14–19)
Clothing consumption in the future can only be sustained Manufactured fiber: Positives Land
This section is an introduction to the when resources are conserved and workers in the clothing and negatives Renewable fibers and
ecological and social responsibilities of industry are respected. Positives: Oil-based fibers (polyester and renewable raw materials for
the designer, and it includes in-depth nylon) can now be recycled into new, fiber can occupy arable land
discussion of how fashion designers can Sustaining fiber and fabric production production. Originating in the 1960s high-quality fiber and can be manipulated that could be used for food
work toward a sustainable textile industry. for the future of the apparel industry “hippie” movement, that rejected for high-function fabrics. Plant-based or energy production.
requires the designer to fully manufactured fiber in favor of natural manufactured fibers generally feel good Traditional natural fibers
understand the components that support fibers such as cotton or wool, this against the skin. New fibers have been require large land areas for
the fiber and fabric industries: thinking continues today among designers. developed that nearly eliminate chemical production. New renewable
However, innovations in fiber, driven pollution. There is often less fiber waste raw materials for
Land: arable land used for raw material by the demand for high performance before fabric production than with natural manufactured fiber, such as
and fiber production. fabrics, and the need to find additional fiber production. corn, soy, and bamboo are
Chemicals: quantity and type of raw material supplies, have complicated Negatives: Both types of manufactured competing with biomass
chemicals used. fiber choices. fiber produce chemical emissions and energy-production resources.
Water: high water use. chemical waste that is expensive to Therefore, the efficient use
Energy: high energy use. Natural fiber: Positives and negatives neutralize and that is bad for the of land for fiber production
Waste: fiber and fabric thrown away; Positives: renewable; feels good against environment. Oil-based fibers use a must be considered.
chemicals and wastewater discarded. the body; perceived luxury. nonrenewable raw material. Generally,
Negatives: excessive use of chemicals and these fibers don’t feel good against the Water TOP: Removing washed garments
An increasing global population demands water; chemicals and wastewater drained skin unless they are manipulated to Water is the new gold, from large washing machines. The
more apparel. Therefore, the designer from cropland; too much land devoted to address moisture control. Large quantities as the global population wet garments are extremely heavy,
must choose fiber and fabrics that are fiber production that is needed to grow of fiber and fabric are discarded before expands and the requiring manual strength to load
more efficient in production and that food; large quantities of fiber and fabric garment production. uncertainties of climate into dryers. BOTTOM: Settling tanks
reduce environmental impact. For many discarded before garment production. change make traditional to remove solid waste (dye, resins,
designers and consumers alike, organic Considering sustainability water resources and other chemicals) from
fiber is the solution to the complex Manufactured fiber Regardless of the designer’s point of view unpredictable. Designers wastewater after denim washing.
environmental issues that surround fiber Manufactured fiber is produced using a about the fiber selected, always consider must consider water use in Designers should consider how
and fabric production. In the future, variety of raw materials. Fibers produced its future sustainability. Assumptions fabric selection and garment their designs use water, particularly
the choice between natural fiber, and from oil (polyester, nylon, spandex, acrylic, regarding traditional fiber choices must be finishing. For example, in developing nations, where safe
manufactured fiber, and how the fabrics and olefin) were developed between the challenged, and it is the designer’s role to cotton fiber, produced in large drinking water is not always
are produced must be carefully considered. 1950s and the 1970s. Fibers produced forge new paths to show how emerging quantities and accounting for nearly half available to the local population.
from plant raw materials (rayon and fiber and fabric innovations can be of global fiber production, requires
Natural fiber acetate) were developed over a century adopted rather than resisted. 1,400–2,100 gallons (5,300–7,950
Occurring in nature, natural fiber is ago, and since the late 1990s they are liters) of water per pound (454 grams)
perceived as the best option when becoming more popular again, with the Land, water, and energy resources of fiber, whether conventionally or
considering the impact on the introduction of PLA (corn) fiber, bamboo Designers need to understand the organically grown.
environment of fiber and fabric rayon, and others. Manufactured fiber consequences of creating garments that
consumes large amounts of energy and require large amounts of land, water, and In addition, garment producers
Soaking cocoons in water is an important step produces chemical emissions and chemical energy to make the fabrics and produce now regularly garment-wash finished
when separating silk fiber from the cocoon. waste. Many innovations have now made the garments. The designer must also products for a softer, worn look that
The energy and water used to process the silk some fiber production methods more inform the target market about how they the consumer expects. Denim garment
fiber involves a labor-intensive process and efficient and produce less emissions and can conserve water and energy during the washing uses large quantities of water
has yet to be measured in terms of its waste than ever before. care of the product. mixed with chemicals to achieve the
environmental impact. desired color, softness, and appearance.

The future of fabric production 17

The supply chain 2 3 4. Finishing mills 4 Section two: The
Finishing (converting) the greige fabric produces 5 language of textiles
Most designers are unable to effectively communicate their fabric 2. Yarn mills 3. Textile mills fabric that the designer will recognize. Finishing (pages 20–47)
needs in terms that the industry easily understands. This section There are different types of yarn mills that make Textile (fabric) mills produce knitted or or converting fabric involves three major steps:
will summarize how the textile industry functions to help the hundreds of different types of yarn, creating woven fabric from the yarns. This fabric This section discusses the role of designers
designer describe their fabric needs in the industry. texture, elasticity, soft drape, or other design is called “greige fabric” (unfinished 4a. Scouring (cleaning) and bleaching in the fashion and textile industries and
requirements. Some yarns are produced for fabric) and is unrecognizable as being (preparing for color). This scoured and bleached explains everything you need to know
The textile supply chain is poorly understood by the new knitting into garments, bypassing the fabric usable for clothing. fabric is called “prepared for dyeing” (PFD) or in order to understand and communicate
designer, so this chart is intended to describe how fabric production process. Yarns are often dyed before “prepared for printing” (PFP). The fabric is used with fabric producers and suppliers:
is produced, shown, and sold. knitting into garments or making into fabric. 6. The designer for sewn garments that are later dyed (called it includes information on everything
sources fabric garment-dyeing). from fiber, yarn, and fabric production
1a 1b 6a. Textile trade shows: to finishing processes such as dyeing
Most fabric shows are 4b. Adding color and images (dyeing and printing.
international. Fabric mills and and printing).
converters bring their fabrics to
central locations to be shown: 4c. Adding aesthetic or functional finishes.
Paris, Shanghai, New York,
1a. Natural fiber 1b. Manufactured Recycling Como, Florence, Prato, Hong 6a 5. New sample fabric
Ranchers, herders, and Kong, Los Angeles, and is ready
farmers ship natural fiber fibers Hamburg, for various 6c. Samples and sample yardage: Designers Production time is approximately five
to yarn mills to be made Manufactured fibers—oil- categories of apparel. select fabric samples (sometimes called “hangers” to six months from fiber production to
into yarn. based or plant-based raw 6b. Sales agencies: or “sample cards”) and/or sample yardage final finishing. New sample fabrics that
materials—are made into Multinational trading (3–15 yards/meters) they want to test in garment are prepared for the new season can
8. Landfills fiber at chemical fiber companies often represent design. Finished garments are shown to retail be prepared faster, but bulk production
The EPA classifies textiles and mills. Fiber is then shipped many mills. Trading companies buyers before fabric is ordered. time for garment production will take
clothing as all eventually going to to yarn mills for yarn hire sales representatives one to two months from greige goods,
landfill, regardless of fiber content. production. and agents to sell their mills’ 6d. Design teams and merchandising teams: or three to four months from yarn
Approximately 4–5 percent of all fabrics. Converters and vertical To determine the fabric selection. The sampling production to final finishing.
solid waste is textile related. It is Recycling discarded garments mills often have their own process can take up to six weeks before decisions
important to select fabrics that Manufacturing gFinished sales team. are finalized. Once the decisions are made about 5a. Large converter mills buy greige
can be reused or recycled after garments the fabric for the new collection, production staff fabric from textile mills and finish
production and after the consumer ••• 6e order the fabric from the sales agent. (convert) fabric to produce the
has finished with the garment. arments interesting, creative fabrics that
6e. Jobbers: These important fabric suppliers buy designers expect to see.
8 7 Factory cut waste leftover fabric, slightly damaged fabric, or canceled
7. Recycling orders from other mills and garment companies. 5b. Large vertical mills (chemical
textile waste They offer discounted fabrics for small garment companies) produce fiber, yarn, greige
production, and are a very good resource for fabric, and finished fabric (one mill does
Discarded garments, factory waste, startup designers looking for small amounts of all production functions).
fabric that is immediately available and less
and other fabric mill waste should expensive than retail fabric stores. 5c. Small mills (fabric mills) are often
very good at developing fabrics but use
not be shipped to landfills. New an independent sales force to show and
sell their fabrics. These mills are often
technology is now available to recycle family-owned, having produced textiles
for generations.
textile products back into new fiber

or yarns. It is the designer’s

responsibility to select fabrics that

can be reused or recycled, sustaining

the future textile supply chain.

22 The language of textiles The supply chain 23

10 About this book

Section three: The textile directory Chapter one:
(pages 48–287)
Structure: form that stands away
This comprehensive directory of textiles features everything from natural-fiber textiles from the body, line created
such as linen and cotton to the latest technological manmade fabrics. It is organized through shaping and seam detail.
into five color-coded chapters intended to lead the designer quickly to the right fabric.
Chapter two:
The icons Enlargement Fashion photography
(see page 13) Fluidity: fabrics that flow over the
Where relevant, an Many of the textiles in the directory are body, following the human form.
enlarged photo of the illustrated with full-color photographs
fabric is provided. straight from the catwalk; demonstrating Chapter three:
how fabrics are used in garments.
Ornamentation: creating details
Velvet This deep gray velvet absorbs and reflects Facts and figures that will enhance the design.
light in the folds of the fabric. The rayon Distinctive features
Velvet is considered one of the most luxurious fabrics. Its • Deep cut pile using soft-fiber yarn. Chapter four:
soft, deep, plush cut-pile surface is uniquely produced on and silk blend is a soft and luxurious • Always very soft hand.
a special loom. fabric with a beautiful drape. • Almost always excellent drape. Expansion: exaggerating shapes
away from the body.
The depth or length of the cut pile is approximately the same for The quality of the velvet fabric is based on the type of Strengths
all velvets. Velvet is always a woven fabric, although many fiber used to produce the fabric. Velvet often uses two • Cut-pile face gives a luxurious soft hand Chapter five:
knitted fabrics are incorrectly called velvet. different fibers: one fiber for the ground fabric and
Velvet is used for evening jackets and coats, blazers, dresses another fiber for the deep-cut pile. Still, the most to the garment. Compression: compacting
(both long and short), lingerie and loungewear, and evening blouses luxurious velvet—silk velvet—is now commonly blended • Back side does not have a nap, which the body, following the exact
and skirts. Simple lines for the design are usually required because with rayon for a soft, drapey effect. A less expensive fiber shape of the body.
sewing such a deep-cut pile fabric is more complicated than sewing is often used for the ground cloth, such as polyester or makes for easier construction.
a shorter cut-pile velveteen (see page 102). even nylon, and the more expensive, softer fiber is used • Simple designs create beautiful garments. Within these five categories the fabric
for the cut pile, such as rayon or silk. entries are organized by weight, working
Nap direction is very important, as with any napped fabric. Nap- Weaknesses progressively from top weight to bottom
up direction is especially recommended for velvet because the color • Must consider direction of nap when weight. Each textile entry includes a
change in nap-down direction is quite noticeable in such deep, discussion of the textile’s qualities; a list
luxurious cut-pile fabric. creating design and cutting fabric. of distinctive features; strengths and
• Cannot press seams easily—nap will weaknesses; and usual fiber content. The
information is accompanied by a series of
be crushed. photographs of fabric samples showing
• Cannot sit in velvet garment for long the breadth of textiles available within
each category, as well as relevant and
periods—nap will be crushed from inspiring images of the particular textile
body weight. used for a fashion garment.

Usual fiber content
• 100 percent silk.
• Silk/rayon blends.
• Silk or rayon cut pile, combined with

polyester or nylon ground fabric.

Two-color velvet Crushed velvet Velvet burnout Velvet coat and
Iridescent velvet is a good design choice. The surface of velvet can be intentionally This sample shows a burnout print on a velvet skirt
Ground fabric color is different than the crushed using a fabric finish. The result is velvet fabric. It is one method of introducing Velvet is an elegant fabric. This
cut pile, showing two colors. more reflection of light from the napped pattern onto the fabric without crushing long, sweeping coat (left) uses deep
surface, lightening the fabric color and the surface. brown velvet to express luxury. The
186 Fluidity increasing the surface shine. shredded hemline on the skirt (far
left) is an interesting use of such an
elegant fabric. Designers have the
option of using elegant fabrics in
unusual ways if they wish.

Velvet 187
▲ •••
Facts and figures Facts and figures
••• Distinctive features •••
Distinctive features • Visible horizontal (cross-grain)

• Fine horizontal (cross-grain) ribs created ribbed texture.
by larger weft yarns. Larger weft yarns • Stiff hand depending on the yarn size
add a slight stiffness or “crisp” hand.
and fiber content in the weft direction.
• In silk fiber, broadcloth has a beautiful
drape and weight for dresses and jackets. Strengths
• Crisp hand (nylon blend adds
• In cotton/polyester blends, is one of the
most common fabrics in low-cost apparel. more stiffness).
• Easily available in many fiber contents
Broadcloth Strengths Poplin
• Crisp hand. and prices.
Most commonly used as a shirt fabric, broadcloth has • Easily available in many fiber contents. One of the most versatile fabrics used today, poplin is an This solid-color poplin • Visible ribbed texture.
become a popular fabric for a variety of clothing. The fine, • Very slight ribbed texture.
horizontal (cross-grain direction), ribbed texture is barely This 100 percent • Tailors well. unbalanced plain weave, resulting in a cross-grain ribbed fabric is a common Weaknesses The icons
noticeable and is sometimes confused with a balanced, cotton broadcloth surface texture. The rib is more visible than in broadcloth, fiber mixture, • Cotton fiber fabrics wrinkle badly.
plain-weave fabric. It is this ribbed texture that gives the has a fine Weaknesses so the weft yarn is larger than in broadcloth. combining 100 • Ribbed surface subject to abrasion. Graphic icons appear on
fabric a natural crispness that tailors well for shirt and horizontally • Rayon or cotton fiber fabrics wrinkle badly. percent nylon warp each textile entry and
blouse details on collars, cuffs, pockets, and button tabs. ribbed surface • Easy to confuse with square weave. yarns and 100 Usual fiber content indicate fabric weight
that is barely • Ribbed surface subject to abrasion. • 55 percent cotton (weft)/45 percent and structure at a
Broadcloth is a popular fabric available in many fiber contents. noticeable, One of the reasons why poplin has become such a versatile percent cotton weft glance. They also
The hand, visual appearance, and drape are influenced by the especially on this Usual fiber content fabric is the way it is produced. The textile mill can use the yarns. This poplin nylon (warp)—jackets/pants or shirts in illustrate any special
fiber content and the yarns used. Regardless of the fiber used, high-contrast, • Cotton fiber fabrics often use a mercerized same fine warp yarns and change the weft yarn according is widely used in lighter weight. features of the textile,
yarns are always smooth and evenly twisted. Cost is determined by digitally printed to the customer’s order. Fabric weights range from top weights for outerwear and • 55 percent polyester (weft)/45 percent such as water resistance
primarily by the fiber content. floral image. finish to enhance the luster and strength casual pants, nylon (warp)—outerwear. or a wicking action. The
of the fabric. shorts, and skirts. • 100 percent polyester—outerwear. icons allow the designer
• Polyester/cotton fiber blends are used for • 100 percent nylon—outerwear. to understand the basic
better wrinkle resistance. shirts, blouses, and very lightweight bottoms, to medium weights • 100 percent cotton. Design qualities of a fabric
• Rayon or polyester/rayon fibers are used without the need for a
for inexpensive fabrics that are very for jackets, pants, and skirts. responsibly lot of reading.
soft and drapey.
• Silk fiber is used for heavyweight Because of the ease with which the DESIGN RESPONSIBLY Throughout the directory,
silk broadcloth. weft yarn is changed, poplins are most where relevant, the
author raises any
likely blended fabrics, with the warp Blending nonabsorbent fiber like nylon or ecological concerns,
yarns one fiber content, and the larger other quick-drying fiber like hemp with good or bad, to maintain
weft yarns another fiber content. Fiber cotton fiber will result in reduced energy awareness of the
content and yarn size will determine required for drying fabric. designer’s responsibility
the end use of the poplin. to consider the
environmental and
Pima cotton broadcloth Yarn-dyed cotton broadcloth Silk broadcloth Nylon/cotton poplin Nylon/cotton poplin 100 percent cotton, printed sociological impact of
Most commonly used in men’s dress shirts, Dyeing yarn before weaving helps to keep Lustrous silk filament yarns are often used to Because of the nylon warp, this medium- This poplin is frequently used in pants and stripe poplin using certain textiles.
high-quality Pima cotton fiber will give a color in the fabric longer. Yarn dyeing requires create luxurious broadcloth for tailored shirts weight poplin is very strong and is shorts. The nylon fiber content allows the This is a low-quality poplin because the
lustrous, smooth surface and a soft hand more time and is considered a higher quality and dresses. The unbalanced, ribbed plain considered an important fabric for men’s fabric to dry quickly. There is no coating. yarns are not tightly compacted together.
to the broadcloth. than printing. weave contributes to this fabric’s crisp hand. casual jackets and pants. This sample has a The stripe has been printed onto the fabric.
water-resistant coating on the back.
Broadcloth • Poplin 61
60 Structure

Textile swatches Color coding Continued

Each textile featured includes swatches of some of the Each chapter of the
many different ways the textile can appear as a fabric. directory is color coded.

About this book 11

The concept Minimum-loft quilt Facts and figures Facts and
of quilting
Quilting a fabric gives the designer great flexibility Distinctive features figures
in creating unique and interesting fabrics specifically
for a design. • Three-layer fabric, with an exposed For each fabric entry,
stitching on the face of the quilt. there is a listing of
Minimum-loft quilted fabrics are the least bulky and are facts and figures
most frequently used in fashion jackets and coats. The • Lofty (puffy) texture, outlined by the including distinctive
face can be a patchwork fabric sewn together, or a sewn stitches. features, strengths and
pattern of sewn stitches on the solid-color face fabric. The function weaknesses, and usual
of the quilted fabric will determine what fabric the designer • Sometimes specific sewn stitching fiber content.
chooses for the face. designs on the face of the quilt.

Quilting is a traditional method to create warmth by combining three The point of quilted fabric is to provide thermal insulation or Strengths
layers of fabric and fiber together. Originally hand-stitched together, warmth, which is the function of the filler or batting. Massed
quilting fabrics can be machine stitched or even heat-set together. polyester fiber is most commonly used for the filler because it does • Good thermal insulation.
not absorb moisture and dries quickly. Cotton-fiber batting absorbs • Subtle lofty appearance.
The purpose of quilting is not only to create something that will keep you moisture and therefore is not recommended. Wool fiber can be • Resilient due to filler layer.
warm, but also to expand garment silhouettes. In the apparel industry, used, but it has similar problems to cotton batting. The backing
quilting has developed into beautifully designed and highly technical can be a lining fabric in either balanced plain weave or tricot knit. Light polyester Weaknesses
fabrics. Quilting creates lofty fabrics that expand the silhouette of the body. fiberfill is used
There are different design purposes for quilting and different degrees of loft, on this diamond • Bulky, sometimes difficult to cut and sew.
and the pages that follow will explain this in more detail. stitch patterned • Pressing seams is difficult, and using few
quilted fabrics.
It is important to remember the purpose of each fabric layer when selecting seams in a design is recommended.
fabrics for a quilted garment. Designers must decide on the type of stitching, • Sewing stitched designs may require
thread, and degree of loft required.
matching or balancing the cut pieces.

Outer layer Filling the fibers will work their Usual fiber content
This is the side that will be seen The filling provides the way through the face or
the most, so it should reflect thickness or loft of the back fabric. A high-density • There is no guidance on fiber content
the designer’s vision. Face fabric quilt, so the resilience, lining fabric to prevent for the face and backing. However,
is usually top-weight. thickness, durability of fiber or down/feathers the function of the design, fit, and
the loft, and care issues from emerging through care instructions should be considered
should all be considered. the fabric face or the when selecting fabrics.
It is important to test the backing may be required.
filling to see whether

Quilted vest Back Channel-quilted fabric Stitched design on a solid Vintage quilt fabric
Creating a quilted The backing is the quilt support and can be Stitched in parallel rows, channel quilting The cotton sateen face of this fabric is an
fabric always quite inexpensive, or it can be a lining fabric if can be used for minimum- to high-loft color fabric ideal fabric for a quilted jacket. Until the
involves stitching the quilt is intended as a jacket. Comfort, hand, quilts, or for garments. Note the low profile This sateen fabric could be used for a quilted 1960s, cotton batting with a gauze backing
an interesting and durability are all considerations for choosing of this channel quilting—it would be simple fashion jacket. Notice the machine-stitched was used to construct most quilted fabrics.
pattern onto the the best backing. Backing is usually top-weight. to sew. This quilting uses the same sheeting design, which is its main feature. It imitates
fabric surface. fabric on both face and back. a hand-stitched trapunto effect.
This metallic fabric
has been modified •••
by stitching a Quilting 249
diamond pattern
onto the surface. Diagrams

Textile “concepts” Where a fabric has a specific technical quality,
clear graphic diagrams explain how the textile
Throughout the directory, key textile and garment is structured and how it functions.
construction concepts, such as quilting, pleating,
and interlining are explained, with photographs
and diagrams illustrating the idea.

Section four: The charts (pages 288–311) Glossary, resources,
and fold-out flap
The guides are a series of informative charts, which condense and present a lot of the
information at the heart of the directory into highly functional tables. Organized by At the end of the book you’ll find
fabric structure—weave, knit, or massed fiber—they give information on fiber content, a glossary of essential terms used
yarn type, fabric names, fabric weight, advantages and disadvantages, any finishes, and in the book and listings of
end use. The charts include the icons, cross refer to directory page numbers, and are resources, including further reading,
color-coded so that you can easily find the relevant chapter in the directory. useful Websites, and relevant
organizations. Opposite page 319
Balanced plain weave (square weave) there is a fold-out flap that features
a handy instant reference to the
Weave name Usual fibers Usual yarns Fabric Usual fabric Advantages Disadvantages Usual End use Chapter icons; you can leave it open while
Balanced plain weave used used names weight finishing Tops, dresses you look at the book so that you
Top weight • Sheer/drapable • Weak fabric—pulls apart at seams • Softener Blouses ● won’t need to keep referring back
Cotton staple Simple spun Lawn (p.56) • Shrinks easily ● to the icon explanation.
Batiste (p.56) Top weight • Sheer/crisp hand • Wrinkles easily • Light resin ●
• Uncomfortable Color coding
Organdy (p.231) • Plaids • Shrinks easily
• Inexpensive • Colors can bleed Each fabric listed in the charts is
Madras (p.62) Top weight • Easily available • Shrinks easily • Softener Shirts, blouses, shorts ● color-coded to correspond with
• Tailors well Shirts, dresses, skirts the chapters in the directory.
Gingham (pp.62–63) Top weight • Shrinks easily • All: preshrunk, ●
Chambray (p.57) • Tailors well softener ●
Calico (p.57) • Shrinks easily ●
• Tailors well • Water may ruin stiff finish
Muslin (p.81) Top or bottom weight • Holds shapes well • Light resin Design, pants, skirts, ●
Sheeting (p.80) • Unrefined appearance dresses, tops, jackets ●
Cotton lawn • Holds shapes well • Lightweights less abrasion resistant • Brushed
Flannelette (p.77) Medium weight • Tailors well • Heavy resin Sleepwear, babywear ●
• Poor tailoring Millinery, design
Crinoline (p.232) Heavyweight • Excellent drape • Weak fabric—pulls apart at seams • Fulling/ details, hemlines ●
Buckram (p.233) • Sheer/soft hand • Shrinks easily preshrunk ●
• Wrinkles easily Jackets, blazers, suits
Cotton, wool, or Homespun (p.84) Medium weight • Crisp hand • Seams wear out ●
rayon staple • Tailors well
• Excellent texture • Ray wrinkles easily
Cotton staple High-twist Voile (p.138) Top weight • Drapes/tailors well • Seams may pull apart • Softener Tops, dresses, skirts ●
Gauze (p.139) Top or bottom weight • May pill ●
Top to medium weight • Tailors well • Somewhat bulky
Printed chiffon Flax staple Simple spun Linen/Crash • Soft hand • Pulls apart at seams • Beetling Shirts, blouses, jackets, ●
slub yarn (p.78) • Smooth, lustrous • Pulls apart at seams pants, skirts, suits
• Sheer, drapable • Pulls apart at seams
Wool rayon staple Simple spun Challis (p.148) • Smooth, lustrous • Expensive, static buildup •Fulling/preshrunk Tops, skirts, dresses ●
• Smooth, drapable
Wool staple Simple spun Flannel (p.76) Bottom weight • Water-resistant • Shrinks when wet, if rayon •Fulling/preshrunk Suits, jackets, ●
• Sheer, drapable dresses, slacks
• Resilient ●
Polyester/rayon Multifilament Lining (pp.140–141) Top weight • Preshrunk Inside linings ●
filament or silk ●
filament Micro- Chiffon (p.136) Top weight • Softener Blouses, dresses ●
multifilament
Textured China silk (p.140) Top weight • Sizing Linings, tops, dresses ●
high-twist
Printed challis High-density fabrics Top or medium weight • Water-resistant Outerwear,
(pp.58–59)
finish outdoor clothing

Georgette (p.137) Top weight • Softener, if Blouses, dresses
needed

Note: Elastic fabrics using complex elastic yarns can be produced in nearly all woven/knitted fabrics. Check with your fabric supplier.
Note: Faux suede can be produced in woven/knitted/massed-fiber fabrics.

292 The charts Balanced plain weave 293

12 About this book•••

The icons resistance, or wicking. Below is a key to all of the
icons. This list also appears on the fold-out flap
The icons illustrate the qualities and structure of a opposite page 319. For convenience you can keep
textile at a glance. They indicate the weight of the the flap open while you use the book.
fabric and whether it’s woven, knitted, or massed
fiber, and any particular qualities, such as pile, water

Fabric weight Fabric production method

Top weight or lightweight fabrics Knits
(below 4 oz/113 g)
Blouses, shirts, tops, soft skirts, Weft knits Warp knits
and dresses.
Single knit Raschel knit
Medium-weight fabrics
(4 oz/113 g–below 6 oz/170 g) Double knit Tricot knit
Soft tops and bottoms with little
structure. Dresses, tailored shirts, Loop pile Loop pile
and lightweight jackets.
Fiber to fabric Fiber to fabric
Bottom-weight fabrics (massed fiber)
(above 6 oz/170 g)
Tailored jackets, skirts, and
pants. Outerwear, coats, jeans,
casual pants, and skirts.

Fabric production method Satin weave Finishes
Weaves Jacquard weave
Dobby weave Brushed/sanded
Balanced (square) Loop pile
plain weave Velvet weave Cut (sheared) pile
Coated finish
Unbalanced Laminated
plain weave Water-resistant

Basketweave About this book 13

Twill weave

•••



Responsible
design

In this chapter, the designer’s
role in garment production will
be explored, with a focus on
responsible design and materials
selection, awareness of the life cycle
of a garment, and the sustainability
of fabric production for the future.

The future of
fabric production

Clothing consumption in the future can only be sustained
when resources are conserved and workers in the clothing
industry are respected.

Sustaining fiber and fabric production production. Originating in the 1960s
for the future of the apparel industry “hippie” movement, that rejected
requires the designer to fully manufactured fiber in favor of natural
understand the components that support fibers such as cotton or wool, this
the fiber and fabric industries: thinking continues today among designers.
However, innovations in fiber, driven
Land: arable land used for raw material by the demand for high performance
and fiber production. fabrics, and the need to find additional
Chemicals: quantity and type of raw material supplies, have complicated
chemicals used. fiber choices.
Water: high water use.
Energy: high energy use. Natural fiber: Positives and negatives
Waste: fiber and fabric thrown away; Positives: renewable; feels good against
chemicals and wastewater discarded. the body; perceived luxury.
Negatives: excessive use of chemicals and
An increasing global population demands water; chemicals and wastewater drained
more apparel. Therefore, the designer from cropland; too much land devoted to
must choose fiber and fabrics that are fiber production that is needed to grow
more efficient in production and that food; large quantities of fiber and fabric
reduce environmental impact. For many discarded before garment production.
designers and consumers alike, organic
fiber is the solution to the complex Manufactured fiber
environmental issues that surround fiber Manufactured fiber is produced using a
and fabric production. In the future, variety of raw materials. Fibers produced
the choice between natural fiber, and from oil (polyester, nylon, spandex, acrylic,
manufactured fiber, and how the fabrics and olefin) were developed between the
are produced must be carefully considered. 1950s and the 1970s. Fibers produced
from plant raw materials (rayon and
Natural fiber acetate) were developed over a century
Occurring in nature, natural fiber is ago, and since the late 1990s they are
perceived as the best option when becoming more popular again, with the
considering the impact on the introduction of PLA (corn) fiber, bamboo
environment of fiber and fabric rayon, and others. Manufactured fiber
consumes large amounts of energy and
Soaking cocoons in water is an important step produces chemical emissions and chemical
when separating silk fiber from the cocoon. waste. Many innovations have now made
The energy and water used to process the silk some fiber production methods more
fiber involves a labor-intensive process and efficient and produce less emissions and
has yet to be measured in terms of its waste than ever before.
environmental impact.

Manufactured fiber: Positives Land
and negatives Renewable fibers and
Positives: Oil-based fibers (polyester and renewable raw materials for
nylon) can now be recycled into new, fiber can occupy arable land
high-quality fiber and can be manipulated that could be used for food
for high-function fabrics. Plant-based or energy production.
manufactured fibers generally feel good Traditional natural fibers
against the skin. New fibers have been require large land areas for
developed that nearly eliminate chemical production. New renewable
pollution. There is often less fiber waste raw materials for
before fabric production than with natural manufactured fiber, such as
fiber production. corn, soy, and bamboo are
Negatives: Both types of manufactured competing with biomass
fiber produce chemical emissions and energy-production resources.
chemical waste that is expensive to Therefore, the efficient use
neutralize and that is bad for the of land for fiber production
environment. Oil-based fibers use a must be considered.
nonrenewable raw material. Generally,
these fibers don’t feel good against the Water TOP: Removing washed garments
skin unless they are manipulated to Water is the new gold, from large washing machines. The
address moisture control. Large quantities as the global population wet garments are extremely heavy,
of fiber and fabric are discarded before expands and the requiring manual strength to load
garment production. uncertainties of climate into dryers. BOTTOM: Settling tanks
change make traditional to remove solid waste (dye, resins,
Considering sustainability water resources and other chemicals) from
Regardless of the designer’s point of view unpredictable. Designers wastewater after denim washing.
about the fiber selected, always consider must consider water use in Designers should consider how
its future sustainability. Assumptions fabric selection and garment their designs use water, particularly
regarding traditional fiber choices must be finishing. For example, in developing nations, where safe
challenged, and it is the designer’s role to cotton fiber, produced in large drinking water is not always
forge new paths to show how emerging quantities and accounting for nearly half available to the local population.
fiber and fabric innovations can be of global fiber production, requires
adopted rather than resisted. 1,400–2,100 gallons (5,300–7,950
liters) of water per pound (454 grams)
Land, water, and energy resources of fiber, whether conventionally or
Designers need to understand the organically grown.
consequences of creating garments that
require large amounts of land, water, and In addition, garment producers
energy to make the fabrics and produce now regularly garment-wash finished
the garments. The designer must also products for a softer, worn look that
inform the target market about how they the consumer expects. Denim garment
can conserve water and energy during the washing uses large quantities of water
care of the product. mixed with chemicals to achieve the
desired color, softness, and appearance.

The future of fabric production 17

Line-drying fabric is common in Denim jean producers are often located in need to be aware of innovations in the
developing countries, using very developing countries, where clean drinking textile field that will reduce energy use.
little energy to dry the fabric. This water is at a premium. The vast amount of Recycling fiber, particularly polyester and
method may cause the dye to dry wastewater from denim jean washing is nylon fibers, can greatly reduce the energy
unevenly. Therefore, to prevent not always cleaned before it is returned to required in production and create a new
uneven color distribution in the the water system, making safe drinking “closed loop” supply chain. Designers can
fabric or garments, most drying in water less available to the local now create products that, at the end of
production is accomplished by population. Designers must consider how their lives, can be recycled into new, high-
tumble-action dryers, consuming water is being used to create their designs. quality fiber, using substantially less energy
significant amounts of energy in You should also be aware of innovations in than in the production of virgin fiber. It is
heat generation. fiber, fabric, and garment washing that your responsibility to know about these
will reduce water consumption. energy-saving innovations and translate
them into your designs.
In addition to the water used for
clothing production, 80 percent of water Passive solar air-drying (or “line-
used in the lifetime of a garment is drying”) should be encouraged by the
devoted to consumer care. Designers can designer to reduce energy used during
inspire consumers to conserve water in the consumer care. Avoiding the dryer not
care of their clothing through creative care only conserves energy but extends the
labels and marketing. wearing life of a garment.

Energy Lead by example
Greenhouse gas emissions, usually in Conserving basic resources for sustaining
the form of carbon dioxide created during fiber, fabric, and garment production for
the generation of energy, are a major the future requires the designer to lead
concern for global warming. Designers by example, selecting raw materials and

creating designs that use land, water, and produce complicated designs quickly can TOP: A worker applying chemicals to
energy efficiently and reduce chemical use. encourage suppliers to exploit labor in individual jeans for a particular
Awareness of conservation is a part of the developing countries. Designers must “worn” appearance. BOTTOM: Sewers
designer’s role, providing leadership by engage in discussions about creating in a garment factory’s sewing line.
experimenting with production innovations designs that can be produced using fair Protecting the health and safety of
as a part of the creative process. labor practices. Their designs should take garment workers must be part of
into account how much waste is being the designer’s responsibility.
Society and the generated in production, both fabric-
environment respected cutting waste and wastewater containing
Designers have the opportunity to dyes, bleach, and other chemicals.
influence the fashion industry’s social Designers must understand the impact
and environmental responsibility through on local society of these waste products
“smart” design. Good labor practices generated in the production of
and clean waste and wastewater disposal their designs.
practices must be discussed in the design
room. Insisting that all parts of the Environmental responsibility
fashion industry treat workers and their According to the United States
communities fairly and do no harm to Environmental Protection Agency, all
the environment as a part of the design clothing will go to a landfill, even
process will bring more awareness of the donations that are given to charity.
designer’s influence. All clothing, whether organic
cotton or polyester, will
Smart design eventually be thrown away
Integrating innovation into new products unless it is recycled into new
is the role of the designer. Designing fiber, so it is the designer’s
products that have “zero cutting waste,” responsibility to design
using sewing labor efficiently and, products that can have
choosing materials that are sustainable multiple lives. The concept
and have multiple lives is not included in of reuse has been limited
the majority of clothing design educational to those who are unable to
programs. It will be up to the designer to afford new. Today, reuse
see for themselves how to implement means diverting products
design innovations that: from landfill and continuously
• Use sewing labor efficiently. using them in varying forms.
• Choose materials that can be sustained Therefore, in addition to the
waste products mentioned, designers
easily and be recycled. must consider what happens to their
• Reduce cutting waste to zero. product when the consumer has finished
• Design products that have more than using it. Selecting materials that can be
reused or recycled is one way to begin
one life. avoiding landfill use.

Social responsibility
Treating sewing factory workers fairly is
one of the fashion industry’s biggest
challenges. Seeking low-cost labor to

The future of fabric production 19



The language
of textiles

The ability to communicate easily,
using terms that the textile industry
understands, is a skill successful
designers need to master. This
chapter will help the designer
understand what questions he or
she must be prepared to ask when
visiting textile suppliers: What is
the function of the design? What is
the fabric construction? Does fiber
content matter? What fabric weight
is required? When is fabric needed?

The supply chain 2

Most designers are unable to effectively communicate their fabric 2. Yarn mills
needs in terms that the industry easily understands. This section
will summarize how the textile industry functions to help the There are different types of yarn mills that make
designer describe their fabric needs in the industry. hundreds of different types of yarn, creating
texture, elasticity, soft drape, or other design
The textile supply chain is poorly understood by the new requirements. Some yarns are produced for
designer, so this chart is intended to describe how fabric knitting into garments, bypassing the fabric
is produced, shown, and sold. production process. Yarns are often dyed before
knitting into garments or making into fabric.
1a 1b

1a. Natural fiber 1b. Manufactured Recycling

Ranchers, herders, and fibers
farmers ship natural fiber
to yarn mills to be made Manufactured fibers—oil-
into yarn. based or plant-based raw
materials—are made into
8. Landfills fiber at chemical fiber
mills. Fiber is then shipped
The EPA classifies textiles and to yarn mills for yarn
clothing as all eventually going to production.
landfill, regardless of fiber content.
Approximately 4–5 percent of all Recycling discarded garments Finished Manufacturing g
solid waste is textile related. It is garments
important to select fabrics that
can be reused or recycled after arments
production and after the consumer
has finished with the garment. 7 Factory cut waste

8 7. Recycling textile waste

Discarded garments, factory waste,

and other fabric mill waste should

not be shipped to landfills. New

technology is now available to recycle

textile products back into new fiber

or yarns. It is the designer’s

responsibility to select fabrics that

can be reused or recycled, sustaining

the future textile supply chain.

22 The language of textiles

3 4. Finishing mills 4
5
3. Textile mills Finishing (converting) the greige fabric produces
fabric that the designer will recognize. Finishing
Textile (fabric) mills produce knitted or or converting fabric involves three major steps:
woven fabric from the yarns. This fabric
is called “greige fabric” (unfinished 4a. Scouring (cleaning) and bleaching
fabric) and is unrecognizable as being (preparing for color). This scoured and bleached
usable for clothing. fabric is called “prepared for dyeing” (PFD) or
“prepared for printing” (PFP). The fabric is used
6. The designer for sewn garments that are later dyed (called
sources fabric garment-dyeing).

6a. Textile trade shows: 4b. Adding color and images (dyeing
Most fabric shows are and printing).
international. Fabric mills and
converters bring their fabrics to 4c. Adding aesthetic or functional finishes.
central locations to be shown:
Paris, Shanghai, New York, 6a 5. New sample fabric
Como, Florence, Prato, Hong is ready
Kong, Los Angeles, and 6c. Samples and sample yardage: Designers
Hamburg, for various select fabric samples (sometimes called “hangers” Production time is approximately five
categories of apparel. or “sample cards”) and/or sample yardage to six months from fiber production to
6b. Sales agencies: (3–15 yards/meters) they want to test in garment final finishing. New sample fabrics that
Multinational trading design. Finished garments are shown to retail are prepared for the new season can
companies often represent buyers before fabric is ordered. be prepared faster, but bulk production
many mills. Trading companies time for garment production will take
hire sales representatives 6d. Design teams and merchandising teams: one to two months from greige goods,
and agents to sell their mills’ To determine the fabric selection. The sampling or three to four months from yarn
fabrics. Converters and vertical process can take up to six weeks before decisions production to final finishing.
mills often have their own are finalized. Once the decisions are made about
sales team. the fabric for the new collection, production staff 5a. Large converter mills buy greige
order the fabric from the sales agent. fabric from textile mills and finish
6e (convert) fabric to produce the
6e. Jobbers: These important fabric suppliers buy interesting, creative fabrics that
leftover fabric, slightly damaged fabric, or canceled designers expect to see.
orders from other mills and garment companies.
They offer discounted fabrics for small garment 5b. Large vertical mills (chemical
production, and are a very good resource for companies) produce fiber, yarn, greige
startup designers looking for small amounts of fabric, and finished fabric (one mill does
fabric that is immediately available and less all production functions).
expensive than retail fabric stores.
5c. Small mills (fabric mills) are often
very good at developing fabrics but use
an independent sales force to show and
sell their fabrics. These mills are often
family-owned, having produced textiles
for generations.

The supply chain 23

Fabric orientation Bias
(45-degree angle
Like reading a map, planning a garment design across the fabric)
requires the designer to describe the fabric in
terms of direction and placement. Grain line Top
direction greatly influences the performance
of the fabric in the garment silhouette.
Placement will influence fabric
texture, color, and
pattern matching.

It is essential to understand basic Piece
fabric terminology. This diagram (roll)
provides a visual landscape of how
any fabric is described during the Straight grain
designing, fitting, cutting, and (warp)
sewing process.

The fabric side intended for the
outside of the garment is called the
“face.” The designer can choose and
clearly mark for the “face” side. The
textile mill should be informed of the
designer’s intention so the fabric face
can be well inspected. The side
intended for the inside of the
garment is called the “back.”

Top and bottom Cross-grain
(weft or filling)
Knowing the top and bottom of a fabric will assist in determining
the orientation of the garment pieces being cut. Face

• You should know the nap direction of a brushed or cut-pile fabric (nap-up and nap-
down): the up and down directions are determined from the “top” of the fabric.

• A one-way image on a fabric must have pattern pieces cut in the same direction.
Determining the “top” of the fabric will direct the fabric cutters as to how to lay
down the pattern pieces on the fabric.

Selvage

Velvet (bottom: nap-up and top: One-way image
nap-down)

24 The language of textiles

Terms to know Bias grain

Grain lines on the fabric guide the designer as to how to use the Bias is a very creative grain line because it can cause the fabric to
fabric’s characteristics to the design’s best advantage. Both become stretchable as well as flexible or drapey. A bias grain line is
woven and knitted fabrics have grain lines—straight grain, always at a 45-degree angle from the straight grain line and is the only
cross-grain, and bias grain. diagonal grain line used in pattern-making. Bias grain lines cause the

fabric to flare away from the

body in very interesting ways.

Straight grain Both woven and knitted fabrics

Straight grain is the strongest use bias grain.

direction of the fabric, which

is best at resisting pulling and True biasStraight grain (warp) Other terms
tearing. Designers use the Selvage
straight grain for strength 45-degree “Selvage” is the finished edge
and to keep the fabric close angle of woven fabric. In knitted fabric,
to the body. In woven fabrics, the edge of the fabric can be the
straight grain is also called Selvage cut edge or similar to the woven
the “warp” direction. In Cross-grain (weft) fabric edge. In both fabrics, the
knitted fabrics, it is called selvage helps to stabilize the
“straight grain.” edges of the fabric for accurate
cutting. In red selvage denim,
Cross-grain red yarns are woven into the
The direction of cross-grain selvage, and the selvage becomes
wovens will provide a little a visible part of the design.
“give” or slight expansion of
the fabric, which can “Piece” refers to a roll of fabric.
accommodate normal body Mass-produced fabric is rolled
expansions such as sitting or onto cardboard tubes, usually in
breathing. The fabric will 50- or 100-yard (50- or 100-
tend to fall away from the meter) quantities. It is common
body, not stay close, in the to ask for one “piece” of fabric
cross-grain direction. for design sampling. Only the
In woven fabrics, it is also terms “roll” or “piece” are used
called the “weft” or “filling” to refer to fabric for shipment.
direction. In knitted fabrics,

it is called “cross-grain.”

Selvage Further reading
There are many textile engineering books
available; check the recommended
reference books on page 315 for
suggestions on further reading.

Back Bottom
Fabric orientation 25

Fiber

Fiber is the basic building block of breathe. Crop emissions are unregulated
textiles. Fibers are tiny, hairlike by clean air monitors, while manufactured
strands that are combined to create fiber mill emissions are controlled.
yarn and fabric.
Conservation of fiber supply
There are two different types of fiber Innovations in fiber are especially
that go into the manufacture concerned with how to conserve the
of yarn for fabric: fiber already produced. Designers must
stay aware of these innovations to
Staple: Short strands. Cotton is up to integrate them into their work.
21⁄2 in (6 cm) long and stem (flax) fiber
is longer. High-quality staple fiber is finer Fiber reuse: Cut cotton fabric waste
and longer, and low-quality staple fiber is now collected and made into new
is coarser and shorter. yarns and fabric. Wool fabrics have
been recycled into new products for
Filament: Continuous strands. High- generations.
quality filament fiber is usually finer and
stronger, but quality is mostly determined Recycling into new, high-quality fiber:
by the end use of the fiber. All polyester and certain nylon fibers can
be recycled. Designers should produce
The fiber supply chain for fabric is garments that can be easily recycled into
complex, including the resources needed new fiber.
for natural fiber and for manufactured
fiber. This complexity makes the Here, cotton waste has been bagged for
transparency of the textile industry for landfill. Methods now exist to collect fiber
social and environmental concerns difficult and fabric waste at the mills and to use it
to maintain. There are several issues of for further yarn and fabric production.
concern in fiber production.

Social and environmental impact
Water use: Cotton accounts for nearly
half of global fiber production and uses
large amounts of water compared to other
natural fibers. In addition, approximately
one-third of the cotton harvest is usable.
Hemp, bamboo, and flax (linen) use less
water and have a higher yield than cotton.

The image at the top is texturized Energy use: Manufactured fiber
polyester fiber. Texturizing is one consumes large amounts of energy in
way to imitate natural fiber like production, but little water. Fiber
cotton or wool. The other three production is very efficient, however.
images are of natural fiber
sources: hemp, silk, and nettle. Emissions generated: Crop chemicals
and manufactured fiber production
generate emissions that are unhealthy to

26 The language of textiles

This microscopic image of two
different fibers, wool (light brown)
and synthetic (red), shows differences
in fiber surface texture and shape.
These and other distinguishing
features create the different fiber
characteristics described in the fiber
charts over the page

Fiber 27

Natural staple fiber Fiber characteristics

Fiber name Positive Negative
Plant (cellulose) fiber
Staple fiber Seed fiber (from seed pod) Characteristics of all plant seed fiber
Staple fiber can be either Cotton
natural fiber or manufactured Kapok Absorbent Not colorfast in dark tones
fiber. Characterized as short
fiber, usually no longer than Bast (stem) fiber Strong when wet Shrinks
about 21⁄2 in (6.4 cm), each Flax (linen) Conducts heat well Heavy fiber when wet
fiber source provides certain Hemp Good abrasion resistance Not fast-drying
characteristics to the fiber. Ramie No static buildup Poor resilience
This chart summarizes these Bamboo Dyes well Can be attacked by
characteristics for the designer. Kenaf Matte appearance mildew/pests
Nettle Flammable
Jute No elasticity
Fair resistance to sun

Characteristics of all plant bast fiber

Very absorbent Not colorfast in dark tones

Very strong when wet Brittle on folded edges

Excellent abrasion resistance Poor resilience

No static buildup Fair resistance to sun

Accepts dye moderately well Flammable

Doesn’t shrink much

Dyes well

Somewhat lustrous appearance

No elasticity

Some are mildew-resistant

Some are anti-microbial

Faster drying than cotton

Leaf fiber Varies by leaf origin Stiff, coarse hand
Sisal Poor dyeability
Pina
Abaca Characteristics of all animal fiber

Animal (protein) fiber Matte appearance Poor strength
Fleece (sheared from sheep)
Wool Good abrasion resistance Elongates easily
Merino wool
Good elastic recovery Shrinks easily

Excellent resilience Very heavy when wet

Excellent absorbency Dries slowly

Wicks moisture Can be attacked by insects

Dyes well Mulesing in shearing

Good colorfastness Sheep-dip chemicals

Retains heat well

Specialty fleece Lustrous appearance Expensive
Mohair (sheared Extremely resilient Same as for wool
from Angora goat) Very fine fiber
Resists pilling
Specialty hair Same as for wool
Cashmere (usually combed
Both plants and animals are from animal) Very soft hand Expensive
primarily staple fiber resources. Camel hair Retains heat without weight Poor abrasion resistance
From top to bottom: flax (linen); Alpaca/Vicuna Dyes well Poor strength
sisal; Angora goat (mohair). Good colorfastness Shrinks easily
Excellent resilience Can be attacked by insects
28 The language of textiles

Manufactured staple fiber Fiber characteristics

Fiber name Positive Negative
Regenerated cellulosic
Manufactured staple fiber (plant Characteristics of both rayon fibers
staple fibers material + chemicals)
Fiber created in a chemical Viscose rayon Matte appearance Poor resilience
plant can be produced as Very soft, cool hand Polluting emissions
staple fiber, too. Several Note: Other regenerated cellulose Excellent dyeability Hazardous chemical waste
common staple fibers are fibers, such as PLA, may also be used Fair colorfastness, Weakens when wet
manufactured and, when as staple fiber. especially black/deep tones Not machine washable
they are spun into yarn and Good abrasion resistance Can be attacked by mildew
fabrics, it is often difficult Lyocell rayon Very absorbent
to distinguish them from No static buildup
natural staple fiber. It is Moderate cost
important to compare fiber Poor resilience
characteristics when choosing
fabric fiber content. All of the above Moderate resilience
Machine washable Fair colorfastness
Fiber blending Higher cost than viscose
Combining two or more
different fibers into a single Synthetic staple fiber Characteristics of both polyester fibers
yarn or fabric blends the fibers’ (oil-based material + chemicals)
characteristics. Blending cotton Polyester Can be heat-set yet remain soft Static buildup
with small amounts of wool Virgin (new fiber)
can create a wrinkle-resistant Recycled polyester (recycled from Excellent resilience Nonabsorbent
fabric without chemical polyester fiber/fabric/garments)
finishing. However, when Dries fast Absorbs oil easily
washed, the garment may PET polyester (produced from
shrink unexpectedly. Blending plastic bottles) Excellent abrasion resistance Pills easily
polyester with cotton also
creates a wrinkle-resistant Note: A new generic fiber, “triexta” (USA) Strong Melts in high heat
fabric without shrinkage is partially plant-derived polyester and
concerns. Fiber blending is recyclable, reducing the need for oil- Manipulated for many functions
can be accomplished in the based raw materials and lowering energy
following ways: consumption and CO2 emissions. Easily washed/no shrinkage
Nylon
Intimate blending: mixing Virgin (new fiber) Easily blended with other fibers
staple fibers together before Recycled (from nylon fiber, fabric,
spinning yarn. Staple polyester and garments) Recyclable into high-quality fiber
and cotton fibers are mixed,
and then spun into yarn. Acrylic and modacrylic Sunlight-resistant
(polluting emissions and
Complex yarn blending: chemical waste) Resists mildew/insects
combining different fiber
content yarns together into Fast-drying Same as above
one yarn. For example, one Excellent resilience Irregular weak fiber
polyester yarn, one spandex Easily washed/no shrinkage Must be blended with
yarn, and one cotton yarn Blended for strength virgin fiber for strength
are combined into a single Easily blended with other fibers
complex yarn. Recyclable into same fiber

Fabric blending: combining Characteristics of both nylon fibers
several one-fiber content yarns
together into one fabric. Excellent strength Somewhat stiff

Excellent abrasion resistance Nonabsorbent

Easily washed/no shrinkage Weakens on long exposure

Excellent resilience to sunlight

Recyclable Poor to fair colorfastness

Resists mildew/pests in sunlight

Characteristics of both fibers

Imitates wool/hair Nonabsorbent

Moderate resilience Pills easily

Easily washed Very heat-sensitive

Fair abrasion resistance Not recyclable

May shrink

Acrylonitrile fiber chemical

emissions linked to cancer

Fiber 29

Filament fiber Manufactured fiber process
Filament fibers are continuous, hairlike The diameter and shape of the filament
strands. Filament fiber occurs as natural fiber often determines the hand, weight,
fiber and is the initial phase in producing and function of the fabric. There are four
all manufactured fiber. main fiber shapes:

Spiders and silkworms produce Round: smooth/lustrous.
continuous, smooth fiber from which to Lobed: bright sheen.
make webs and cocoons. Manufactured Serrated: textured/dull.
fiber imitates this natural method of Hollow: very lightweight.
extruding fiber from a liquid.

Manufactured filament fibers Microfiber is one filament fiber split into
Manufactured filament fibers are produced many new fibers for extremely fine, very
when a chemical fiber compound is passed flexible fiber. Microfibers are now produced
in polyester, nylon, and acrylic fibers.
through a spinneret to form filament Polyester is the most commonly used
microfiber, manipulated to function in
fibers. Manufactured fiber was developed athletic apparel for wicking moisture and
moisture resistance. Some microfibers are
over 100 years ago to dramatically increase used for extremely soft, drapey fabrics that
are also very lightweight.
Manufactured filament fiber supply for the new mass production
fibers are produced by of garments. The new clothing factories Closed loop: definition
passing a chemical fiber were expanding and in need of consistent Manufactured fiber production creates
compound through a fabric production. Imitating silk fiber was waste products that must be neutralized/
nozzle with very fine
holes called a spinneret. the original goal of manufactured fiber treated before they are released from the
mill. In closed loop production nearly
Compound research. Rayon was the new “silk” and all unused products are recycled
into new production. Minimal
created low-cost fabrics for mass wastewater is generated, although
emissions may be released.
consumption. Serrated

Examples of filament
fiber shapes

Two-
lobed

Recyclable: definition
Fiber, fabric, and garments can
be re-formed into the same or
higher-quality fiber. A chemical
process is required to break
down the textile product and
re-form it into fiber.

Hollow

Spinneret

30 The language of textiles

Regenerated cellulose filament fiber Fiber characteristics

Fiber name Positive Negative

Cellulosic filament fiber Regenerated fiber characteristics
(plant material + chemicals)
Acetate Very lustrous/shiny, Fair to poor absorbency

silk-like appearance Low heat resistance

Not washable

Not recyclable

Polluting emissions

Viscose rayon Lustrous/shiny appearance Poor resilience These manufactured filament fibers
Very soft, cool hand Polluting emissions can look very different from each
Lyocell rayon Excellent dyeability, Hazardous chemical waste other due to their fiber shape and
(Closed-loop fiber production; chemicals especially black/deep tones Fair colorfastness the method of cooling the fibers
are recycled into new fiber production) Good abrasion resistance Weakens when wet after extrusion from the spinneret.
Very absorbent Not machine washable TOP: soy. BOTTOM: bamboo rayon.
Bamboo rayon No static buildup Can be attacked by mildew
(If using closed-loop fiber production, Moderate cost Not recyclable
this is a very sustainable fiber)
Note: If a manufactured fiber, bamboo All of the above Fair resilience
must include rayon in its name. Machine washable Fair colorfastness
Can be attacked by mildew
PLA All of the above Not recyclable
(From plant sugars, especially corn; Antimicrobial/no mildew Higher cost than viscose
closed-loop fiber production) Easily renewable raw material
Fair resilience Always filament fiber
Soy If viscose method, not
(Plant protein from tofu waste products; machine washable
closed-loop fiber production) Not recyclable

Note: New raw materials are Similar to lyocell rayon PLA is very heat-sensitive
being introduced for new fiber Blends well with (new research is addressing
production. Stay alert for new cotton fiber this problem)
developments. The list above
includes fibers in use now. Very soft/good drape Not easily available
Moderate strength Fair abrasion resistance
Very absorbent Weakens when wet
Dyes wells/good colorfastness Not recyclable

Fiber 31

Synthetic filament fiber Fiber characteristics

Fiber name Positive Negative

Polyester Characteristics of both polyester fibers
Virgin (new fiber)
Recycled (from polyester fiber/ Can be heat-set yet remain soft Static buildup
fabric/garments) Excellent resilience Nonabsorbent
Fast-drying Absorbs oil easily
Note: “Triexta,” formerly “ptt,” is a Excellent abrasion resistance Pills easily
new generic fiber, which is partially Strong Melts in high heat
made from plant-derived polyester Manipulated for many functions
Nylon filament fiber can be and which is also recyclable, thereby Easily washed/no shrinkage
produced as microfiber and reducing oil-based raw materials and Easily blended with other fibers
manipulated to resemble energy consumption needed for fiber Recyclable into high-quality fiber
cotton fiber. Its quick-drying production, and CO2 emissions. Sunlight-resistant
characteristic has made nylon Resists mildew/insects
a favorite fiber to blend with Nylon
cotton for lightweight Virgin (new fiber) Characteristics of both nylon fibers
outdoor clothing. Recycled (from nylon fiber/fabric/ Excellent strength
garments) Excellent abrasion resistance
Easily washed/no shrinkage Somewhat stiff
Excellent resilience Nonabsorbent
Resists mildew/pests Static buildup
Recyclable into high-quality fiber Not sunlight-resistant

Elastic fibers Characteristics of both elastic fibers
(also monofilament yarns)
Spandex Excellent elasticity Fair to poor
Elastoester, triexta, and elasterell-p*
Excellent resilience abrasion resistance

Fair to poor strength

Metallic (also monofilament yarns) Shiny, metallic appearance Weak fiber
Very lightweight Poor heat resistance

Carbon fiber (nanotubes are of interest Extremely lightweight Very expensive
in fiber development) Extremely strong
Conducts electricity
* Some polyester-based elastic fibers
may be recyclable.

Natural filament fiber Fiber characteristics

Fiber name Positive Negative

Silk Lustrous Expensive
(All silk fiber begins as filament, but may Soft hand/drape Fair colorfastness
become staple fiber as fiber waste) Very good absorbency Fair elasticity
Moderate resilience
Spider silk Easily dyed
(Working on genetically
modified spider silk—not yet Extremely elastic In research now
commercially available) Extremely strong
Silk fiber, while produced under Very lightweight
varying cocoon circumstances, Conducts electricity
will always produce fiber that
dyes beautifully.

32 The language of textiles

Yarn

Recycled fiber Yarn is a continuous strand The importance of yarn
Certain types of nylon and all polyester produced from the various staple or in fabric
fibers, which are oil-based, can be recycled filament fibers, or other materials.
into new, high-quality fiber. Polyester fiber Yarns must be strong enough to be The yarn used greatly influences the
represents more than 40 percent of global interlaced, looped together, or hand, drape, and appearance of the
fiber production, yet supplies of its basic otherwise used to create two- fabric. It is important for the designer,
raw material, oil, will decrease in the dimensional, flexible fabric surfaces. especially a knitwear designer, to closely
future. All types of polyester fiber, yarns, observe which yarns are used because
fabric, and even garments can be recycled. Yarns were invented by twisting yarn is one of the most important
Even PET fiber, from plastic bottles, can be staple fibers together (in a process factors in fabric cost. There are two
recycled into new PET fiber. known as spinning) to create a main categories of yarn—simple and
continuous strand. Creating yarns from complex—which include both spun and
Natural fiber is difficult to recycle. long filament fibers is basically the same multifilament yarns.
Efforts are being made to capture cotton process, though less twisting (spinning) is
fabric cutting waste and reuse it; however, necessary. The amount of yarn twist will Simple yarn
the yarns are weak and virgin fiber must determine the strength of the yarn (the (One consistent fiber content)
be added to strengthen the yarn. Wool higher the twist, the stronger the yarn)
has been recycled for generations, but the and the direction of the twist will Single yarn: one yarn
tradition is not widely used today. influence the texture.
Plied yarn
A key point to understand is the need The three basic yarns are: (Two or more yarns combined)
to select materials that are not blends but 2-ply (Contains two yarns of the
are 100 percent one fiber, and to select Spun yarn: uses staple fibers twisted same fiber content)
sewing thread that can also be recycled in together. Long staple fibers will produce a
the same manner as the fabric. smooth, lustrous yarn (such as high- Complex yarns
quality cotton or merino wool). Short (Multiple combinations of fibers
Manipulating manufactured staple fibers will produce coarse, dull yarn and yarns)
filament fiber (such as low-quality cotton or PET
Texture: After filament fiber is formed, the polyester staple fibers). Some 20 percent Single yarn: one yarn
fiber is “crimped” or kinked to imitate of staple fibers for spun yarn becomes Tweed yarn (multiple fibers/colors)
cotton or wool texture. Texture is one way waste fiber. In most cases, this waste fiber Slub yarn (uneven yarn size)
to create elasticity in a nonelastic fiber. is disposed of, whether it is organic
Bi-component: During extrusion (see cotton fiber or cheap polyester staple Plied yarn
page 30), two different fiber solutions are fiber. However, this “fiber dust” is now (Two or more yarns combined)
combined, forming one filament that being captured and made into low-quality Bouclé
contains two separate fibers. When heat is spun yarn. Remember that staple fibers Chenille
applied, the fiber will respond unevenly to can be natural or manufactured.
create texture. There are other reasons to Elastic plied yarn
produce bi-component fiber, which should In general, high-quality spun yarns are (Contains elastic monofilament yarn
be explored by the designer with suppliers. finer in diameter and more lustrous than covered by another yarn)
Performance: fibers can be modified to low-quality yarns because long staple Core spun (plied with spun yarn)
enhance moisture management, such as fibers are spun together. Spun yarns are Core wrapped (covered by bulky-textured
moisture wicking and absorption, water measured by a yarn count system, for multifilament yarn)
resistance, antibacterial qualities, example, a large cotton yarn size 12 is
shrinkage, stain resistance, anti-static used for heavy denim and a fine yarn size
qualities, thermal insulation, and 60 is used for fine shirting.
decreased water and air resistance.

Fiber • Yarn 33

Monofilament yarn: uses only one High-quality multifilament yarns are
filament (mono) fiber as a yarn, such as generally judged by the fineness of the
spandex or metallic fiber. diameter and the perceived value of the
fiber used. Most new designers perceive
Multifilament yarn: uses filament fiber silk filament yarns to be higher quality than
only, such as filament silk, polyester, or polyester filament yarns. However, to an
rayon. There is almost no fiber waste in athletic apparel designer, the nuances of
multifilament yarn production. Two main performance polyester fiber are highly
types of multifilament yarns are used: valued. A yarn count denier (D) system
1. Texturized multifilament yarns that create is used to measure yarn size. A size 15D
elastic, spunlike, or bulk or loft yarns. yarn is used for lightweight lingerie and
2. Smooth multifilament yarns that create a 100D yarn is used for backpacks.
lustrous, sometimes shiny yarns.

Yarn categories

Simple yarns (one fiber content) Complex yarns (multiple fiber Elastic plied yarns
content), plied yarns (monofilament elastic core)

Single yarn Tweed yarn Core-spun: Spun yarn coiled around
Plied yarn Slubbed yarn an elastic core.

Specialty yarns for special effect Core-wrapped: Bulk textured
mutifilament yarn wrapped around
an elastic core.

Boucle yarn

Chenille yarn

34 The language of textiles

Fabrics

Fabric is the medium of the garment technical expertise, access to yarn mills, especially as a large amount of fabric

designer. It is a two-dimensional, and efficient use of labor. Both fiber and production takes place in developing

flexible surface that is transformed fabric production impact the available countries. The use of regional energy
into a three-dimensional form clean water, air emissions, chemical waste, sources, such as solar, wind, water, and
through the vision of the designer. and use of energy. others should be encouraged, especially
in the production of sustainable fiber

K nowledge of why and how a fabric Mill waste sources, such as organic cotton or
behaves in the design process is Weaving creates more waste than knitting, recycled polyester.
often rooted in understanding the both as yarn released from the loom and
as selvage trim waste, and it is nearly all Recycling textile products

construction of the fabric. While fiber and considered unrecoverable waste. Methods for recycling discarded textiles

yarn will help determine hand and drape, Considering the amount of denim include shredding fabric and garments

the overall performance of a fabric produced each year, the designer should into fiber and using the fiber in felted or

depends on how the fiber or yarn is used ask how the denim mills manage waste. fiberweb fabrics. This process is a newly

during construction and finishing. Fabric is emerging area; designers should stay alert

produced using one of three methods: Energy use to new developments.

The power used to run textile mills is

1. Massing fiber together creates fabric significant. It is important to understand

directly from fiber, without the need how the energy consumed is generated,

for first producing yarns. This

requires an understanding of a Fabric method 1: Massing (fiber to fabric) characteristics
fiber’s characteristics and what
will hold fibers together to form Fiber is massed together on a flat surface (similar to paper-making) to create fabric. Yarn
a two-dimensional surface. The is not used. There is ongoing research to create more apparel fabric using fiber instead of yarn.

fibers can be shrunk, melted, or

tangled together. Method Positive Negative

2. Weaving requires yarn Felt Thick fabric to hold form Shrinks
production first. The strength of (Mostly wool fiber, sometimes Can be shaped with steam Poor strength
the yarns and their texture are blended with rayon or polyester) and pressure
important determining features
for the woven fabric. Fiberweb Uses spinning mill waste and Fair to poor strength
(Bonded together by recycled staple fibers No water in fabric
3. Knitting also requires yarn various methods) production
production. Yarns can be less Uses spinning mill waste and Little use in apparel
strong than for weaving, Needle-punch fabric other low-quality fibers
allowing for wide variety in (Dry-laid process; Water is reclaimed and reused Uses oil-based fibers
yarn type for greater texture staple fibers used)
in knitted fabric. No water used
Wet-laid fabric Used as interlining for apparel
Environmental impact (Staple fibers used)
It is important to understand
the environmental impact of Spunbonded fabric
fabric and fiber production. (Filament fibers are melted)
Spun yarn production generates
20 percent fiber waste. Fabric
production requires machinery,

Yarn • Fabrics 35

Fabric method 2:
Weaving

Weaving is now an automated process, Weaving fabric is accomplished on a loom
using a variety of loom machinery to by interlacing two or more yarns at right
produce fabric at high speed. All looms angles. It is this angular construction, with
require strong warp yarns to be set up yarns at 90-degree angles—warp yarns
first before weaving can begin. parallel to the selvage and weft yarns
perpendicular to the selvage—that
distinguishes weaving from other fabric
construction methods. Most woven fabrics
are rigid, with little stretch.

There are four main weave structures
that are commonly used: plain weave,
basketweave, twill weave, and satin
weave. There are also a variety of other
special-interest weaves, such as jacquard
and dobby. Weaving requires strong warp
yarns, and production is slower than for
knitted fabric.

Fabric density, or yarn count, combined
with yarn size, determines the weight of
the fabric:
• Higher density fabric: more yarns in a

square inch/cm = more opaque.
• Lower density fabric: fewer yarns in a

square inch/cm = more sheer.

Plain weave

In plain weave, each yarn is interlaced with every other yarn. There are no
floating yarns and the surface has subtle texture. Ribbed weaves have a
cross-grain (horizontal) ribbed texture.

Balanced plain weave Unbalanced plain weave
(Also called square weave)
(Also called ribbed weave)
Batiste Flannel Muslin
Buckram Flannelette Organdy Broadcloth
Burlap Gauze Organza Crêpe de Chine
Challis Georgette Ripstop Faille
Chambray Gingham Sheeting Ottoman
Chiffon Homespun/crash Voile Poplin
China silk Lawn Shantung
Crepon Madras Taffeta
Crinoline

36 The language of textiles

Basketweave

Some basketweave fabrics are slightly different but use the same fabric name.

Balanced basketweave Unbalanced basketweave
(2 warp x 2 weft) (1 warp x 2 weft)
Canvas Canvas
Duck Duck
Hopsacking Oxford/pinpoint Oxford
Oxford
Sailcloth

Twill weave

Twill weave is recognized by the diagonal line texture on the fabric surface, which is created
by floating over two or more yarns at regular intervals. There are balanced and unbalanced twill
constructions, but all are referred to simply as twill fabrics.

Cavalry twill More about twills
Chino twill Because of the diagonal surface texture, fabrics are softer and
Drill more drapey than plain, basket, or satin weaves.
Gabardine
Herringbone All denim fabric is a twill weave, but yarn size and quality will
Houndstooth influence the final product.
Serge
Surah Due to the floating yarns over two to four yarns, twill fabrics are
considered the most durable construction, especially when using
cotton, hemp, flax, polyester, or nylon yarn.

Satin weave

Satin weave is made up of randomly floating yarns over five or more yarns and is
recognized by its smooth, shiny, or lustrous surface. Satin weaves tend to be stiff, except
when fine, very flexible yarns are used.

Bridal satin Sateen From top to bottom: duck;
Charmeuse cotton gabardine; bridal satin.
Satin All sateen fabrics use spun yarn, relying on the shiny,
floating yarns to create the lustrous, smooth surface.
All satin fabrics use lustrous
multifilament yarns.

Other weaves • Dobby produces woven-in small
Weaving includes a variety of other weaves for geometric designs.
other effects:
• Momie crêpe produces a tightly woven • Loop pile (terry cloth) produces loops
on the face and back of the fabric.
“pebbly” surface.
• Jacquard produces a woven-in • Cut pile (corduroy, velveteen, velvet)
produces a luxurious soft surface.
curved design.

Fabrics 37

Fabric method 3: Knitting

From top to bottom: jersey Unlike weaving, knitting can be done with • The looped stitch construction makes
wool-like polyester; doubleknit one or more yarns, creating stitches that knits softer, more drapey, and easier to
ponte di roma; fine-gauge are looped together to create fabric. There fit on and move with the body.
ribbed knit rayon. is a tremendous variety in knitted fabrics
because a greater variety of yarns can be • Great variety in surface texture
used; the strong warp yarns used in and pattern.
weaving are not needed in knitting. There
are two methods of producing knits: weft • Flexibility in producing fabric or
knitting and warp knitting. garments, even seamless garments.

Positive issues about knits: Negative issues about knits:
• Faster fabric production compared • Not wind-resistant due to

to weaving. looped structure.
• Innovations in machinery make • Loop stitches snag easily.
• Can stretch out of shape easily,
knitting very efficient, even in high-
labor-cost countries. depending on the yarn used
and the density of the knit
stitch construction.

Weft knitting characteristics

Looping stitches in the cross-grain (weft) direction across the fabric. Most commonly used in
sweater production, casual and dressy knits, and hand-knitting. Weft knitting uses only two
stitches: knit stitch and purl stitch. The arrangement of knit and purl stitches will determine the
name and properties of the fabric.

Knit type Positive Negative

Single knit Lightweight Shrinks easily
(Can be produced as a tube of Inexpensive Rolls at cut edges
fabric or flat yardage) Easily available Easily stretched out of shape

Jersey Great variety Easily stretched out of shape
(Usually fine and medium gauge)
Very stable fabric Bulky for weight
Sweater knits Elastic More expensive than jersey
(Fine, medium, and big gauge)
Stable heavyweight Less available than jersey
Double knit Suitable for tailoring Expensive
(Fabric is stable even at cut edges;
can be produced as a tube of fabric or
flat yardage)

Interlock knits (Rigid knit)

Ribbed knits
(Alternating knit and purl stitches
to form various ribbed wales)

Bottom-weight double knits
(Two knit fabrics knitted together)

38 The language of textiles

Warp knitting characteristics

Looping stitches in the straight-grain (warp) direction, parallel to the selvage edge. Most
commonly used in lingerie, athletic apparel, and interior design. Knit and purl stitches are not
used in warp knitting, and the fabric is very rigid in the straight-grain direction. It is high-speed
knitting, using multifilament yarns only. There are two main groups of warp knits: tricot knit and
raschel knit.

Knit type Positive Negative
Snags very easily
Tricot knit Smooth surface
(Face stitches are Usually fine gauge Snags very easily
90 degrees to back stitches) Dense stitches
Very fast production
Raschel knit
(Openwork fabric, Great variety
sometimes lacy, meshlike, or
waffle texture; face and back
appearance less important for
identification)
Raschel knit: open-space
knit fabric.
Raschel lace knit: imitates
handmade lace.
Netting: lightweight, open-
surface fabric forming geometric
shapes with yarn.
Mesh: knit fabric with many
holes knitted in.
Powernet: elastic mesh.
Thermal knit: imitates other
waffle textures.

Describing knit fabrics Looped pile knits (terry): extra From top to bottom: tricot
Designers are often concerned about the set of yarns added for looped with metallic yarn; raschel
fineness or coarseness of a knit fabric, textured appearance. lace; lace and power mesh
which is defined as gauge. Counting Cut-pile knits (velour, faux fur): used in a corset.
stitches across vertical rows (wales) same as above, but cut (sheared) for
determines the gauge. The higher the luxurious appearance. Fabrics 39
gauge, the finer the fabric. The lower the Jacquard knits: any knitted
gauge, the coarser the fabric. design, curved or geometric.

Other knits for both weft Note: Designers specialize in creating
and warp knits new knit fabrics and work with knitwear
Knitting is generally more efficient in designers who are specialists in their
production compared to weaving, and the field. It’s an exciting part of the fashion
knitted fabric surfaces are very similar to industry that requires understanding of
comparable woven fabrics, so many fabrics knit fabric production.
can be more easily produced by knitting.

Adding color

Adding color to fabric is an art in Pigments (no chemical bond): require dissolve the dye and support its chemical
binding agent plus heat to bind the color. binding to the fabric. The issues are the
itself. Designers often reach their Pigment is used on fabric or garments only same whether dyeing or printing.
and has moderate to poor colorfastness.
market through the creative use of Water is necessary only in dyeing to Dyes: natural vs synthetic
suspend the pigment particles during the The controversy around using naturally
color, either by immersing in dye coloring process. Printing with pigment occurring dyes from plants and minerals
color does not require water. instead of synthetic chemical dyes that use
(dyeing) or by adding images onto a variety of components, including heavy
Note: There are many books available metals, to achieve bright, intense colors
the fabric surface (printing). This on dyeing and printing textiles; see the means that there are few answers for the
resources at the back of the book (page designer when selecting color. Here are
section will acquaint the designer 315) for suggestions on further reading. several points to consider when discussing
the use of natural or synthetic dyes. At the
with the methods of adding color to Environmental moment, natural dyes tend to be used in
developing countries, where there is little
develop a basic understanding of the impact of adding opportunity to clean the wastewater.
Therefore, the wastewater, heavy in fixing
coloration process. color to fabric agents and dye, is poured directly onto
fields and into open-water systems.
After the fiber or fabric is prepared Color in apparel design is a key factor Synthetic dyes are used in large-volume
for dyeing (PFD) or printing (PFP), when appealing to the target market. dyeing mills, and there is often more
color is ready to be added. The However, after controlling fiber and greige opportunity to treat the wastewater before
selection of coloring agents will depend on fabric production to be socially and it is put back into the local water supply.
the expected result, type of fibers used, environmentally responsible, entering the
fabric construction, required colorfastness color finishing process can undo all the For denim washing, most jeans are
(ability of color to remain), cost, and good. Adding color can pollute drinking- garment-washed to achieve the required
water/energy consumption issues. water systems with dyes and fixing agents, soft hand. Cotton colorfastness to dark
including concentrations of heavy metals colors is fair to moderate, so excessive
Colorfastness is described in three and salts. Energy conservation is also washing will bleed large amounts of
different ways: difficult because of the heat required to dye into the wastewater. With the large
Fading: color loss into the atmosphere, quantities of denim produced globally,
often from dry-cleaning fumes, called gas Dyes: natural vs synthetic it is particularly important for designers to
or fume fading. ask how denim-washing facilities manage
Bleeding: color loss in water. Natural Synthetic their wastewater.
Crocking (wet and dry): color loss due
to abrasion (rubbing). Large quantity Sometimes Yes Designers can guide merchandisers
available? and production teams to consider either
Color can be applied at all stages in natural or synthetic dyeing processes that:
the production of textiles and garments, Fixing agents Yes Yes • avoid dyes that use heavy metals.
depending on the desired results. There required? • use dyeing processes that absorb
are three main types of coloring agents:
Dyes (chemical bond with fiber): Wastewater Yes Yes 80 percent or more of dyes so
require water or chemicals for dye solution, wastewater is cleaner (an electric current
fixing agent, and rinsing off excess dye. in dye baths is one low-cost idea).
Different fibers require different classes • insist on dyers managing a clean
of dyes. Not all dyes color all fibers. dyeing mill for the safety of workers
Colorfastness is dependent on the fiber, and the community, conserving water
color, heat, and chemicals used. and energy.
Disperse dyes (chemical bond with
fiber): require heat and pressure to be
activated. No water, fixing agent, or rinsing
is necessary. Specific and practical on
polyester fiber only. Used on fabrics or
garments only. Excellent colorfastness.

40 The language of textiles

Dyeing: Immersion in dye solution

There are five methods of dyeing fabric.

Dyeing method Colorfastness Quantity required Coloring agents Accessibility for
garment production
Pre-fiber dyeing Excellent Large quantity/color Dyes only Poor; color must be added before
(also called solution dyeing, fiber production
before the fiber is extruded). Dye Very good Large quantity/color Dyes only
is added to the manufactured Very good Fair; fiber must be dyed
fiber chemical solution before Moderate Moderate quantity/color Dyes/pigments before yarn is produced
passing through the spinneret. to very good
The manufactured fiber emerges Poor to fair Low quantity/color All Fair; color added to yarn
already colored. before fabric production
One garment/color Low temperature
Fiber dyeing Good; color added to fabric and
(also called top dyeing). Fiber available in 30 days
is colored before being
made into yarn. Excellent; colored garments
available immediately
Yarn dyeing
(also called skein dyeing).
Yarn is dyed before fabric/
garment production.

Fabric dyeing
(also called piece dyeing).
Fabric is dyed before
garment production.

Garment dyeing
(dyeing proceeds after
garment is sewn).

Dyeing blended yarns, fabrics, or garments

Fiber blending is very common, yet dyes are specific to a particular type of fiber. Therefore, dyeing mills have adapted dyeing
techniques for multifiber blends to create a solid color or a multiple color yarn, fabric, or garment.

Dyeing method Fiber content Color agents Color result
Cross-dyeing Dyes only Two or more colors
Two or more
different fibers

Union dyeing Two or more Dyes only One solid color
different fibers

Adding color 41

Printing: applying colored images to the fabric surface

Pigment printing is used on blended fabrics to avoid a cross-dyed effect. There are four mass production printing methods (hand-
printing is not addressed here). Shiny or napped images can also be printed, but the chart below shows the basics in printing.

Printing method Colorfastness Coloring agents Maximum number Quantity required Accessibility for
All
of colors for print production production

Screen-printing Dependent on Up to 24 Moderate to high Good; available in
(also known as automated color agent 30 days
flatbed screen printing and
rotary screen printing). Dependent on All Up to six High Good; available in
Requires color separation color agent
(each color to be printed Dependent on 10–30 days
separately). color agent
All Unlimited Low to high Good; available in
Roller printing Excellent
uses etched metal rollers; Can print 1yd/1m 30 days
requires color separation.
Disperse dyes only Dependent on Low (existing design) Good; available in
Inkjet/digital printing printing method or high (custom 30 days
Printing directly (like a design)
computer printer) onto fabric,
garment, or heat-transfer
paper. No color separation.
Requires little or no water
(steam or minor rinsing) and
little heat. Entirely new type
of images can be applied.

Heat-transfer printing
(also includes sublimation
printing). Requires only heat
and pressure. Can use color
separation printing or digital
inkjet printing method.
Images are printed on special
paper and transferred to
fabric or garment using heat
and pressure. Use polyester
fiber fabrics/garments only.

42 The language of textiles

Finishing

All finishing of fabric after the Semi-durable finishes remain after carried out to imitate a more expensive
application of color is to further several cleanings and may be renewed. fabric and therefore brings to the market
improve the marketability of the final interesting fabrics at a lower cost than
fabric. Some finishes enhance how Durable finishes remain for the life the original high-cost fabrics. It is
fabrics look and feel, while other of the product, although they may important, though, to understand the
finishes improve their function. be diminished. social and environmental impact of
these finishing advances.
The durability of finishes should be Permanent finishes always remain
understood by designers. You will without diminishing. Aesthetic finishes
need to understand the following
four degrees of durability: Finishing is undergoing major Aesthetic finishes change the hand,
technological advances, using new appearance, or texture of the fabric. New
Temporary finishes are removed after materials and procedures. It is in the ideas in aesthetic finishing are often created
one cleaning/laundering. designer’s interest to stay up to date, in by designers searching for fresh ways to
order to improve the ability to compete in interpret their creative vision. Aesthetic
the marketplace. Finishing today is often finishes are grouped in the following charts.

Aesthetic mechanical finishes

Mechanical finishes are applied physically—sometimes with heat and pressure—without the use of
water or chemicals. These are less polluting to the environment than chemical finishes.

Name of finish Method of application Result Durability
Luster or imprinted image Variable
Embossing Heat and pressure Lustrous Temporary
Chintz Plus light resin (polish) Wet look Durable
Cire (polyester only) Plus light resin (melted) Wood-grain appearance Durable
Moiré Heat and pressure Volume and texture Durable
Puckered appearance Durable
Pleating/puckering Heat and pressure
(mostly polyester) (heat-set) Images in fabric Durable
Plissé As above Soft, raised surface Durable
(mostly polyester)
Compacting, softening Durable
Embroidery Sewing thread Lustrous, hammered look Variable

Napped Brushed/sheared
Velvet Sanded
Velveteen/corduroy
Velour
Sueded/peached

Fulling Steam/heat Denim fabric can be laundered for a
(wool only) Heat/pressure washed finish before the garments are
Beetling produced. The soft hand of laundered
(mostly linen) denim is preferred for garments that
will not be garment washed after
sewing is completed.

Adding color • Finishing 43

Aesthetic chemical finishes

These are applied with chemicals, heat, and may include water. Waste chemicals and wastewater
are produced, and the water must be cleaned before re-entering the local supply.

Name of finish Method of application Result Durability

Mercerizing Chemicals/heat/water Smooth and improved Durable
dyeability
Stiffness As above Variable
Sizing As above Crisp, crunchy, stiff Temporary
Anti-curling Prevents curling of cut fabric
As above Durable
Pleating/puckering As above Pleats in natural fibers Durable
(in natural fibers) Puckered appearance
Plissé Enzymes/heat/water Durable
Bleaches/heat/water Softening Durable
Enzyme wash Chemicals/heat Softening/color loss Durable
Stone/sand wash Silicone/heat/water New surface Durable
Coating Fiber/adhesive/heat Smooth hand Durable
Silicone Chemicals printed Napped surface Permanent
Flocking Fiber removed in patterns
Burnout

Functional finishes industry, manufactured fibers enjoy nearly
total acceptance by athletes for their
Functional finishes are applied to fabric superior performance in competition.
to enhance its performance. Finishing Much of the superiority of performance
applications are undergoing technological is due to new finishing technology.
advances that are changing fiber’s usual
characteristics to meet certain functional With the exception of napping, all
requirements. For example, absorbent functional finishes are chemically applied.
cotton fiber can be transformed to resist For designers who create athletic apparel,
water absorption. Nonabsorbent polyester functional finishes are especially important
can be changed to absorb water. to explore and understand. The designer
Beginning with the athletic apparel

Functional mechanical finishes

Mechanical finishes are applied physically—sometimes with heat and/or pressure—without the
use of water. They are less polluting to the environment than chemical finishes.

Name of finish Method of application Result Durability
Insulation/warmth Durable
Napping Brushed/sheared
Polar fleece
(polyester)

44 The language of textiles

Functional chemical finishes

These are applied with chemicals, heat, and sometimes water. Waste chemicals and wastewater
are produced, and the water must be cleaned before re-entering the local supply.

Name of finish Method of application Result Durability

Wrinkle-resistant Chemicals/heat Improved resilience Durable
Flame-retardant As above Reduced flammability Durable
Stain/soil-resistant As above Reduced absorbency Semi-durable

Anti-pilling As above Reduced pilling or durable
Anti-static As above Reduced static buildup Durable
Anti-microbial As above Kills bacteria/limits odor Durable
Silver particles Silver/chemicals/heat Kills bacteria on fabric Variable
Pest/mold/mildew Chemicals/heat Resists pests/mold/mildew Permanent
resistant Durable
Water absorbency Chemicals/heat Induces water absorption
UV protective Chemicals/heat Absorbs UV radiation Durable
Microencapsulation Chemicals/binder Absorbs/radiates heat Durable
Phase-change Absorbs/radiates heat Durable
(temperature regulation) Durable

must work closely with fabric and finishing Bonding/laminating fabrics together: Moisture absorption
suppliers to stay updated on new • Thermal side, water-resistant side. Moisture soaks into fiber and fabric.
functional finishing applications. Moisture evaporates, cooling the skin. This
Staying dry can cause lower body temperature, known
Anti-shrinking finishes are important in Resist moisture next to the skin, which as hypothermia. The cooling effect is a
a fabric’s fit and long-term performance. is life-threatening in cold, windy weather. plus in hot weather, however. Heavy, wet
Always ask your supplier what shrinkage There are three types of moisture fabric can cause skin chafing and add
control has been applied to a fabric. management: weight to competitive athletes.
Note: Many applications of chemical
finishes are found in fragrances, moth- Moisture wicking: Moisture moves from The fabric used in this snowsuit is
proofing, insect repellent, lotions, a wet area to a dry area along a textured chemically finished to resist moisture yet
medicine, vitamins, and odor control. surface, such as a textured wicking fiber. allow water vapor to escape for the baby
Fabric dries quickly and remains to remain dry and warm. A water-resistant
High-performance fabrics lightweight. Skin chafing is minimized coating or breathable microporous
Staying dry and warm is a key part of for athletes. membrane is applied to the back of the
high performance in fabrics. fabric before cutting and sewing.

Staying warm Moisture (water) resistance:
Keep heat close to the body by reducing • Water-repellent: a semi-durable finish
air movement (thermal insulation). This
can be accomplished by: that allows moisture to “bead” on the
surface and can be brushed off.
Quilting: two fabric layers with a thermal However, moisture is absorbed easily
insulating middle layer, stitched together if left on the fabric surface.
into a single thick fabric. • Water-resistant/breathable (also known
• Down/feather, fiberfill, wool, cotton, or as waterproof/breathable): a durable
microporous membrane that resists
kapok batting. moisture yet allows water vapor and air
Layering garments: to pass through and is bonded to a
• Polar fleece with outside layer water-resistant outside (shell) fabric.
• Waterproof: a nonporous surface that
windbreaker jacket. permanently resists moisture.
• Add wicking underwear to the above.

Finishing 45

Environmental impact of aesthetic
and functional finishing

Innovations in finishing have made fabric Microencapsulates
performance and care more convenient. This new area of fabric finishing shows
Consumers have found their clothing great promise in medical, military, athletic,
easier to wear and launder, with minimum and consumer applications. The binders
effort. It is unclear, however, what impact used and the long-term effects of
these new finishes will have on the wearer the products contained in the
or on the environment over time. Here is microencapsulates have yet to be fully
why there should be discussion about studied. With these encapsulates intended
these new finishing applications. to be worn close to the skin, the impact of
the various products contained inside
Safety of the wearer needs to be fully understood.
Most clothing is worn next to the skin. The
skin surface can easily absorb chemicals Concern for the environment
and other products into the body. Since Fabrics have been enhanced to perform as
clothing may be worn next to the skin for quality clothing and to meet marketing
many hours, there should be answers to needs. However, the impact on the
the impact of the following. environment of the chemicals used in
finishing as well as when the consumer
Bleaches/other finishing chemicals discards the product have yet to be
in denim washing studied. For example, the life cycle of
Denim jeans fabric holds the residue of the clothing has been extensively studied.
various finishing products. It is unknown However, these chemical finishes,
how much of these finishing compounds particularly the nano-finishes and micro-
is absorbed into the skin. encapsulates, have an unknown impact
on the environment when they are
Anti-microbial finishing eventually discarded. The lifespan of these
By killing bacteria on the fabric, will these finishes must be understood more fully.
finishes also kill the “good” bacteria on
the skin? What are the long-term effects Developments in fiber recycling will
of using silver in anti-microbial finishing? require analysis of the chemical finishes
that have been added to fabrics, especially
Nano-finishing cotton fabrics. Research is ongoing to
Extremely small particles are applied to learn how to reuse cotton fiber more
fabric to change its characteristics. Nano- effectively. However, the finishing that was
finishes for wrinkle resistance and stain/soil applied must also be considered while
resistance also have the potential for the learning how to reuse and recycle cotton
skin to absorb these nano-particles. fiber products.
Smaller than usual molecules, nano-
molecules can move into the body easily As a designer, you are in a position to
compared to other chemical molecules. ask important questions about how the
The long-term effects of nano-finishing latest finishes impact the environment. It is
have not been studied. the responsibility of the designer to stay
alert to the issues that can influence how
the textile industry takes responsibility for
its activities.

46 The language of textiles

Garment care

Nearly every person who wears energy, and to use cleaning products that Alternatives in dry-cleaning
clothing has experienced washing minimize chemicals discarded into the The dry-cleaning method can be
and drying apparel. Some people water supply and environment. hazardous to human health, so try to
also experience having their clothing minimize its use. Developed to clean textile
dry-cleaned. The laundry products that were damaged in wet
• Reduce energy use by using cool water. laundry, the chemicals used are often
It has been estimated that nearly • Reduce water use—don’t launder unless harmful to workers and customers alike.
80 percent of all energy and water used • Reduce dry-cleaning and use only
in the process of textiles and clothing absolutely necessary.
production and consumption is used in the • Avoid unnecessary dyes and perfume environmentally safe dry-cleaning
consumer’s effort to clean their apparel. chemicals, such as C0² “cold” dry
The designer has a responsibility to provide ingredients in detergents and soaps that cleaning or other EPA-approved
simple, efficient care instructions that do nothing to enhance cleaning power. substances. Avoid PERC dry-
consider the use of energy and water. Dyes and perfumes may irritate the skin cleaning chemicals.
and trigger asthma. In particular, avoid • Encourage laundering instead of dry-
The environmental impact of scented soaps/detergents around infants cleaning wherever possible.
consumer care and the elderly. Avoid chlorine bleach. • Advise consumers to avoid storing dry-
Consumer care instructions have remained cleaned items in an enclosed space, such
unchanged since the 1980s in the U.S. Drying the laundry as closets or rooms without ventilation.
Now is the time to reconsider how • Avoid the tumble dryer whenever • Avoid dry-cleaning chemicals around
designers instruct their customers to care infants and the elderly.
for their clothing to conserve water and possible, especially to dry denim.
• Use an extractor to remove moisture Note: care instructions are provided by
the mill and are adjusted for the garment.
from wet laundry. Never assume that care information is fully
• Line dry or dry flat. investigated. Much care information is not
analyzed regularly to determine if there are
Environmental factors better alternatives.

There are two main ways to clean clothing; each has environmental factors that need Garment care labels should advise consumers to
to be considered when it comes to designing a garment. reduce water, chemicals, and energy use as they
care for their new purchases. Perhaps CO²
1. Laundering (requires water 2. Dry-cleaning (requires reduction, quantified in a new icon, would help
and usually heat) chemicals and heat) consumers understand their contribution to
reducing carbon emissions.
Cleansers: Chemicals used to clean clothing must
• Soaps (natural ingredients, which are not be reviewed:
• Perchloroethylene (PERC) (linked
as effective on polyester, nylon, spandex,
acrylic, or olefin). to cancer).
• Detergents (synthetic chemical cleansers • Non-PERC chemicals.
that effectively remove dirt/stains on Emissions released from chemicals are
manufactured fibers and blended fabrics). controlled at the dry-cleaner, but not in the
Color-removers: home. Heat used to dry chemicals from
• Chlorine bleach or non-chlorine bleach. clothing and pressing should be reviewed.
• Optical brighteners (mask stains).
Softeners: add soft hand and reduce static
buildup in the dryer.
Drying wet laundry:
• Tumble-dry in mechanical dryer:
uses energy.
• Line or flat dry: with energy use.
• May need to press to remove wrinkles.

Finishing • Garment care 47