a little tricky. One reason not to grind vegetables ing the temperature ofthe cooking stock by A common problem with pressure
is that pulverizing plant matter releases juice, cookers is using too much heat.
which changes the rates of flavor extraction so 20 ·c I 36 •p forces both diffusion and the flavor This excess causes boiling in the pot
much that the traditional2:1:1 ratio ofvegetables and evaporation. It also ca n ruin
no longer applies. Ground carrots, for instance, reactions to run faster than they would in an the steam va lve and the sealaround
can leach too much sugar into the liquid. Ifyou open pot. the lid . Yet it does not make the
use ground vegetables, you must experiment to te mperature any higher.
find a new set of proportions that give a balanced The liquid inside the pressure cooker will not
result. In most cases, it's best to simply cut the boil, despite the elevated temperature, unless you For more on how to read apressure gauge, see
veggies into thin slices. let the heat get out of hand. A liquid boils when its page 86.
vapor pressure exceeds the ambient pressure
Extracted Under Pressure aro~nd it. Inside a sealed pressure cooker, as liquid The boiling point of water decreases with
water vaporizes, it raises the ambient pressure, higher elevation and increases with higher
The relentless cycles of evaporation and condensa- which in turn increases the boiling point. So long pressure. For an explanation of these related
tion that come with a long, slow simmer in a as water vapor is not escaping the pressure cooker, phenomena, see page 86.
covered pan drive a wide range ofchemical the pressure inside will stay high enough to keep
reactions that build complex flavors . So even liquid water from boiling. Never reaching a boil is
though Fick's first law is sure to save ingredients, important because it keeps the stock clear. Turbu-
money, and time, you must be clever enough to lence from boiling emulsifies oils and small food
apply the law without short-circuiting these particles from the ingredients into a stock, thereby
reactions and compromising quality. To this end, making it murky.
thoughtful cooks have learned to leverage the
effects of both temperature and pressure. A telltale sign that the stock is at a rolling boil
inside a pressure cooker is a jet of steam or fog from
A good pressure cooker can thus be very handy the overextended pressure valve. This jet means
when making stocks. These heavy pots with that the pressure cooker is overpressurized, and for
clamp-on lids and safety valves accelerate safety's sake the valve is relieving the excess
cooking because the boiling point of water rises pressure. But if the pressure is relieved, the stock
with increasing pressure. When the gauge on itselfwill quickly come to a boil. Overpressurizing
too often will ultimately damage the pot and lid;
your cooker indicates 1 bar I 15 psi of pressure they won't seal properly, and the pressure cooker
will be rendered useless.
above the liquid, the boiling point ofthe water
When canning with pressure cookers, pressure
inside can be as high as 120 •c I 248 •p, Increas- canners, or autoclaves, it is essential to vent steam
for about ten minutes before sealing the vessel.
THE MODERNIS T KI TC HEN 2 91
This venting purges air from the cooker or canner,
leaving mostly water vapor. This step is necessary
to reach the highest possible temperature for a
given pressure (see chapter 7 on Traditional
Cooking, page 2).
Unfortunately, at least for stockmaking, this
step almost always seems to degrade the quality of
the stock, a phenomenon that chefs Dave Arnold
and Nils Noren have confirmed in experiments
that include professional chefs as judges. The
reasons for the quality decline are unclear, but
most cooks who have tried it both ways generally
prefer stock made in an unvented pressure cooker.
When the pressure-cooking step is done, you
must let the cooker cool before removing the lid.
That is a good safety tip, of course; a still-hot
pressure cooker can spray hot liquid when opened.
But that's not the only reason to do this. Cooling
first means that volatile aromas in the vapor above
the liquid will condense back into the liquid rather
than escape into the kitchen.When you do
remove the lid, you should be able to see all the
way through a thin top layer of oil to the bed of
spent meat and vegetable pieces at the bottom. The
liquid in between should be beautifully clear.
Use flexible tubing to siphon the clear stock
underlying the oil. This step minimizes any
emulsification offat from the top layer of the
liquid into the stock that might otherwise occur.
Pressure-cooking is not only faster, it is also
better because it creates more intense flavors than
those produced by traditional simmering.
Pressure-cooking isn't how Escoffier made
stock early in the last century, but we think it is
how he would do it now.
We have found that blanching the bones
and meat of chickens and other poultry
before making the stock improves the
flavor of the final product. The reasons
why remain uncertain.
292 VOLUME 2 · TECHNIQUE S AND EQUIP M ENT
Best Bets for Stock Aromatics
Aromatic in gredi e nts provide fla vo r a nd aroma not es to co mpl e me nt
the base stocks. The variations be low a re so me typical combinations
that we like.
Stock Vegetable (scaling)" Herb (scaling)" Spice (scaling)"
vegetable onion 33% parsley 0 .75% black peppercorns 0 .1%
carrot 25% bay leaf 0 .01 % coriander seed 0.2%
poultry leek 8% thyme 0 .10% star anise 0.2%
meat, beef tomato, peeled and seeded 8% chive 1.00%
game, lamb celery 5% 0.1 %
shellfish mushroom 5% 0.50% black peppercorns 1%
onion 6% parsley garlic
fish carrot 5% 0 .05%
leek 5% 0.8% star anise 10</0
Chinese banquet onion 10% thyme 0.15% garlic
Chinese everyday carrot 10% rosemary 1.5%
Japanese celery 2% 0.01 % star anise
Thai tomato paste (for brown stock) 5% 1.00% garlic 2 0. ~o
onion 7% bay leaf 0.20% black peppercorns
carrot 7% thyme 0.25% fennel seed 0.2%
celery 2% sage 0.10% saffron 0 .01 %
carrot 5% parsley 0.20% 0 .005%
onion 5% thyme
leek 2% basil n/ a garlic 2 0' 10
fennel 2% n/ a coriander seed 0.3%
button mushroom 2% star anise 0.2%
tomato paste (for brown stock) 5%
carrot 33% ginger 0.-l%
onion 26% white peppercorns 0 .01 %
leek 13% cinnamon sticks 0.05%
fennel 13% ginger 1%
tomato paste (for brown stock) 5% ginger 0.-l%
scallion 0.2% garlic 0.75%
kombu 0.1 %
scallion 1.2% n/ a bonito flakes 5%
onion 3 .5% n/ a ginger 0..+%
carrot 3.5 % garlic 0.5%
scallion 1%
scallion 1% cilantro stalks 0.20%
cabbage 1% Thai basil 0.30%
fried shallot 4% makrud lime leaf 0.40%
"(set weight ofwater to TOO%)
298 VOLUME 2 · TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
1
THE SCIENCE OF each participant. The more tasters, the more statistically
meaningful the results will be.
Determining What Tastes Best
The test must be blind, meaning participants cannot know
Detecting a difference and measuring a preference are harder which sample is which; that is why the samples must look
than you might think. Cognitive scientists have shown that alike (or the participants must be blindfolded). The investiga-
human perception is naturally biased by the order in which tor chooses code names for each sample and keeps secret the
the alternatives are tasted . So unless you follow a tasting key that explains which code name corresponds to which
protocol that compensates for these biases, you could easily sample. Use a meaningless descriptor-like red, green, or-
fool yourself into thinking that some subtle addition makes ange, and blue- rather than numbers or letters that, because
a real difference when it actually doesn't-or even that an of their inherent order, may elicit a biased reaction.
addition was a mistake when actually it was an improvement.
After the investigator decodes the ran kings ofthe tasters, a
Detecting a real difference requires a triangle tasting test of real preference will be revealed if the sample that was present-
three samples; see How to Set Up a Triangle Test, page 4·336. ed twice appears consistently in the top, middle, or bottom of
When we were comparing stock recipes and stockmaking the ran kings: for example AABC, BAAC, or CBAA. If the dupli-
methods, we measured our preferences by using a slightly cated sample is instead split-say, BACA- you must conclude
more complex procedure with four samples-sometimes that none of the recipes is perceptibly better than the others.
called a ranking test.
Preference testing helps when you must decide whether a
It's important to designate some independent person who time-consuming or expensive step is worthwhile. For exam-
does not take part in the ranking to set up the preference test ple, we wondered whether we could skip the blanching step
and record and analyze the results. Let's call that person the when making white stocks. Side-by-side comparison or a
investigator. It's also important to make the dishes or drinks as triangle test may have illustrated the flavor differences, but it
similar to one another in appearance as possible. required a preference tasting to show that our cooks agreed
that white stocks made with blanched ingredients are genu-
Each test participant, or taster, always tastes four samples, inely better than those made without blanching.
but among those four tastes only two or three are actually
distinct. For example, a taster will either receive two samples
of recipe A and two of recipe B, or will taste two As, one B,
and one C. At least one recipe is always presented twice to
1 Prepare and label the samples. An "investigator" who does not take
part in the tasting should divide two or three recipes into four tasting
samples, then label the samples with meaningless code names. Use the
table above to make a secret key, seen only by the investigator, that
records how the recipes correspond to the code names.
2 Presentthe samples in a different order to each taster. Each taster
should get at least one of the sample presented twice. If it is not
possible to make the recipes visually indistinguishable from one
another, blindfold the tasters before presenting the samples.
3 Have tasters rank their preferences. Allow participants to taste the
samples as many times as they like.
4 Decode and analyze the results. If there is a meaningful preference,
the two instances of the sample presented will fall adjacent to one
another somewhere in the ranking.
It is shock ing how easy it is to fool yourse lf if you try to taste things without
a formal preference test. Human perception seems great but, as optical
ill usions show us, we are not as perfect as we think.
THE MODER NI ST KITCHEN 29 9
EXAMP LE REC IPE
BROWN VEAL STOCK Yields650g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
50%
Veal knuckle and neck bones, 500g 0 Cover with water.
7.5% 0 Bring to a boil, skimming often.
sawed into 5 em I 2 in pieces,
50% ® Drain, discarding water.
if possible 5% @) Coat bones with oil.
Neutral oil 75g 1.5% ® Roast in 190 •c 1 375 •Foven until golden brown, about30 min.
5%
Veal trimmings, finely ground 500g 2.5 % ® Reserve bon es, and discard excess oil.
2.5%
Neutral oil 50g 4% 0 Combine on nonstick bak ing sheet.
® Roast in 190 •c I 375 "Foven until evenly brown, about 20 min.
Unsalted butter 15g 100%
Sweet onions, peeled 50g 2% ® Strain, and reserve meat.
and thinly sliced 0 .3% @ Melt butter in pressure cooker.
Carrots, peeled and thinly 25g 0.1% @ Add vegetables to pressure cooker.
sliced @ Cook uncovered, stirring frequently, until moi stu re has evapo rated and vegetables
Leek, thinly sliced 25 g
Tomato confit 40g are tender, about 7 min.
see page 5·62
1 kg @ Add to pressure coo ker, and increase heat to high .
Water 20g @ Saute vegetables and confit uncovered, stirring constantly until brown, about 4 min.
Vodka 3g @ Add to pressure cooker with bones and meat.
Parsley leaves 1g
Black peppercorns, crushed @ Pressure-cook mixture at a gauge pressure of 1 bar I 15 psi for 2Y' h.
@ Cool.
@ Strain .
@ Vacuum seal and refrigerate until use.
{2009)
300 VOLUME 2 · TECHNIQUE S AND EQUIPMENT
1
EXAMP LE REC IPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
PRESSURE-COOKED WHITE CHICKEN STOCK Yields400 g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
350g 70%
Chicken wing meat and bones, 0 Cover with co ld water.
chopped 0 Bring to a boil, then drain chicken imm ed iate ly.
Water 500g 100% ® Combine with blanched chicken in pressure cooker.
70 %
Chicken thigh meat, finely ground 350 g 10% 0 Pressure-cook at a gauge pressure of1 bar 1 15 psi for 1'/2 h.
Sweet onions, pee led and 50g 5% ® Strain through fine sieve.
thinly sliced 5%
1% ® Coo l.
Carrots, peeled and thinly sliced 25g 0.2%
0.1 % 0 Vacuum seal, and refrigerate until use.
Leeks, thinly sliced 25g
Garlic, thinly sliced 5g
Parsley leaves and stems 1g
Black peppercorns 0.5g
(2 0 0 8 )
EXAMP LE REC IPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
BROWN BEEF STOCK Yields 650 g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
40%
Beef chuck, finely ground 200 g 0 Vacuum seal.
100% 0 Cook so us vid e in 90 oc l 194 °Fbath until juices are re leased, about 1 h.
Oxtail, thinly sliced 500g
onabandsaw 15% ® Strain, reserving juice; discard meat.
Rende red beef suet 75 g 100%
500g 10% 0 Cool beef juice, and rese rve.
Water lOOg 10% ® Roast oxtail with suet in 190 oc I 375 °Foven until oxtail is brown, about 30 min.
50g
Red wine (full-bodied) 10% ® Discard excess fat.
50g
Carrots, peeled and 4% 0 Cool, and reserve.
thinly sliced 20g
Yellow onions, peeled 4% ® Combine in pressure cooker with beef juice and oxtail.
and thinly sliced 20g
Celery, peeled and 4% ® Pressure-cook at a gauge pressure ofl bar I 15 psi for 21h h.
thinly sliced 20g 2%
Leeks, whites only, lOg 0.2% @ Strain.
thinly sliced 1g 0.1% @ Cool.
Red port (dry) 0.5g @ Vacuum seal, and refrigerate until use.
Parsley leaves
Thyme
Bay leaf
(2009)
THE MODERNIST KITCHEN 3 01
HOW TO Make Stock Sous Vide
For many vegetab le and seafood stocks, extraction at low temperature If you have an ultrasonic bath (below), we highly recommend com-
yie lds a better flavor than high-temperatu re pressure-cooking does. In bining so us vide cooking with ul trason ic treatment. The high-frequency
such cases, prepare the stock so us vide, w hich minimizes turbulence vibrations acce lerate extraction and yield a stock with fuller flavor. The
whil e accu rate ly contro lling the temperature vibrations do un fortu nate ly cloud the stock slightly. Filtering or using a
for hours at a tim e. centrifuge can improve the clarity (see page 351).
1 Prepare ingredients. Grind meat finely, and slice vegetab les thinly.
Use ratios recommended in the table of Best Bets for Stocks on page
296. Roast bones.
2 Vacuum seal ingredients together.
3 Cooksousvide in 85 "C/ 185 "Fbath for3 h.
4 Cavitate in ultrasonic cleaning bath for 30 min (optional). If the
ultraso nic bath has a temperature setting, put it at the highest degree
ava ilable, typically 60 "C/ 140 "F.
5 Refrigeratefor12 h, then strain.
6 Vacuum seal again, and refrigerate orfreeze until needed.
-.--·.
302 VOLUME 2 · TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
EXAMPLE REC IPE 10
SOUS VIDE FISH STOCK Yields 1.5 kg 303
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
133%
Fish bones, cleaned and rinsed 2 kg 3% 0 Panfry bones until go ld e n.
23 %
Neutral oil SOg 13%
33%
Vermouth 350g 27 % 0 Deglaze bones.
13% ® Cool mixture completely, and reserve.
White wine (dry) 200g 13%
2% @) Prepare vegetables as noted.
Carrots, peeled and thinly sliced SOOg 1.5% ® Combine, and cook until soft.
100% ® Cool completely.
Onions, peeled and thinly sliced 400g 0.3%
0.17%
Fennel, thinly sliced 200g
Leeks, thinly sliced 200g
Garlic cloves, thinly sliced 30g
Neutral oil 20g
Water 1.5 kg 0 Combine with bones and vegetables.
® Vacuum seal.
Coriander seeds Sg
® Cook sous vide in 80 oc I 176 °Fbath forl ',4 h.
Star anise 2.5 g
@ Strain .
@ Cool.
@ Vacuum seal, and refrige rate until use.
(2010)
EXAMPLE RECIPE
SOUS VIDE VEGETABLE STOCK Yields350 g
PROCEDURE
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING
0 Prepare vegetables as noted.
Water SOOg 100%
0 Combine.
Onions, peeled and 280g 56% ® Vacuum seal.
thinly sliced
Carrots, peeled and 200g 40% @) Cook sous vide in 85 oc I 185 °Fbath for 3 h.
thinly sliced
Celery, peeled and lOOg 20% ® Transfer to ultrasonic cleaning bath, a nd
thinly sliced cavitate for 30 min to improve extraction . If
Leeks, whites only, lOOg 20% unavai labl e, proceed with
thinly sliced remaining steps.
Button mushrooms, SOg 10%
thinly sliced ® Cool, and refrige rate forl2 h.
Tomatoes, peeled, seeded, SOg 10%
and chopped 0 Strain.
Chives lOg 2% ® Vacuum seal, and refrige rate until use.
Parsley lOg 2%
Coriander seeds l .Sg 0.3%
Black peppercorns lg 0.2%
Thyme lg 0.2%
Bay leaf O.Sg 0.1 %
Star anise O.Sg 0.1 %
(2010)
THE MODERNIST KITCHEN
PARAMETRIC RECIPE
BROTH
Broths-bouillons in French-are fully seasoned soups and are traditional dishes without adding greatly to the mass.
thus different from unseasoned stocks. People sometimes use the The classic image of broth cooking is an open kettle or caul-
term broth to connote something frail or paltry, but a broth is
hardly weak. In many ways, broths are the very essence offood, dron, but as with stocks, we prefer the quality of broths cooked
nourishment, and flavor, and they are integral components in any sous vide or in a pressure cooker.
gourmet kitchen.
Broths are usually more strongly flavored than stocks because
No soup is made without a broth, and no cuisine is complete stocks are basic building blocks and thus might be reduced or
without soups. Broth can be quite simple or refined and even combined with other things to make a final sauce or other dish. In
fancy. It can be clear or cloudy, rich or light. A good broth will contrast, broths are the final dish, so they need to have full flavor.
stand alone, but some broths-especially those made from ham
or game-are more often used to boost the flavor and intrigue of In the table below we have shown broths made from stocks,
but, by combining the formulas, you could combine making broth
and stockmaking into a single cooking step.
MAKING A BROTH ,,, seasoning broths. see Acidifiers. page
314, and Best Betsfor Adding Flavor with Alcohol.
1 Select a broth from the table. page317.
2 Prepare and scale the liquid, meat, Best Bets for Broths
vegetables, and aromatics. Weights in Broth Stoc k (sca lin g) Mea t (sca ling)
the tab le are proportional to th e liquid
sca led to 100'!!•. For exa mpl e, to make pot-au-feu white beef stock* 100% ox ta il, chop ped 30%
das hi , for eve ry 100 g of water use d,
add 5.2 g of bonito nakes and 2.5 g of vegeta ble s tock* 50 % short rib meat, gro und 20%
kombu.
mad e ira 4% ----------------
3 Press ure-cook (set to 1 bar / 15 psi), or
vacuum seal and cook sous vide. --------- water 100% prosci utto, thinly sli ce d 62.5%
Recommended cooking met hods, 25%
temperatures, and times are given in ham broth madeira 19 % ha m, thinly sli ced 25%
th e tabl e.
game broth fino sherry 100% Ibe ri co ha m, thinl y sli ced 25%
4 Sieve.
______ , --------- ----
\\'IH'nm.Jking d,,..,hi, tht· bonito tlt~kt·...,
.1rt· ,~ddt•d onlY ,!l((·r tiH' kombu h.1..., capon broth brown chi c ke n stock* ve ni so n, g round , roas ted 50%
IH't'll 1 ook1•d ..,ou-. \·idt•. pi geon wings, roasted 12 %
gin 10% pheasant trimmin gs, 10
blanched
red wine 10%
white ch ic ke n stock* 100% capon meat, ground 30%
white wine (dry) 25 %
salt cod broth water 100% sa lt cod sk ins, soa ke d for 20%
dashi water 100% 12 h in co ld water 5.2%
bonito Oakes
pho broth water 100% beef knuckles, roasted 44%
Chinese ginger Chin ese fish sto ck** 100% n/ a n/ a
soy fish broth Shaoxing wine 1. 5% n/ a n/ a
lig ht soy sa uce 1.5 %
"Marmite broth" red wine 750 %**
adap ted from water 100%
Hesto n Blumenthal
*(see page 296)
-----------
** (reduced to 250%)
304 VOLUME 2 · TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
EXAMPLE RECIPE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
HON DASHI ADAPTED FROM YOSHIH IRO MURATA Yields360 g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE The kombu flavor can be increased
475g 100% by extending the refrigerator time
Water 12g 2.5% CD Vacuum seal together. from 2 h to as long as 12 h. The
Rishiri kombu, or best quality 0 Cook so us vide at 60 oc l 140 °Fforl h. longer the time, the stronger
seaweed available (brown kelp) 5.3% the flavor.
® Cool, and refrigerate for 2 h.
Bonito flakes (katsuobushi) 25g @) Strain.
® Heat broth to 85 oc I 185 °F.
® Add bonito flakes, and steep forlO s.
(?) Strain .
® Cool.
® Vacuum seal, and refrigerate until needed.
(original2010, adapted 2010)
EXAMPLE REC IPE
HAM BROTH Yields535 g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE Any cured meat can be used here
Water SOOg 100% instead of ham.
Prosciutto e nds, thinly sliced 250 g 50% CD Prepare ingredients as noted.
Cooked white ham, 100g 20% 0 Comb ine in pressure cooker.
thinly sliced ® Pressure-cook at a gauge pressure ofl bar I
jamon Ibe ri co, thinly sliced lOOg 20%
Madeira lOOg 20% 15 psi forl'/z h.
Shallots, thinly sliced 100g 20% @) Strain.
Fino sherry 75g 15% ® Cool comp lete ly.
Garlic, thinly sliced SOg 10% ® Measure 500 g.
Black peppercorns, crushed lOg 2%
Ham broth, from above SOOg 100% 0 Disperse ge latin and gum in cold broth.
160 Bloom gelatin 4g 0.8%
Xanthangum 0.75g 0 .15% ® Heat broth just enough to dissolve gelatin .
Salt to taste
Sherry vinegar to taste ® Season, and cool.
@ Vacuum seal, and refrigerate until needed.
(2010)
306 VOLUME 2 · TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
10
EXAMP LE REC I P E - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
OXTAIL PHO BROTH Yie lds 4.75 kg
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE The sachet is a pouch made of
Black pe ppe rcorns 2g 0.04% G) Combine. cheesecloth that keeps the spice
Cinnamon stick 1g 0.02% mixture together in much the same
Star anise, ground 1g 0.02% 0 Toast spi ce mix. way that a tea bag holds tea leaves.
Allspice 0.5g 0.01 % The broth can be made without the
Water 5 kg 100% ® Place in sachet made of cheesecloth. sachet, but then yo u will have to
Beef knuckles, blanched 2.2 kg 44% fi lter out the loose spice mix to get a
White onions, whole, unpeeled, 1.2 kg 24% @) Combine in pressure cooker. perfect ly clear broth .
and charred ® Add sachet.
Oxtail, jointed a nd sea re d 900g 18% @ Pressure-cook broth at a gauge pressure of
Ginger, ha lved and cha rred 250g 5%
Fish sauce to taste 1 bar I 15 psi fo r 3 h.
Salt to taste
Sugar to taste 0 Discard sachet.
(original2003, adapted 2010) ® Season, and cool.
® Vacuum seal, and refrige rate until needed.
EXAMP LE REC IPE
LAKSA BROTH QUANTITY SCALING Yields500 g
100 g 28%
INGREDIENT 40g 11 % PROCEDURE
Onions, pee le d and chopped 30g 8.3%
Le mongrass, finely mince d 20g 5.5% CD Prepare ingredients as noted.
Candl e nuts, roasted a nd grated 5g 1.4% 0 Blend together in foo d processo r.
Shrimp paste 5g 1.4%
Dried chili 0.7g 0.2% ® Measure 28 g of paste, rese rving the rest.
Galangal, peeled and chopped
Turmeric (fresh), peeled 28g 7.8 % @) Saute until gold e n a nd ve ry fragrant, Laksa is o ne of the great d ishes
and chopped 20g 5.5% about 3 min . of the Peranakan culture that
Laksa paste, from above 360g 100% me rges Chinese a nd Ma lay
Neutral oil ® Transfe r paste to large pot, a nd whisk traditions. Many fee l that the best
White fish stock 100 g 28% in stock and cream. laksa is fo und in the foo d-hawking
see page303 ce nters ofSingapore.
Caramelized coconut cream to taste @ Simmer broth for 5 min.
see page 4·50 to taste
Fish sauce 0 Season, and coo l.
lime juice
® Vacuum sea l, and refrigerate until needed.
(2 010)
THE MODERNIST KITCHEN 307
EXAMP LE REC IPE
BOUILLABAISSE BROTH Yields750 g Boui llabaisse is the class ic fishe r-
man's stew ha iling from Marsei lles
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE and the surrounding region.
Tomatoes, peeled, seeded, 120g 13% Origina lly pre pared as an ail-in-one
and diced CD Prepare vegetables as noted. stew, we think it is much better to
White onions, thinly sliced 115g 13% cook the broth and the fish
Fennel, thinly sliced 100g 11 % 0 Combine. compo nents separate ly; otherwise
Shallots, thinly sliced 85 g 9.5% ® Cook over low heat until tender and golden, t he fis h w ill be overcooked. The
Leeks, thinly sliced BOg 9% broth can also be served alone.
Carrots, thinly sliced 75g 8% about 25 min.
Olive oil 50g 5.5%
Garlic, thinly sliced 25g 3% @) Add, and increase heat to medium high.
Tomato confit, pureed 60g 7% ® Saute until browned, about 5 min, and
(or tomato paste)
see page 5·62 89% reserve.
8% ® Coat bones in oil.
Fish bones and head 800g
Neutral oil 75g 100% 0 Bake in 180 •c I 325 "Foven until golden,
22%
Water 900g 5.5% about45 min. Bouillabaisse is a classic examp le of
White wine (dry) 200g 0 .33% ® Coo l. a regional food that has developed
Pastis 50g 0 .1% ® Comb in e with vegetab le mixture and fish a cu lt fo llowing. Whenever this
Thyme 3g 0 .06% happens, one sees simi lar phenom-
Black peppercorns, crushed 1g 0.003% parts. ena: fierce arguments about wh ich
Bay leaf 0.6g @ Vacuum sea l. versions are most authentic or best,
Saffron threads 0.3g 2% @ Cooksous vide in 80 "C / 175 "F bath and equally heated controversy as
1.4% to where the dish originated.
Blood orange juice 17 g 0 .1% for 11,4 h. Peop le often ins ist on keeping the ir
Red miso paste 13g @ Strain. recipes secret. Cassou let (see page
Blood orange zest, finely grated 1g @ Cool. 5·81) is another cu lt food from a
Salt to taste @ Skim fat from surface. different region ofFrance . Chili has
@ Season . a similar fo llowing in Texas and
(2010) @ Cool. other parts of the American
@ Vacuum sea l, and refrigerate until needed. Southwest.
EXAMPLE REC IPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
BACON DASHI INSPIRED BY DAVID CHANG Yields800 g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE The qua lity of the bacon used
Water 1 kg 100% determines the quality of the final
Kombu 25g 2.5% CD Vacuum seal together. dashi.
Bacon, thinly sliced 250g 25% 0 Cook sous vid e in 60 "C/ 140 "Fbath for1 h.
Sake (dry), flamed off 30g 3% ® Strain out kombu.
@) Vacuum seal with kombu-infused water.
Mirin lOg 1% ® Cook so us vid e in 85 "C / 185 "Fbath for1Y2 h.
Soy sauce lOg 1% ® Strain out bacon.
Sake 6g 0.6% 0 Comb ine.
Sugar 1.4g 0.14% ® Adjust seasoning as needed .
(2 010)
308 VOLUME 2 ·TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
1
EXA MPlE REC IPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOM YUM BROTH Yields 750 g
PROCEDURE
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING
Shallots, chopped 160g 32% CD Prepare ingredients as noted.
Lemongrass, bruised and 78g 15 .6% 0 Combine in blender.
sliced thinly 0 Puree.
Palm sugar 60g 12% 0 Measure 100 g of paste.
Tamarind paste 60g 12%
Garlic, chopped 50g 10% Like ma ny Asian brot hs, the taste of
Ginger, peeled and cut 45g 9% Tom Yum derives largely from a
into coin shapes flavorfu l paste.
Cilantro stems, washed 40g 8%
and chopped ® Saute paste until dry and very fragrant,
Galangal, peeled and chopped 40g 8% about5 min.
Belacan shrimp paste 10 g 2%
Makrud (kaffir) lime leaf, bruised 8g 1.6% ® Whisk into sauteed paste in large pot, and
Bird's Thai chili, chopped 5g 1% bring to a simmer.
Neutral oil as needed
100% 0 Season.
Shrimp stock (or vegetable stock) 500 g ® Cool.
see page296 4% ® Vacuum seal, and refrigerate until needed.
1.4%
Palm sugar 20g 0.4%
Fish sauce 7g
Salt 2g
Lime juice to taste
(2 010)
EXAMP LE REC IPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
BAKED POTATO BROTH Yields300 g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
Russet potato skins 100g 100%
Frying oil 20g 20% CD Coat skins with oil.
0 Bake in 95 oc I 200 °Foven for 7 h, until golden
Russet potatoes, peeled and 75g 75% As it does fo r vegetab le stocks,
thinly sliced 15% and completely desiccated. putt ing a broth in an ultrasonic bath
Clarified unsalted butter 15g 300% @ Cool. for 30 minutes improves flavor
Potato juice, decanted from 300g extraction. This shou ld be do ne
starch residue (from 700 g 300% 0 Panfry over medium-high heat until deep afte r the so us vide cook ing step.
of potatoes)
Water 300g golden, about 15 min on each side.
® Cool.
Salt to taste ® Vacuum seal with cooked potato skins
and slices.
0 Cook so us vide in 80 oc / 176 °Fbath for1 Y2 h.
® Strain.
® Season, and cool.
@ Vacuum seal, and refrigerate until needed.
(2 0 0 9 )
THE MO DERN IS T KITCHEN 309
10
Seasoning with Salt and Other Flavor Enhancers
When cooks judge the flavor balance and seasoning of b e sides sprinkling salt crystals over your food: anchovies,
a dish , salt is typically checked first. G e t the salt level wrong, dried scallops, and shrimp paste all layer on tastes of the sea
and diners will quickly be distracted from their enjoyment and the shore. Ingredients such as bacons, hams, and
of the food . Table salt enhances our perception of flavor, chee ses carry hints of the country, barnyard, and sometimes
and so do nucleotides and monosodium glutamate (MSG), smoke. Soy sauce, fish sauce, miso, and natto are all
which are savory salts that trigger different taste receptors fermented seasoning agents, and each has a ce rtain
than salt does. You can enhance flavor in many ways tanginess a nd vegetal quality.
Salts Taste Aroma (scaling)* Note
salt defines salty none 0.5%-2.0% most useful flavor enhancer in the kitchen; most
people find 0.75-1 % best for savory foods
monosodium defines umami none 0.1 %-2.0% found naturally in all high-protein foods; some
glutamate (also called savory) people find >1% harsh and metallic-tasting
5' savory none 0.02% found naturally in most foods; boosts existing
ribonucleotides savory flavors
Seasonings
aged cheese salty, sharp, acidic, varies greatly 3%-10 % hard cheeses like Parmesan contain both salt and
strongly savory glutamate
anchovy salty and oily fishy; roasted scent when 0.2%-0.8% used as a seasoning since the time of Imperial Rome
cooked
bacon salty smoky, fried , meaty 3%-15% can quickly overwhelm a dish
capers salty, slightly bitter mustard oil, hint of thyme 2% add at the last moment; high heat degrades aromas
(salt-packed) and astringent
cured meats salty, strongly savory, varies greatly; often nutty, 5%-15 % use with moderation; combination of salt, sugar, fat,
slightly sweet fruity, and floral and Maillard flavors with smoke aromas is powerful
dried scallops slightly sweet pungent, slightly fishy, cured 3%-5% used primarily in Asian cooking
fish sauce salty, strongly savory, pungent, slightly fishy 2%-10 % adds depth and savory flavor; tastes better
slightly sweet than it smells; a favorite in ancient Rome
garlic pungent, slightly sulfurous 1%- 7 % when garlic is crushed and raw or lightly cooked,
sweet, enhances its allicin compounds trigger pain and temperature
savory receptors in the mouth, thereby enhancing flavors
Marmite or salty, strongly savory yeasty, meaty, malted 0.3%-1.5% adds meat-like flavors to vegetarian dishes
Vegemite
miso, red slightly sweet, savory strong, roasted, hint of cocoa 1%-8% includes all three primary salts listed above;
miso, white mild, caramel, toasty 1%-8% pungency varies with degree of fermentation
natto salty, savory pungent, fermented, roasted, 1%
cheesy
shallots pungent, slightly sulfurous 5%-30 % similar to garlic but does not cause onion breath
sweet, enhances because sulfurous compounds do not enter
savory bloodstream
shrimp paste salty, slightly sweet, pungent, slightly fishy, cured 1%-3% used primarily in Southeast Asian cooking
savory
soy, dark salty, slightly sweet, strong, fermented, roasted, 2%-5% tastes and aromas vary greatly among styles and
mildly astringent molasses brands
soy, white mellow, slightly sweet, floral 2%-5%
tomato sweet, acidic, savory fruity, musky, sometimes 5%-9% rich source of sugars, acids, and salts when ripe;
floral enhances roasted aromas when browned with
meats
Worcestershire salty, sweet, savory, fermented, roasted, 2 %-5 % has many applications; underused as a seasoning;
sauce acidic, slightly spicy molasses, spicy, vinegary a distant relative of Roman fish sauce (garum)
*(set weight offood being seasoned to 700%)
312 VO LU M E 2 · TE CHNIQUES AN D EQUIP MENT
1
THE TECHNOLOGY OF There are several kinds of salinometers. The most
accurate is based on electrical conductance. Others
Measuring Salinity use a weighted floatto measure refraction or the
density of the liquid, but these can confuse salt and
Seasoning with salt "to taste" is an unavoidable sugar concentrations.
directive, but one with some surprising pitfalls. Not
only do individual tastes differ, but the same person Even after quantifying the salinity of a dish with
can perceive saltiness differently in different situa- this tool, resist the urge to remove saltshakers from
tions, depending on factors as varied as the sugar the table. Remember, the diner may not taste even
content of the food or the taster's level of hydration . consistent concentrations of salt in the same way the
chef does.
Salinometers allow cooks to quantify the level of
salt in that momentary taste and thus help to make
recipes more consistent and reproducible. Salina-
meters are also convenient tools for gauging whether
brines are reusable.
EXAMPLE REC IPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
sous VIDE PONZU ADAPTED FROM KYLE CONNAUG HTON Yields 1.95 kg
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE Japanese flavor comb inations ofte n
Yuzu 120g 17% include multiple variations on the
(about 0 Grate zest, and juice flesh. umami flavor theme. In t his recipe,
Sudachi (optional) four whole) 5% d ifferent soy sauces an d ko mbu
Mirin 35g 100% @ Combine in pan, and simmer until reduced to provide umam i notes, w hich are
Sake 700g 9.5 % about 80% of original volume. ba lanced by the bright yuzu citrus
Kombu (Rishiri if available) 65g 2% flavors.
Tamari soy sauce 15 g 79 % ® Toast over open flame on all sides.
Red rice vinegar (yusen) 550g 75 % @) Combine with citrus zest and juice, kombu, and
Shoyu soy sauce (usu-kuchi 525g 16%
shoyu) 110g reduced mirin - sake mixture.
Bonito flakes (katsuobushi) 1.4% ® Vacuum seal.
lOg
® Refrigerate for 3 wk.
0 Strain .
® Use immediately, or vacuum seal and
refrigerate until needed.
(o riginal2008)
THE MODERNIST KI TCHEN 313
PARAMETRIC RECIPE
ACIDIFIERS
Sourness is one of the basic tastes and is as essential as saltiness specific flavor, a pure edible acid may be a good option. For more
for balancing the seasoning of a dish. But it is too often under- control over the results, dilute the acid by adding 10 parts water
used. Including an acidifier among your ingredients won't neces- for every one part acid. Citric acid adds the tang oflemon and
sarily make the food sour-it can instead add brightness. An acid lime without their distinctive flavors, whereas malic acid subtly
also can activate the salivary glands at the sides of the diner's introduces the fresh, fruity zip ofgreen apples.
mouth, helping to distribute flavors more throughout the palate.
The end result is a dish with greater depth and intrigue. The table Typical Acid Concentrations on the next page offers
starting points for determing the right amount ofan acidifier to
The table Best Bets for Lowering pH below can help in choos- use for various applications. Some ofthe ranges are quite wide
ing an acidifier that will complement the flavor and origins ofthe because foods vary greatly both in their natural pH and in their
recipe. Fruits and fruit juices make excellent acidifiers but may natural ability to resist a change in pH. This so-called buffering
add too distinctive a flavor in certain dishes. Vinegars are good capacity explains why you can add one spoonful ofvinegar after
for salads and for earthy, savory dishes. Try squeezing a lime into another to a soup and taste no noticeable change until some
a spicy curry or adding balsamic vinegar to a rich meat sauce. threshold amount, beyond which the soup suddenly tastes sour.
A well calibrated pH meter will help ensure consistency.
Ifyour aim is to increase overall tartness but not to add a
Best Bets for Lowering pH
Ingredient Typical Flavor profile Example uses
pH
Vinegar (pH 2.4-3.4)
cider vinegar 2.4 sharp, apple sa lad dress in g, ma rin ad e, coagul ation
malt vinegar 2.4 bitte rswee t, hop s, ca ra me l sa uce, ma rin a d e
red wine vinegar 2 .4 curra nt, ta nni c dress ing
_ _ric~~ ill_egar _______ ___3·~ - s_vv_e_e!._~~~~._~o~s~ y__ _ __ sa lad dress in g, ma rin ad e, co ag ul ation
- ---------- - ------ -
sherry vinegar 3.4 swee t, oa k, che rry, ea rth y sa lad dress in g, fini shin g mea t sa uce
white wine vinegar 2 .8 clea n, bri ght , g ree n g ra pe sa lad d ress in g, fi sh broth, butte r sa uce
Citrus (pH 1.3-3.9)
grapefruit juice 3.7 fl o ra l, li ght citrus, coffee fini shin g sa uces, seaso ning seafood di shes
lemon juice 2.3 brig ht, pe rfum e d dress in g, sa uce, ba la ncin g oil
lime juice 1. 8 -2 sharp, coconut, pine sour broth, fini shin g fruit a nd vegeta ble wate r
orange juice 3.9 swee t, ne roli me llows o th e r ac ids
Pure acids (diluted 1:10 with water; pH 2.4-2.9)
acetic acid (vinegar) 2.9 punge nt win e sa uce, d ress in g
ascorbic acid (vitamin C) 2.9 c ri sp color prese rva tive
citric acid (citrus) 2 .4 sha rp, citrus fruit y sa uce fo r fi sh
lactic acid (dairy) 2.6 butte rmilk, sour crea m d a iry a pplica tion s, e nh a ncin g fer me nte d fl avors
for qui c k kim c hi a nd sa ue rkra ut
malic acid (apple, cherry) 2.4 ta ngy with li ght fruit not es fini shing glaze, sa uce, raw fruit sa uce, a nd wa te r
heavy ac idit y, li ght fl avo r re du c ti o n, win e sa uce, fruit sa uce
-· -
tartaric acid (grape) 2 .4
---------------------- ---- ---------
Tart fruit (pH 2.5--1.2)
red currant 3.1 ta nni c, bitte r, be rry g laze or sa uce for re d mea t, ga me
rhubarb juice 3.4 ast ringe nt, he rba l, me llows wh e n cooke d sa uce o r broth for fi sh, fo ie gras
tamarind paste 3.7 sour, ca ra me l, pun ge nt sa u ce ,_s ~vee~ , dress ing,_broth
tomato juice 4 .2 ea rthy, compl ex, vegeta bl e vege ta ble bro th , dress in g
verjus 2.7 tanni c, gra pe mu st finishin g sa uce (bes t used raw)
gooseberry juice 2.6 bitter, sour, flora l dress in g for s he llfish a nd oyste rs
31-t VOLUME 2 ·TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
THE TECHNOLOGY OF You can buy solutions formulated to exactly to pH values of exactly four,
seven, and 10 (above and below) to use in calibrating you pH meter. Refer to
Measuring pH the manufacturer'sinstructions to calibrate your meter, but most devices
have a special calibration mode.
Consistency is often a virtue in the kitchen, particularly with basic
building blocks like stocks and sauces. A pH meter that inexpensive-
ly and quickly measures the acid content of liquids is a convenient
way to ensure that acidity is consistent from one batch to the next.
Instructions vary from model to model, but the basics involve
dipping the probe in the liquid you wantto measure and waiting for the
reading to stabilize, which can take up to a minute. The meters must
be recalibrated regularly (ideally daily in a busy kitchen) by using
solutions available from the manufacturer. To avoid cross-contamina-
tion, clean the probe as recommended after every use.
You can buy solutions formulated to pH values of exactly four,
seven, and 10 to use in calibrating your pH meter. Refer to the manu-
facturer's instructions to calibrate your meter. Most devices have a
special calibration mode. To use it, you typically dip the probe into
one of the calibration solutions, wait for the reading to stabilize
(indicated by a beep or flash), then rinse the meter quickly in tap
water. Repeat with the other preformulated solutions, then reset the
meter to measuring mode for use.
The color of red cabbage juice (below) varies with pH. -.....---- --
pH 2: acidic pH 7: neutral pH 13: alkaline
316 VO LU M E 2 · TE CHNI QUE S AND EQUIPM ENT
10
SEASONING WITH WINE, BEER, AND SPIRITS
To cooks, wine and other beverages containing alcohol can be ish octopus. A splash ofShaoxing enlivens even simple stir-fries.
a type of seasoning. They use them to awaken the palate or to And sake is a must in japanese stews and hot pots.
help liberate aromatic compounds. The addition ofjust a tiny Pay attention to the proof of any spirit you add, and remem-
shot can add depth and character to dishes. Because of the tre- ber the high volatility of ethanol. Will the peppery, raw zip of
mendous variety of bitter, sour, and sweet profiles availab le in a strong liquor enhance the flavors and aromas of your dish at
wines, beers, and liquors, they serve an important role as multi- presentation? Then add it shortly before service. Would your
dimensional flavoring agents. dish be better served with the acidity, sweetness, fruitiness, or
How to choose the perfect alcoholic beverage to match a herbal or woody undertones of a reduced elixir? Then let the li-
particularfood is a subject complex enough to fill its own book. quor merge with the other ingredients as it cooks. Remember
Go with your own personal preferences, or follow the lead of that alcohol cannot escape from a sealed sous vide bag.
geography or history as well as flavor. The right Scotch whiskey Chefs flame the contents of their saute pans to burn off raw
adds mossy flavors of the field to wild game stock, for exam- alcohol and adjust the flavor. We rather like that raw taste and
ple. Dry sherry complements garlicky tapas and braised Span- do not take that step. Choose the approach that suits you .
Best Bets for Adding Flavor with Alcohol
Broth Sauce
Ingredient (scaling)* (scaling)* Characteristic aromas Alcohol content Example uses See page
high
aquavit 2%-7% 10%-30% caraway, fennel high finishing raw, cold items
Armagnac 1%-5% 10%-30% smoke, oak low glaze, sauce, adding body 5·17
high and subtle flavors
beer orale 10%-20% 15%-40% malt, barley, bitter high meat sauce, glaze, adding gra in 374
low to moderate flavors and bitterness
Cognac 2%-6% 10%-30% smoke, oak, tobacco moderate glaze, sauce, add ing body 5 ·128
low to moderate and subtle flavors
low to moderate
gin 1%-5% 10%-30% juniper, pine, cassia low marinade and game sauce, adding 5·35
low to moderate spice
Madeira 5%-10% 20% pepper, plum low to moderate sauce with dairy or mushrooms,
moderate adding
sweetness and fruit flavors
moderate to high
pastis 1%- 5 % 1%-5% anise, li corice, sugar low to moderate seafood broth, soup
port, red 10 %- 2 0 % 15%-40% cherry, berry, oak
port, white 15%- 4 0 % 15%-100% pear, sour grape high broth and sauce 4·53
sake 5%-16% 25%-75% light pepper, honeydew
low to moderate broth, sauce, adding sweetness 5·110
low to moderate fish broth, adding sweetness and a 5·197
little sp ice
Shaoxing 3%-15% 10%-30% sweet rice, floral pork, fish sauce, adding 5·167
acidity and sweetness
sherry, dry 3%-8% 15%-40% almond, hazelnut shellfish broth, adding body and 5·31
tannins
sherry, sweet 5%-10% 5%-20% cherry, currant glaze broth, adding sweetness and
complexity
vermouth 5%- 2 0 % 15%-40% chamomile, cardamom fish broth, sauce, enhancing flavors 5·233
vin jaune 2 %- 2 0 % 25%-74% walnut, almond, melon
broth, sauce, adding acidity and 5·113
body
whiskey 7%-10 % 20%-60% smoke, leather, vanilla, glaze, adding sweet 5·66
wine, red 7%-15 % char, peat
and smoky flavors
25%-100% tannin, berry, oak
glaze, meat sauce, adding 344
complexity and fruit flavors
wine, white 7%-15% 25%-100% apple, pear, floral broth and sauce, adding acidity 5·170
and complexity
*(set weight ofbroth or sauce to 700%)
T HE MOD ERNIST KI TC HEN 3 17
INFUSING ESSENCES
When you catch a whiff ofginger root or orange structions. A food 's aroma comprises a hierarchy
peel, almonds or cinnamon bark, your nose is offragrances that includes long-lasting, founda-
sensing numerous volatile chemicals and integrat- tional olfactory notes (known as base notes); less
ing those myriad sensations into a perceived scent. enduring middle notes that add structure and
Sometimes, a few of the fragrant components are complexity; and top notes, which are the most
so dominant that you can identify the source from fleeting components of a food 's smell but are often
those odors alone. Distill, extract, or press out the elements that provide the key olfactory cues
these telltale aromatic chemicals, and you get the that differentiate one dish from all others.
plant's essence.
Getting at the Essence
Vendors sell essential oils and related extracts
for use in making perfume, scented candles, soap, You can buy commercially processed essences
cosmetics, household cleansers, incense, and of many kinds, but you may want to make them
aromatherapy products. Indeed, the fragrances yourself. Over the centuries, cooks have devel-
added to such items are often the most distin- oped numerous ways to extract the aromatic
guishing feature ofa brand. essences of a plant, including pressing the oil out,
dissolving it in fat, and distilling it.
These concentrated olfactory essences can be
especially useful in the kitchen because it is the Citrus peels and other plant tissues that are
aroma that gives a food most of its characteristic rich in volatile oils will give them up when
sensory signature; any response our tongues have pressed while cold. Steam distillation is more
to the sweet, salty, savory, or bitter taste of the common for spices and works with a wider range
food only contributes to the overall flavor. What offragrance materials to yield essential oils from
we smell in our nose is as important or more so botanical sources. The distilling apparatus sends a
than what the mouth tastes to the flavor of food. flow of steam through a tube and into a vessel
Aromatic essences offer limitless ways to enhance containing the target plant tissue, which may
the overall flavor. Add a few drops of the essential include roots, stems, leaves, seeds, petals, or other
oil of coriander to the vinaigrette in a crabmeat components. The steam vaporizes any volatile
salad, or dribble a bit of spearmint oil into a chemicals that boil at a temperature lower than
mojito, and you can inject surprise and intrigue that of the steam. The hot water vapor then
into the resulting gustatory experience. The carries the liberated volatiles into a water-chilled
aromas ofylang ylang or orris root can imbue a coil, where they condense from vapor back to
dish with an exotic flavor that is haunting. liquid form. Finally, the liquid condensate drips
into a collection container.
To fully embrace the aromatic possibilities of
essences and to leverage their potential to sculpt This condensate is a mixture of two parts,
flavor, the Modernist cook needs to think the way which gradually separate from one another. An
perfume designers do. Like an exquisite perfume, aromatic hydrosol contains some of the more
many deeply satisfying flavors are layered con-
Essential oils. extracts, resins. concretes. and absolutes are the
domain of perfumers and flavorists, but they offer limitless
possibilities for creativity in the kitchen. Each kind of essence
conveys a different aspect of a botanical's fragrance.
3 18 VO LUME 2 · TECHN I QUES AND EQUIPMENT
For more on how arotary evaporator (or water-soluble volatiles and settles to the bottom. some of the water-soluble tastants that nonpolar
rotavap) and aGenevac Rocket Evaporator Rose water is an example of this part. At the solvents don't capture. This extract is another
same time, the second part, consisting of the example ofa tincture. In the context of mixed
work, see page 384. actual essential oil that is much richer in those drinks, such tinctures are often called bitters.
aromatic compounds that don't dissolve in water,
In a polar molecule like water, the rises to the top. You can use a pipette, dropper, Going Supercritical
electric charge is distributed less siphon, or laboratory separatory funnel to isolate
uniformly than it is in a nonpolar these two fluids from the mixture. Industrial- A still more challenging approach to extraction
molecule like hexane, which scale steam-distillation systems often have valves avoids both heat and the need to use (and later
contains electrons shared equally at the top and bottom of the collection vessel to remove) a petroleum-derived solvent such as
among two atoms. For more on allow for easier separation. hexane, which is mildly toxic. The method is called
polarity and solubility, see chapter supercritical fluid extraction-"super-
6 on The Physics of Food and Water, Steam distillation works well in many circum- critical" referring to the special state of matter in
page 1·294. stances, but it does have a drawback: the high heat which a substance behaves like both a gas and a
involved can alter or even destroy some of the liquid at the same time.
Supercritical carbon dioxide is more fragile aroma molecules. Technological
used industrially for many purpos- solutions to this problem, such as a rotary evapora- When carbon dioxide is pushed into a supercrit-
es, including extracting caffeine to tor or a vacuum condenser, are now available, ical state by the right combination of temperature
make decaffeinated coffee. For albeit expensive. and pressure, it infiltrates food deeply. Once
more on the sup ercriti cal state of inside, the carbon dioxide functions like a liquid
matter, see page 1·326. Solvent extraction offers a way to extract a solvent and extracts organic flavor compounds as
botanical essence without heat. This method uses concretes. The supercritical solvent can then easily
solvents, such as ether or hexane, that are non- exit the food, gas-like, carrying the extracted
polar and usually hydrophobic ("water-hating") aromatic compounds with it.
and thus reject contact with water. Most of the
organic volatile compounds in plant oils also are Then just by dropping the pressure, you can
relatively nonpolar, and they typically dissolve harvest an absolute from the mixture, while
readily in a nonpolar solvent. simultaneously separating it from the waxes and
resins. The carbon dioxide flashes away instantly
When you mix a nonpolar solvent with a food, a as a gas. This process yields an extract from, say,
semisolid or pastelike substance forms. Called rose petals, that has a different (but not necessari-
concretes or oleoresins, these substances contain ly better) character than that obtained via steam
some of the waxes and resins that were in the food distillation. Each method delivers a distinct set of
as well as extracted aromatic oils. Once extraction aromas for the enthusiast to investigate.
is complete, the nonpolar solvent must be re-
moved, usually through distillation or evapora- Because so many desirable aromatic volatiles in
tion. To use the concretes or oleoresins, you foods dissolve in fats and oils, many cooks often
usually make what specialists call an absolute by inadvertently remove these substances when they
washing the material with alcohol and then skim fat offstocks. Fat washing can work well in
filtering. The result is a solution of flavor in these circumstances.
alcohol, which is known as a tincture.
The general idea of fat washing is to mix the
Other nonpolar solvents include fats that are flavor-rich oil with alcohol and then shake the
themselves hydrophobic can be used to extract mixture to emulsify the two temporarily (see How
flavors-a property that perfumers have exploited to Wash Citrus Oil, next page). While the alcohol
for centuries in a classic fragrance-harvesting and oil are in intimate contact, some of the flavor
procedure called enfleurage (see page 323). compounds migrate from the oil into the alcohol.
After a resting period ofseveral hours or longer, the
Ethanol (pure grain alcohol) can also make a two phases naturally separate again, just as oil and
useful solvent-many cooks have ethanol solu- vinegar do, but now many of the flavor compounds
tions sitting in their pantries in the form ofvanilla have been dissolved in the ethanol. You can add the
extract. Because ethanol lies somewhere between flavored alcohol to your dish and just apply a little
water and ether on the polarity scale, it may not heat to drive off enough ofthe ethanol to ensure
extract as many of the organic compounds as that the result doesn't taste ofbooze.
hexane does, but it has the benefit of extracting
320 VOLUME 2 · TE CHNI QUE S AND EQUIPMENT
Chef Dan iel Patterson has written Working with Essences Sometimes they may ask servers to add such oils in
an entire cookbook called Aroma: sparing quantities to dishes right at the table.
The Magic ofEssential Oils in Foods Essences are to flavor what Klaxon sirens are to
and Fragrance. It has many ideas for sound. Skilled flavorists know that essences can be One common use for essential oils it to replen-
using essential oils in the kitchen. powerful tools for intensifying flavor, but they ish flavors lost to heat during reduction. The more
must be wielded with finesse. Essences can be ambitious cooks use them to propel dishes into
deceptive because in such a concentrated form, culinary terra incognita. Adding a single drop of
many substances smell nothing like they do when the essential oil ofginger to a chilled carrot soup
they are highly diluted in food or drink. The can give the dish flavor dimensions entirely
essential oil of black pepper, for example, does not different than freshly grated ginger alone could. A
smell like black pepper. In fact, it doesn't even touch of tarragon essence can do the same for
smell particularly spicy. Similarly, the odors of white chocolate. Pioneering cooks who experi-
essential oils that are derived from coffee and ment with essential oils think like perfumers,
chocolate are so potent that, when these oils are mixing and matching flavor components to
undiluted, they can be nauseating. You need construct novel flavors. Learning to control the
experience with proper dilution to use them well. diner's flavor experience by using these intense
essences takes patience and a considerable
Chefs who often cook with essences usually amount of trial and error.
predilute the essences in alcohol or oil and then
These vials show an essential oil diluted at various ratios.
Serial dilutions make it easier to measure out the small
quantities needed.
322 VOLUME 2 ·TECHNIQUES AND EQU I PMENT
THE TECHNIQUE OF 10
Enfleurage II
One of the oldest (and most laborious) •
techniques for extracting fragrances from
botanical tissues is enfleurage. Smear a
framed glass plate with a thin layer of a few
millimeters of solid fat such coconut fat or
lard, then press the botanical material into
the fat, and let it sit for several days.
The fat absorbs organic volatiles from the
plant matter in a process similar to the way oil
in a stock latches onto fat-soluble flavor
compounds. You can swap out the plant
tissue for new material to add additional
layers of flavor in several cycles of
absorption.
The fat is melted and strained . The oil is
then washed with alcohol (see How to Wash
Citrus Oil, page 321) or steam distilled to
retrieve the aroma compounds from the fat,
leaving behind a fragrant fatty residue that
makes a fine starting material for soap.
Collect the distillate or evaporate the alcohol
from the extract to obtain the essential oil.
A culinary variation on this basic technique
infuses oil rather than solid fat. You place
macerated botanical material directly into
hot oil (for example, in a so us vide bag). You
can use a strainer to swap in fresh plant
material, followed by a final fat wash with
ethanol and a reduction to retrieve the
essence and make it water-soluble.
T HE MOD ERNIST KI TC HEN ---.,.
3 23
PARAMETRIC RECIPE
EXTRACTING FLAVOR WITH ALCOHOL
Many flavor components dissolve in alcohol but not in water. In the EXTRACTING FLAVOR WITH ALCOHOL
flavoring industry, alcohol infusions are called tinctures. Such
extracts have many culinary uses, such as adding aroma to a sauce 1 Select and prepare ingredient. The tabl e Best Bets fo r Ex trac ts below
or broth. A tincture made from browned butter can supply a nutty,
buttery intensity without adding any fat. suggests a number of good optio ns.
A few tinctures, such as vanilla or almond extracts, are readily 2 Vacuum sea l ingredient with neutral vodka. Quantities indicated in the
available. But in most cases you need to make your own tincture by table are proportional to the weight of th e vodka. For examp le, use 25 g
vacuum sealing aromatic ingredients with alcohol in a sous vide of chi li for every 100 g of alcohol.
bag. Ifavailable, use pure ethanol (such as Everclear); otherwise use
a good-quality, neutral spirit such as vodka. Taste the infusion from 3 Infuse. Recommended infusing temperatures and tim es are listed in the
time to time to judge the development of the flavor. When the flavor
is intense enough, strain out the solids, and store the tincture sealed table. So me preparations benefi t from cook in g; for oth ers, infusion at
and refrigerated. refr igerato r temperatures does a better job of ca ptu ring th e ir deli ca te
navo rs.
The table below suggests typical concentration ranges to use for
preparing and working with tinctures. Add the extract just before 4 Sieve. Reseal, and refrigerate unt il needed.
serving for the maximum flavor impact.
5 Add recommended concentration of alcohol extract to broth or sauce.
For exa mple add 4 g of brown bu tter extract for every 100 g of broth or
sauce. Add ing more than 5%will make th e alco hol navor perceptible.
Best Bets for Extracts
Infu s e Exa mple
conce ntration** Example use
Ingredient (scaling)* ( "C) (' F) (h) See page
bay leaf, fresh 1% 376
brown butter, melted 100% 60 140 4 5% fish sa uce, broth 374, 5·158
butter, melted 100% 65 149 5 304
chili (dry), crushed 25% 65 149 3 4% vegetab le broth 5·101
cinnamon stick, crushed 5% 24
citrus zest, finely grated 27% refrige rate 4 4% popcorn broth 376
coffee bean, ground 20% 60 140 3
coriander seed, crushed 20% 50 122 12 2% Sichuan-style broth
fennel seed 5% 3
ginger, thinly sliced 25% re frigerat e 24 3-4% meat sauce
roasted hazelnut oil 100% 60 140 4
nutmeg, grated 7% 3 37 3 3% fi sh sa uce, broth
rosemary 10% 60 140 24
saffron threads 1% 65 149 24 3% meat sa uce, re d eye g ravy
24
star anise, crushed 5% re fri ge rate 5% seafood sauce
thyme leaf 10% refrigerate
vanilla bean, split 5% re fri gerate 3-4% pork broth, Pa rm esa n jus
3% Chinese broth
8% root vege ta bl e brot h
2- 3% g uin ea fowl co nso mm e
1.5- 2.5% la mb broth, la mb jus
0 .6% cream sauce
60 140 4 4% ox tail co nso mm e
60 140 4
24 3- 4% beurre bla nc
refrige rate
3% sa uce or broth of foi e g ras
or lea n fi sh
*(set weight ofvodka to TOO%) ** (set weight ofbroth or sauce to TOO%)
326 VOLUME 2 ·TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
1
EXAMPlE RECIPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
HOUSE BITTERS Yields500g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
Vodka 500g 100%
8% 0 Combine.
Kumquat, thinly sliced 40g 2.4% 0 Sea l in glass bottle with airtight lid.
2.4%
Burdock root 12g 2% ® Shake bottle twice a week for4wk.
Vanilla beans, halved 12g 1.2% @) Pour mixture through fine sieve into sterili zed bottle.
Orange zest lOg 1%
Gentian flowers 6g 0.6%
Cinnamon 5g 0.4%
Cloves 3g 0.3 %
Heather tips 2g
Anise seeds 1.5g
(2010)
EXAMPlE RECIPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
FINES HERBS EXTRACT Yields100g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
Vodka 100g 100%
Chervil, thinly sliced 33g 33 % 0 Combine and vacuum seal.
Chives 33 g 33 % 0 Refrigerate for 24 h to steep.
Parsley leaves, whole 33 g 33 %
Tarragon, crushed 15g 15% ® Strain through fine filter.
@) Add 2%-5% of extract to season broth
or sauce, or reseal and refrigerate until use.
(2010)
THE M ODERNI ST KITC HE N 327
PARAMETRIC RECIPE
FLAVOR INFUSION INTO FATS
In Chinese cooking, one of the hallmarks of a skilled cook is his INFUSING FLAVOR INTO A FAT
ability to flavor the cooking oil in a hot wok with aromatics so each
taste ofthe finished dish carries their perfume. Oils are so mobile 1 Wash and dry all produce thoroughly to prevent contamination of
that they offer an effective way to disperse the aromas evenly. An the fat.
infused fat allows you to add the essence without adding the
ingredient, which simplifies the preparation ofa dish. 2 Vacuum seal ingredient with fat. The table Best Bets for Infused Fats,
Use neutral fats for dean-flavored infusions; use more flavorful on the next page, lists many good combinations. Quantities are
fats, such as olive oil or butter, to complement the flavors of the proportional to the weight of th e fat . When making coffee butter,
aromatic. Some pairings-butter with molasses, for example-are for example, add 55 g of coffee beans for everylOO g of butter.
even more multilayered and complex when married in an infusion.
3 Cook so us vide to infuse the fat. Recommended temperatures and
We recommend cooking fat infusions sous vide because the sealed
packaging prevents oxidation and evaporation. In general, sieve the times are given in the table.
oil after infusing, then repackage and chill the oil. Keep it
refrigerated until use. 4 Place food in bag into an ultrasonic bath for15 min to 1 h (optional).
Ultrasonic treatment enhances extraction and should be done while
There has bee n public co ncern about the anaerobic environment of sea led, the food is still hot. Use the same bath temperature used for infusion or
flavored oils as a risk for botulism. If the food in the packaging is moist the highest setting possible. Or use a so us vide bath that has ultrasonic
enough, then this ca n be a problem . The best practice is to keep the capability to do the infusion.
infusion refrigerated. Sous vide times and temperatures have been gauged
to pasteurize, not to fully sterilize, the infusion so it can be sto red without 5 Sieve, then refrigerate. Do not sieve truffle or other infusions in which
refrigeration, which requires ca nning times and temperatures. Ensure that the flavorful flecks are desirable.
herbs are was hed and dried thoroughly for safe so us vide infusion.
10
Best Bets for Infused Fats
Cook so us vide,
or infuse cold
Ingredient (sca lin g)* Fat 70 158 8 Example use See page
cured ham, thinly sliced 40% pea nut o il 70 158 24 add to XO sa uce, season fres h me lo n next page
dried chili, crushed 3% sunfl ower o il 65 149 6 poach fi sh, seaso n sauteed broccoli 4·371
cocoa nib, crushed 40% sunflowe r o il 70 158 12 ga rni sh sas himi
coffee bea ns, whole 55% un salted ga rni sh sea urc hin, she llfish, le mo n ri sotto be low
butter
garlic, thinly sliced 50% o li ve o il 9 0 194 4 ga rni sh pizza, roaste d potato es
fresh ginger, thinly sliced 45% sunfl owe r o il
puree until smooth ga rni sh stea me d fi sh
Iberica ham fat, thinly 75% o live o il
sliced 70 158 3
langoustine (or other 125% un sa lted
shellfish) shell, crushed to butter 9 0 194 20 min se rve wa rm, bl e nd into ha m b roth, ga rni sh
a fine paste and roasted 20% grill e d peaches or wate rm e lon
thyme leaves gra peseed o il
88 154 5 poac h she llfis h, ble nd into she llfish sa uces
55 131 45 min seaso n coo ke d fi sh a nd she llfish, fini sh le mon
ri s o t t o
lemon zest, finely grated 45% gra peseed o il 60 140 2 ga rni sh sa lad s a nd fi sh
makrud (kaffir) lime leaf, 15% g ra peseed o il 3 37 24 dri zzle ove r grill e d fi sh, brush on po rk c utl ets next page
sliced
fresh mint, thinly sliced 16 % o li ve o il 8 0 176 1 mi x into vin a ig rette
molasses 50 % un sa lted
adapted from Mi chel Bras butter 8 0 176 20min fr y sweetbread s or foi e g ras 331
refrige rate for 4 d
afte r co o king
dry porcini 50% sunflowe r oil 70 158 1 ble nd into ga me broth
rosemary 10% o li ve o il 8 0 176 1 d rizzle ove r roas t la mb
rose petal, untreated 80% sweet ap ri cot 55 131 1'/1 ma ke sa lad dress ing, be urre bla nc fo r fi sh
oil
truffle, minced 30 % un sa lte d 55 131 1 ga rni sh poac he d sca ll o ps o r a rti cho kes
butte r ultras oni c 15 min
bath
*(set weight offat to 700%)
EXAMP LE RECIPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
SHEllFISH BUTTER Yields400g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
100%
Crustacean heads, bodies, and 500 g CD Vacuum seal together. This recipe wo rks with crab,
shells, finel y crushed or ground 80% 0 Coo ksous vide in 88 •c I 190 • F bath fo r 5 h. crawfish, shrimp, prawn, and
® Remove from bag, and coo lat room lobster of all va rieties. It is a
Clarified unsalted butter 400 g culinary class ic that dates to
te mp e rat ure . traditional French cuisine.
@) Refri ge rate for12 h.
® Heat mixture to melt.
® Strain; disca rd heads.
0 Decant butte r.
® Vacuum seal, and refri ge rate until use.
(2009)
THE MODERNI ST KITCHEN 329
EXAMP LE RECIPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
SOUS VIDE LEMON HERB OIL Yie lds400g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
Grapeseed oil 400g 100%
Lemongrass, thinly sliced 80g 20% CD Combine.
Lemon thyme leaves 50g 12.5% 0 Vacuum seal.
Lemon balm leaves 20g 5% 0 Cook so us vide in 60 oc I 140 °Fbath for 1Y, h.
Makrud (kaffir) lime leaves 20g 5%
@) Chill and refrigerate for12 h.
® Strain.
® Refrigerate until use.
(2010)
EXAMPLE REC IPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
SPICED CHILl OIL ADAPTED FROM JEAN-GEORGES VONGER ICHTEN Yields1 kg
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
1 kg 100%
Grapeseed oil or other CD Vacuum seal together.
neutral oil 180g 18% 0 Cook so us vide in 70 oc I 158 °Fbath for 24 h.
0 Cool and refrigerate for12 h.
Chipotle chilies, thinly 30g 3%
sliced @) Strain.
Coriander seeds, ® Vacuum seal and refrigerate until use.
toasted and crushed
Mace, crushed 30g 3%
Dry red chilies, crushed 30g 3%
Star anise, crushed 30g 3%
20g 2%
Cinnamon sticks,
toasted and crushed 12g 1.2%
Fennel seeds,
toasted and crushed
(o riginal1997, adapted 2010)
3 30 VO LU ME 2 · TE CHN I QU ES AND EQUIPM ENT
10
EXAMPLE REC IPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
MOLASSES BUTTER ADAPTED FROM M ICHEL BRAS Yields200g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
Unsalted butter, me lted 200g 200%
Molasses 100g 100% CD Blend together.
0 Transfer mixture to Mason jar, and seal.
® Place sea led Mason jar in 85 oc / 185 °Fbath for 30 min.
@) Remove jar from bath, and take off lid.
® Rest in jar at room temperature for 30 min to allow butter and molasses to separate.
® Pour butter into sealable co ntain er, and discard molasses.
0 Seal, and refrigerate infused butter for 4 d.
® Decant butter, and refrigerate for use.
(p ublished 2002)
EXAMPLE REC IPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
CURRY OIL A DAPTED FROM T HOMAS KELLER Yields 1 kg
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
9%
Coriander seeds, 90g CD Toast separate ly in small pans until just fragrant.
toasted and crushed 3.5% 0 Remove from heat.
100%
Cinnamon stick, crushed 35g ® Blend fully with toasted spices.
14% @) Vacuum seal.
Canolaoil 1 kg
or other neutral oil 3% ® Cook so us vide in 90 oc I 194 °Fbath for 1 h.
1.5%
Chaat masala 140g ® Refrigerate for 12 h.
see page 5·281
0 Strain.
Cayenne pepper 30g
® Repackage, and refrigerate until use.
Mace 15g
(published 1999, ada pted 2010)
THE MODERNIS T KITC HEN 33 1
JUICING
Green Star is another brand of Nothing is more fundamental to classic cuisine A centrifugal-style juicer can do better with
maceratingjuicer that is compa- than making stocks. Chefs use the flavorful some foods. Designed more like a blender or a food
rab le with the Champion. Centrifu- extracts ofmeats, fruits, and vegetables for every- processor, a centrifugal machine pulverizes food
gal juicers are made by many thing from soups to sauces. But despite all the that enters the juicing chamber with a flat cutting
manufacturers of kitchen app li- slicing, chopping, and simmering involved, plate that sits at the bottom of a rapidly spinning
stockmaking is a relatively gentle way to retrieve mesh basket. The plate also flings the mashed pulp
ances. the flavor that plant and animal tissues have to onto the perforated basket walls, where strong
offer. Ifyou want the richest flavors, you need to centrifugal forces drive the liquid out of the pulp
do real violence to the biological building blocks and through the mesh. The juice finds its way out
offood in order to unlock the liquid essence through a spigot into a waiting container.
within. That means rupturing cells-in other
words, juicing. Some centrifugal juicers are designed so that
accumulating pulp is automatically pushed off the
The juice ofa fruit, vegetable, or meat is water mesh basket and into a refuse bin. This handy
that is impure in the best ofways. This "dirty" water feature lets you process more food before you must
is loaded with sugars, soluble proteins, emulsified stop to clear caked pulp from the basket's sides.
lipids and fat compounds, volatile aroma molecules,
and other components that constitute a food Some cook use an even rougher option for
source's portfolio offlavor and nutrients. juicing, one with roots that go back millennia: a
food press. Cider makers and vintners know all
Cooks employ both brutish and more elegant about presses. A simple screw mechanism typical-
ways to remove the juice from foods. In most ly provides the mechanical leverage for squeezing
commercial kitchens you can find a Champion- food between flat plates. The plates themselves are
style juicer, based on a well-known product made designed so that they draw the extracted juice into
by the Plastaket Manufacturing Company ofLodi a collection chamber that is positioned beneath
California. You push food down a chute onto a the press assembly.
serrated blade that is mounted on a horizontally
rotating spindle. Whatever the spinning teeth of The citrus press, which has curved pressing
the blade rip into, be it cantaloupes or carrots, surfaces to accommodate fruit halves, is perhaps
they shred the tissues to the very core. As cell the most familiar example of this class of machine.
walls rupture, the contents leak out and collect in Even though presses can apply tremendous
a bowl. The specially designed contours of the crushing forces, they tend to produce juice
spindle assembly meanwhile shunt the solid pulp containing fewer particles than other kinds of
into a receptacle. juicers do because they compress food rather than
tearing it.
This type of juicer processes food fast, but at
some cost to the yield because a significant fraction But pressing can be tricky when you juice a food
of the juice remains in the pulp that is discarded. It that simultaneously expels both desirable flavor
has the advantage that it can juice things like wheat components and chemical compounds that break
grass, which other juicers find difficult. down those same flavorants, a phenomenon that
occurs most commonly with citrus fruits .Acids
Getting the juice out of food requires breaking open cellular
structures. In doing so. numerous compounds mix together to
create thefresh -squeezed flavor of the juice. But the flavor can be
fleeting. Consider anorange: sugars. acids. and peel oils combine
to create the unmistakable flavor of orange juice, but the acidity
of the juice itself ultimately ruins the fresh flavor bydestroying the
aromatic peeloils over time.
332 VO LU M E 2 · TE CHNI QUE S AN D EQUIP M ENT
that emerge during the process instantly begin to side until the two solutions are equally salty. It is Enzymes are catalysts, chem icals
decompose the molecules in the fruit's essential as if there were a pressure pushing on the solu- that speed reactions (often by huge
oil that impart that characteristic citrus flavor. You tion with the higher concentration ofwater factors) without themselves being
should thus serve orange juice as soon after you molecules (and thus the lower concentration of used up in the process. When the
squeeze it as possible, before these flavor-killing salt)-and in fact scientists do talk about the precursor molecules in a flavor
extracts can do too much damage. osmotic pressure created by a difference in reaction run out, there are still
concentrations between adjacent solutions. plenty of enzymes left.
Gentler juicing Through Osmosis works for any liquid medium and any
Chemistry dissolved compound, not just water and salt. Small, tasty molecules such as sugar
and salt work best at drawing juices
Brawn and blades are not the only foundations for Juicing by osmosis can be as straightforward as out of food. Larger molecules such
effective juicing. Chemistry works as well. You sprinkling sugar on a cut lemon or scattering salt as starch do not have the same
can add pectinase enzymes to fruit, for example, onto slices of cabbage or eggplant. Before long, osmotic effect.
to break down the tough polysaccharides in the some of the juice inside the cells migrates across
plant cell walls. Treating even hard-textured the cell walls and starts to accumulate around the Freezing isone of our favorite methods for
fruits such as apples, pears, or pineapple with fruit or vegetable, and it can easily be collected. concentrating flavors. For more details,see
pectinase will make them go soft, thus boosting This juicing method is most useful when you are Freezing Out the Good Stuff. page 396.
the juice yield. preparing very salty dishes, such as sauerkraut (see
page 3·351), or very sweet juices for a sorbet or
Enzyme treatments also work on meats. Apply fruit coulis.
the proteolytic enzyme bromolain (a naturally
occurring component ofpineapple juice) to the Squeezing by Ice and Fire
meat before you press it to double the yield of
natural juices extracted. When a fruit freezes, minuscule dagger-like ice
crystals form inside, puncturing the cell walls. As
Another gentle juicing tactic suggested by the ice crystals grow, they force sugars, flavor
chemistry works by drawing the juices out of the compounds, and other juice components into the
food by exploiting a phenomenon known as remaining liquid juice, which lowers the freezing
osmosis. Think of osmosis as the chemical point ofthe sweetened juice. So ifyou freeze the
version ofwater seeking its own level. Ifvery fruit, then thaw it, highly concentrated juice
salty water is adjacent to less salty water and a emerges first; less concentrated juice follows as the
permeable barrier of some kind prevents the salt crystals of ice melt. This approach is very well
molecules from moving freely, the water mole- suited for juicing sweet fruits, such as raspberries
cules try to even things up by diffusing through and blueberries.
the barrier from the less salty side to the saltier
JUICING STRATEGIES
HOW TO Extract juice From Plants with Pectinase
Enzymes ca n cleave the co mpo unds that glu e together the wa lls of plant cells, softe ning fruits
an d vegetables a nd thus free ing th em to ex press their juices. It may be tim e-cons uming to
macerate fruits o r vegetables in a so luti o n of naturally occurring e nzymes such as pectinase,
butthis a pproach avo ids so me of the problems that occu r w hen foods are juiced mechanically,
suc h as browning, cloudiness, and bitterness. The assistance of pectinase is particularly helpful
for re moving juice from tougher plant foods, such as a pples, pears, and carrots. Th e enzymatic
treatment dra mati call y improves juice yie lds.
1 Peel the fruit and vegetable. 5 Refrigerate until the juice has been expressed. Several hours to
2 Puncture the skin with needles (optional). Th e perforation will seve ral days of chilling may be required, depending on the size and the
durability of the fruits or vegetab les. For faster results, wa rm the bag in
acce lerate the infusion of th e so lution and thus speed extractio n.
a water bath at a temperature below 50 •c I 122 • f for up to 4 h.
3 Add pectinase enzymes to water atthe concentration recommended
6 Strain, pressing lightly on the solids to yield more juices.
by the manufacturer.
4 Vacuum seal the food with the enzymatic solution. Use as littl e wate r
as poss ibl e to avoid diluting the juice.
HOW TO Extract juice by Osmosis
Dissolving suga r in the small amo unt of water o n the surface of a fruit o r Salt has the same effect and may be more appetizi ng for ce rtai n vegeta-
vegetab le will c reate a so luti on conce ntrated enough to pull the bl es. A good way to accelerate the osmos is process is to cut the food
abu nd a nt, flavor-laden liqu id from inside its cell s to the o utsid e . into sm all e r pi eces.
1 Wash and dry fruit or vegetable pieces. 2 Coat in sugar or sa lt. Use glu cose instead of 3 Warm for a few hours to extract the juice.
sucrose for a final product that is less sweet. Optionally, vacuum-sea la nd place in warm
water bath . Higher temperatures, up to
An ultrasonic bath (see page 415} is helpful for increas- 60 •c I 140 "F, wi ll speed the process.
ing yield when either pectinase or osmosis is used.
4 Decant the juice through a sieve (not
shown}.
336 VOLUM E 2 ·TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
10
HOW TO Extract juice By Freezing
Freezing may seem like a passive approach compared with pressing approaches alone . The process exploits the power of ice crysta ls
or pulverizing the food , but it can actually yield more juice and more to rupture cells. After thawing, the ce ll s g ive up their juices with
intensely flavored, deeply colored liquid, than mechanical little effort.
1 Seal food in freezer bag. This approach
works particularly well for berries, such as
blueberries or raspberries.
2 Freeze for as long as possible. It's 3 Thaw(notshown).
ideal to store summer berries into
the winter. Long-term frozen storage 4 juice.
with periodic freeze-thaw cycles
produces the largest ice crystals. 5 Strain.
T HE MODERN I ST KIT CH EN 337
Although sulfites are widely used as Juicing Strategies leftover strawberry juice that's been sitting in the
preservatives in the food industry, fridge.
some people are unab le to tolerate It's one thing to extract an intensely flavored juice,
even small quantities of them (see but it's quite another to keep that juice fresh and Another challenge that comes with juicing is
page 1·238). appetizing until it reaches the table. The cellular the reality that many juices brown fast. Just as a
destruction that occurs during juicing both helps hard punch in the eye soon produces a black and
and hinders freshness. Many of the flavors we like blue shiner, trauma to plant tissues can turn them
in fresh juice form only as the cells fall apart, brown. Being run through a juicer counts as a
flavor-creating enzymes that previously had been highly traumatic event.
locked inside cells. But the tissue damage also
sometimes releases destructive enzymes that Browning is actually a defense mechanism. If a
wreak havoc on flavor, aroma, and pigment plant gets scratched, smacked, or otherwise
compounds. injured, it becomes vulnerable to infection. To
defend against germs, it raises antimicrobial
The distinctive aroma of onions, garlic, and defenses. In particular, the tissue releases the
cabbage, for example, come into being only as a enzyme polyphenol oxidase, or PPO, which leads
result ofenzymatic transformations that occur to the production ofprotective compounds such
when the cell walls are ruptured. The same is true as tannins and to brown color.
of the characteristic flavors of fruits like strawber-
ries and tomatoes. Because enzymatic reactions To prevent discoloration, therefore, one strate-
occur over time, the flavor of some foods, say, a gy is to restrain the activity ofPPO. You can
ripe strawberry, is the result of rapidly changing destroy PPO with heat, but even at a boil this can
concentrations ofvarious enzymatically created take minutes and is enough to wreck some of the
aromas. fresh aromas. Chilling the juice, in contrast, slows
the browning almost immediately because
The sometimes dramatic evolution of flavors enzymatic reactions slow down drastically as the
over short periods oftime helps explain why no temperature drops.
one has yet found a way to artificially replicate
true strawberry flavor and capture it in a bottle. You also need to worry about the pulp, where
For many foods, the flavor of an essence is akin to the concentrations of oxidizing enzymes and their
playing its entire symphony offlavor notes all at molecular targets are much higher. The pulp
once, rather than releasing the sequence of usually browns long before the juice changes color.
individually orchestrated molecular interactions Pigments derived from PPO are soluble in water, so
that underpin the food 's real flavor profile. they slip right into the juice. Straining out the pulp
as completely as possible before it has a chance to
The moment that the supply ofprecursor discolor the juice will preserve the fresh color of
molecules runs dry, however, the enzymatic the juice.
flavor-making chemistry shuts down. And all too
soon, the less stable flavor compounds start to The practical implications of all this are pretty
break down. True freshness is fleeting indeed. straightforward: keep the food you are juicing as
cold as is practical, and strain the pulp out prompt-
One simple way to extend the freshness ly. To further slow browning and the formation of
window of some juices is to add a little freshly unwanted pigments, add antioxidants such as
squeezed juice. This strategy provides fresh vitamin C (ascorbic acid) if the acidic taste will
material for the enzymes, inducing them to not be too disruptive. Or add more neutral-tasting
unlock a new wave of flavor. A few just-juiced and potent preservatives such as sulfites (used
strawberries will, for example, renew a bowl of widely in winemaking) or sodium benzoate.
338 VOLUME 2 · TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
EXAMPLE REC IPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
MEYER LEMONADE Yields 325 g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE
Meyer lemon juice
300g 100% CD Centrifuge at27,500g for1 h.
0 Decant juice and stra in through fine sieve.
Fructose 30g 10% Always add the essentia l oi l just
Citric acid ® Whisk into clarified juice until dissolved and before serving. The acidity of the
Gum arabic 1.5g 0.5% reserve . juice wi ll destroy the essence. This
Water is why the best quality citrus oils are
Lemon essential oil 5g 1.7% @) Blend together until fu lly emu lsifi ed. made by removing the peel before
® Add 1.5 g of emu lsion to sweetened juice. cold pressing so there is no chance
2g 1% ® Hand-bl end until smooth. for the acidic fruit juice to damage
the peel oil.
0.12g 0 .0 4% 0 Strain through fine sieve.
(seve n drops} ® Chill before serving.
(2010}
EXAMPLE REC IPE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
SOUS VIDE BERRY JUICE Yie l d s 5 0 g
INGREDIENT QUANTITY SCALING PROCEDURE This process works equa lly we ll for
Blackberries (fresh} lOOg 100% blueberries, raspberries, and
Sugar 7g 7% CD Combine. strawberries .
lsoma lt 5g 5% 0 Vacuum seal sweetened berry mixture.
® Cook sous vide in 65 •c I 149 • F bath for 1 h.
@) Remove from bag, and coo l at room
temperature.
® Strain through fine sieve; discard pulp.
® Chill before serving.
(2010}
EXAMPLE RECIPE
MELON WATER QUANTITY SCALING Yie l d s 1 0 0 g The flavor of melon is created by
lOOg 100% enzymatic reactions during juicing.
INGREDIENT (from 200 g of PROCEDURE The fresh flavor can be reinvigo-
Melon juice melon} 5% rated by adding a small amount of
2.5% CD Whisk together an d season to taste. fresh melon juice to the batch just
Fructose 5g 0 .5% 0 Centrifuge at 27,500g for1 h. before to serving.
Lim e juice 2.5g
Tartaric acid O.Sg ® Decant on ly clear juice.
Sa lt to taste @) Vacuum sea l, and refrigerate until use.
(2009}
340 VOLUME 2 · TECHN IQUES AND EQUIPMENT
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Modernist Cuisine - Volume 2
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Modernist Cuisine - Volume 2
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