Botany Illustrated

Aster Family (Asteraceae) facilitate seed dispersal. George de Mestral invented
a fastener combining the hooks like those of the cock-
Asteraceae represents the largest dicot family, with lebur seed head and loops like the fabric of his burred
about 25,000 species distributed worldwide. It includes pants. He called it “Velcro,” combining the words velour
herbs, shrubs, trees, epiphytes, vines, and succulents. and crochet; poisonous pasture plants: Eupatorium
Leaves show an extreme range of diversification, with rugosum (white snakeroot), Helenium (sneezeweed),
an alternate, opposite, or whorled arrangement. The Senecio (ragwort).
blades are simple to compound, lobed, needle-like, or
scale-like. Rudbeckia hirta Black-Eyed Susan, Coneflower

If a flower looks like a daisy, it is probably in the aster This plant is a biennial or short-lived perennial herb. The
family. The common characteristic in this family is the habit drawing shows its leaves (a) of variable shape and
head of many modified flowers (a composite of flow- with some having petioles (b). Long peduncles (c) sup-
ers). What appears to be a flower is actually a mul- port flower heads composed of yellow, sterile, ray flow-
tiple false flower. There is an almost complete loss ers (d) which surround a cone of brown-petaled, fertile
of sepals (calyx). Another characteristic includes hav- disc flowers (e). Hairy bracts (f) below the flower head
ing fused anthers forming a cylinder around the style can be seen in the vertical section drawing. Many small
(syngenesious condition). As the stigma and style disc flowers (e) are borne on a conical receptacle (g).
grows up through the cylinder, it pushes the anthers
out so as to facilitate pollen dispersal. This prevents Evolutionary modifications of Asteraceae flowers in-
self-fertilization. clude sepals that are reduced to bracts (h) and petals
(i) that are fused to form a tube of 5 lobes. Stamen
The flower’s single pistil has an inferior ovary composed modifications include filaments (j), of the 5 stamens, at-
of 2 carpels fused to form one chamber with one ovule tached inside the petal tube and lance-shaped anthers
that matures into an achene fruit without endosperm. (k) joined to form a cylinder. After pollen is shed, the
Some of the flower modifications are shown with the stigma (l) rises through the cylinder. This prevents self-
two illustrated plants. fertilization. Below the double stigmas are the pistil’s
style (m) and inferior ovary (n) with 1 ovule (o).
Of interest . . . food: Artemisia dracunculus (tarragon),
Carthamnus tinctorius (safflower), Chichorium en- Tagetes patula Marigold
divia (endive), C. intybus (chicory), Cynara scoly-
mus (artichoke), Guizotia abyssinica (niger seed), A marigold flower head is supported by a peduncle (p)
Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke), H. an- and has fused bracts (q) below the head. Outer ray
nuus (sunflower seeds, oil), Lactuca sativa (lettuce); flowers (r) are, mainly, unisexually female, while inner
medicinal: Artemisia annua (sweet wormwood, source disc flowers (s) are bisexual. Both have bracts (t) and
of artemisinin, an anti-malaria drug); ornamentals: both have a pistil with a double stigma (u) and an ovary
Ageratum, Aster, Calendula, Dahlia, Dendranthema (v) below other flower parts. The bisexual disc flower,
(chrysanthemum), Echinops (globe thistle), Gaillardia, cut open, shows the pistil’s ovule (w) attached to the
Gazania, Gerbera, Helianthus (sunflower), Helichry- base of the ovary and the style (x) that rises through the
sum (strawflower), Leontopodium (edelweiss), Leu- cylinder of the stamens’ anthers (y) after pollen is shed.
canthemum (daisy), Liatris (blazing star), Solidago
(goldenrod, an attractive fall-flowering addition to the COLOR CODE
garden, height varies with the cultivar and flowers attract
many beneficial insects, commonly assumed that this green: leaves (a, b), peduncle (c, p), bracts (f, q)
insect-pollinated plant is the culprit that causes hayfever yellow: ray petals (d), anthers (k, y)
when the blame goes to wind-pollinated plants such brown: disc petals (e, i), bract (h)
as Ambrosia, ragweed), Stokesia, Tagetes (marigold), white: receptacle (g), filaments (j), ovule (o,w)
Zinnia; insecticide: Tanacetum coccineum (pyrethrum, light green: stigmas (l, u), style (m, x), ovary (n, v),
painted daisy); weeds: Ambrosia (ragweed), Cirsium orange: ray petals (r), disc petals (s)
(thistle), Sonchus (sow-thistle), Taraxacum (dandelion), tan: bracts (t)
Xanthium spinosum (cocklebur), a seedhead with tiny
hooklike spines on the surface clings to animal fur to

119



Water-plantain Family (Alismataceae)

This primitive monocot family is composed of aquatic
plants that are annual or perennial herbs. Parts of the
bisexual or unisexual flower are arranged in whorls of 3
sepals, 3 petals, and 3 to numerous stamens and pis-
tils. A pistil’s ovary contains usually one ovule in basal
placentation. The fruit is an achene. There are 14 gen-
era and about 100 species.

The basally sheathing leaves are either floating or have
long petioles that rise above water level. Leaf blades are
variable, linear to round, or the bases are arrowhead-
shaped (saggitate), or arrowhead-shaped with narrow,
basal lobes nearly at right angles (hastate condition).

Of interest . . . depending on the point of view, these
plants are waterweed pests and can be very com-
mon weeds in rice (Oryza sativa) paddies or useful for
ornamental pool gardens: Alisma plantago-aquatica
(water plantain), Echinodorus (bur-head), Sagittaria
(arrowhead); wildlife food: most genera.

Saggittaria latifolia Wapato, Arrowhead COLOR CODE

Fibrous roots (a) anchor this perennial herb in the mud white: roots (a), petals (j), filament (m),
substrate of aquatic habitats. Older plants have swollen red-green: receptacle (o), ovule (r)
tubers at the ends of rhizomes (underground stems). green: petioles (b)
The common name, wapato, was used by Native Amer- blades (c), peduncle (d), bract (g),
icans for the edible tubers. The leaf’s sheathing peti- yellow: pedicels (h), sepals (i), pistils (n),
oles (b) vary in length with the water depth. Arrowhead- stigma (p), style (q), ovary (s)
shaped leaf blades (c) are narrow, as shown, to wide. stamens (k), anther (l)
The peduncle (d) of the raceme bears whorls of uni-
sexual, male flowers (e) at the top and female flowers
(f) below. Having male and female flowers on the same
individual plant is termed a monoecious condition.

An enlargement of the male flower shows more clearly
the bract (g) at the pedicel (h) base. Both male and
female flowers each have 3 persistent, green sepals (i)
and 3 white petals (j), which are shed early.

The male flower has 24 to 40 stamens (k) in whorls.
Pollen is shed through slits on the anther sacs (l).

Seen in a vertical section, the female flower has numer-
ous, densely aggregated pistils (n) borne on the recep-
tacle (o). Each pistil has a simple stigma (p), a short
style (q), and one basal ovule (r) in the ovary (s). The
fruits produced are numerous, flat achenes.

120



Spiderwort Family (Commelinaceae) Gibasis geniculata Tahitian Bridal Veil

These popular houseplants are annual or perennial The thin, trailing stems (a), small leaves (v, c, d), and
herbs derived from tropical and subtropical regions. tiny flower clusters (e) provide a delicate appearance
Closed sheathing leaf petioles and flower parts in 3’s to this plant. It is often displayed in hanging contain-
are common characteristics. There are 38 genera and ers. Because of the sheathing leaf petioles (b), the
about 600 species. stem has a jointed appearance. The wavy-margined,
alternate leaves are green above (c) and purple (d)
The alternate succulent leaves have entire margins and below (due to the presence of anthocyanin reddish-
parallel venation. Leaf-like bracts sometimes partially purple pigment).
enclose the flower clusters. The bisexual flower can
also occur singly. Parts of the flower include 3 sepals, Branching from the peduncle (f), pedicels (g) support
3 petals, 6 stamens (or 3 stamens and 3 staminodes the flowers. The flower has three sepals (h), 3 petals
or one functional stamen), and a single pistil. The sta- (e), 6 stamens (i), and a single pistil (j). The stamen
mens’ filaments often have hairs. The pistil has a supe- has tufts of hairs (k) on the filament (l) below the anther
rior ovary of 3 fused carpels, one style, and one stigma. (m). The pistil consists of stigma (n), style (o), and a 3-
There are no nectar glands. A loculicidal capsule is lobed, superior ovary (p). Fleshy sepals (h) remain and
usually the fruit type. enclose the capsule fruit.

Of interest . . . ornamentals: Callisia (striped inch Zebrina pendula Wandering Jew
plant), Commelina (dayflower), Cyanotis, Dichorisandra,
Gibasis (Tahitian bridal veil), Rhoeo discolor (Moses- This low, spreading succulent (fleshy) herb has pur-
in-the-bulrushes), Tinantia, Trandescantia spp. (spi- ple (q) and silvery-green (r) striped leaf blades with
derwort, wandering Jew, inch plant), Zebrina pendula hairy petioles (s) that sheath the stem (t). Zebrina
(wandering Jew); biology: The staminal hairs of is from the Latin for zebra, and refers to the striped
Tradescantia (spiderwort) are commonly used in in- leaves.
troductory plant biology labs to observe cytoplasmic
streaming (cyclosis) under the microscope.

COLOR CODE

green: stem (a, t), upper blade surface
(c), peduncle (f), stripes (r),
purple: petioles (s)
petiole (b), lower blade surface
white: (d), pedicel (g), margin and
light green: center stripes (q), bract (u, v)
yellow: petals (e), hairs (k), filament (l)
dark pink-lavender: sepals (h), pistil (j), ovary (p)
stamens (i), anther (m)
stigma (n), style (o), petals (w)

121



Sedge Family (Cyperaceae) Cyperus strigosus Umbrella Sedge

Distinguished from grasses, which have hollow, round This perennial sedge has a smooth, three-sided stem
stems, sedges have solid-pithed, often 3-sided stems. (a), leaves (b) at the base, and clusters of flower
Grasses have leaves arranged in two ranks, whereas spike (c) subtended by leaf-like bracts (d). A ray (e) of
sedge leaves usually emerge from a stem node in three spikes has loosely arranged, linear spikelets (f). Older
directions (three-ranked). As in grasses, each sedge plants have a short, knotty rhizome-like underground
leaf is organized into a blade (lamina) and an enclosing stem.
sheath. One bract or scale subtends each flower. There
are 100 genera and about 4,000 species. A spikelet consists of a double row of overlapping,
bisexual flowers, each enclosed by a flattened scale
Sedges are usually bog or marsh plants and grow in (g, h). In the flower enlargement (shown), 3 stamens
clumps or extend from creeping, underground, rhizome- have been shed. Remaining are a green-keeled (g), flat-
like stems. Minute flowers are arranged in spikelets. tened scale with golden, translucent sides (h) and the
Sepals and petals are reduced to bristles, hairs, or pistil. The pistil consists of a 3-parted style (i) and an
scales, or are absent. Usually there are 3 stamens and ovary (j). The fruit that develops is a 3-angled, beakless
a single pistil with a superior ovary consisting of 2 to 3 achene (k).
carpels fused to form one chamber with one ovule. The
pistil’s style sometimes forms a beak on the achene- Carex hystericina Porcupine Sedge
type fruit.
Unisexual flowers are formed on separate spikelets
Of interest . . . ancient usage: Cyperus papyrus (pith of this sedge. Both male (l) and female (m) spikelets
used to make paper), Cyperus spp. (mat grass, hay have leaf-like bracts (n) below. The female pistil (o)
grass, roof thatching), Eleocharis spp. (basket mak- is composed of a 3-branched style (p) and an ovary
ing), Scirpus spp. (bulrushes for basketwork, mats, surrounded by a flask-shaped sac, the perigynium (q),
chair seats); food: Eleocharis tuberosa (Chinese wa- with a 2-toothed beak (r). A small scale (s) subtends
ter chestnut tubers); water garden plants: Cyperus the pistil. As in other sedges, an achene (t) fruit is
alternifolius (umbrella plant), Carex spp., Leiophylum formed.
spp., Scirpus spp.; cattle fodder: Carex spp. (sedges);
wildlife food: most genera.

COLOR CODE

green: stem (a), leaves (b), bracts (d, n),
rays (e), scale keel (g)
gold-green: spikelets (f)
gold: scale side (h) covering ovary (j)
tan: style (i), achene (k, t), male spikelet (l)
light green: female spikelet of pistils (m, o),
perigynium (q, r), scale (s)
brown: styles (p)

122



Grass Family (Poaceae) grass), Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass), Festuca
spp. (fescue grass), Poa (bluegrass), Stenotaphrum
The grass flower is unlike any other plant family’s flow- (St. Augustine grass), Zoysia (zoysia grass); industry:
ers. Within a spike (a), the flower unit is called a various grasses (insulation materials, newsprint, ethyl
spikelet. An exaggerated separation of the structures alcohol); decontamination: Molasses is made from re-
is shown in the spikelet diagram. For reference, the di- fined sugar derived from sugarcane (Saccharum offic-
agram and the spikelet drawing of Secale cereale (rye) inarum). Besides its culinary use, molasses spurs the
have the same letter for a described structure. growth of one type of bacteria that creates favorable
growth conditions for other bacteria that digest contam-
The primary axis of the spikelet is called the rachilla inants in polluted groundwater.
(b). At the base of the spikelet are two bracts called
first glume (c) and second glume (d). The next bracts Parts of a Grain
are called lemmas (e) and may have a bristlelike ap-
pendage (awn, f). A soft inner bract is called the palea The Triticum (wheat) grain diagram shows the source of
(g). The remaining parts comprise a floret (h). Each vitamins, nutrients, and metabolites that we utilize (see
spikelet may have one or more florets, which are uni- also 40, corn grain). Wheat bran, composed of peri-
sexual or bisexual. carp (v), seed coat (w) and protein–rich aleurone layer
(x), contains vitamin B complex (thiamine, riboflavin,
There are no sepals or petals. Instead, there are 2 or 3 niacin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid), cellulose, phos-
lodicles (i). Lodicles enlarge with turgor pressure and phorus, calcium, and iron. Endosperm (y) is processed
cause the lemmas and palea to expand, exposing the into flour that contains mostly starch and some protein.
stamens and/or stigmas at pollination time. Wheat germ refers to the embryo (z) and is a source of
vitamin B complex, vitamin E, vitamin A, protein, iron,
Grasses are wind-pollinated. There are usually 3 sta- fat, sodium, copper, zinc, magnesium, and phosphorus.
mens with freely moving (versatile) anthers (j) and a
single pistil with 2, usually feathery, stigmas (k). The Wild wheat was domesticated by humans about 10,000
pistil’s ovary (l) is superior and contains one ovule. The years ago. There are now about 22,000 cultivars. There
fruit is usually a grain (caryopsis, m) or a berry in some are two main categories: hard wheat to make bread
bamboos. and soft wheat to make pasta, pastry, crackers, cakes,
cookies and cereal.
Grasses are annual or perennial herbs except for bam-
boo, which is woody at maturity. Roots (n) are fibrous Rice (Oryza sativa) is sold as either white or brown
and adventitious roots arise from stem nodes. The rice. White rice is “polished” with consequent removal of
stems, called culms (o) are usually hollow and round the protein-rich aleurone layer outside the endosperm.
with one leaf (p) to a node (q). Leaves are alternate in Brown rice has the aleurone layer left intact and is nu-
two rows (ranks = a so-called distichous arrangement) tritionally far better than starch-rich white rice.
up the culm. The leaf consists of a blade (lamina, r)
and a sheath (s), which encircles the culm (stem), and COLOR CODE
has parallel venation (t). Where the leaf blade diverges
from the culm is often an appendage, the ligule (u), and yellow: spikes (a), glumes (c, d), anthers (j),
sometimes, as in rice (Oryza sativa) two sickle-shaped pericarp (v)
auricles that clasp the sheath. green: lemmas (e), leaves (p), leaf blade (r),
leaf sheath (s), ligule (u)
Economically, Poaceae is the most important plant light green: palea (g), lodicle (i), stigmas (k),
family. Of interest . . . food crops: Avena sativa (oats), ovary (l), culm (o)
Hordeum (barley), Oryza sativa (rice), Saccharum of- tan: grain (m), roots (n), seed coat (w)
ficinarum (sugarcane), Secale cereale (rye), Setaria orange: aleurone layer (x)
italica (millet), Sorghum bicolor (sorghum), Triticum white: endosperm (y), embryo (z)
(wheat), Zea mays (corn); shelter: Bambusa (bam-
boo); fodder: Agrostis (bentgrass), Dactylis glomerata
(orchard grass), Phleum (timothy), Setaria italica (fox-
tail grass), Sorghum, Zea; lawn turf: Agrostis (bent

123



Arrowroot Family (Marantaceae) leaves are in a horizontal position. As light fades at sun-
set, the leaves take a vertical position that appear like
Arrowroot plants are tropical, perennial herbs with un- hands in prayer.
derground stems (rhizomes). Because of the flower
structure, this family is considered to be the most ad- This small herbaceous plant is cultivated primarily as a
vanced in its order, the Zingiberales. Other families foliage-type houseplant for its brightly colored leaves.
included in the order are the bird-of-paradise family The stem (a) has a sheath (b) at nodes and the leaf
(Strelitziaceae), the banana family (Musaceae), the petiole has a winged sheath (c). Where the petiole joins
ginger family (Zingiberaceae), and the canna family the blade is a short, jointed segment, a pulvinus (d),
(Cannaceae). where blade movement occurs in response to light and
dark (nyctinastic response).
In the arrowroot family, there are 30 genera and 350
species. The flower is bisexual but the fertile male part The blade coloring is unusual, consisting of red parallel
has been reduced to one stamen, which consists of one lines (e) that follow the pinnate venation pattern, a band
anther sac. One to 5 sterile stamens (staminodes) are (f) of yellow-green on both sides of the midrib area, with
also present. the remaining blade area (g) a dark green. The lower
blade surface (h) is purple-red. In bud (i), the leaves are
The single pistil has an inferior ovary with 3 chambers, rolled.
although by evolutionary reduction, only one ovule may
be produced. The fruit is a loculicial capsule or berry- Tiny flower bud (j) clusters (panicles) have pedicels
like, and the seeds often have a fleshy covering (aril). (k) enclosed by bracts (l) at the base. Each flower
has 3 sepals (n), a fused petal tube consisting of 3
The arrow root leaf is composed of a petiole with a lobes (o) and 3 petal-like staminodes (p). A fourth
sheath covering and a joint where the blade is attached. staminode (r), fused to the petal tube, extends from the
The joint is a pad-like swelling (pulvinus) that controls colored staminodes. It has one fertile anther sac (s) at-
“sleep movements.” Within the pulvinus, the vascular tached to the side of a hood (r) that encloses the pistil’s
tissue is grouped in the center, surrounded by sensor stigma (t).
and flexor parenchyma cells, which can expand and
contract. Leaves are alternate and 2-ranked, emerging With physical disturbance of the hooded staminode cov-
in one plane on opposite sides of the stem. Venation is ering, the stigma (t) springs free as the style (u) coils
pinnate from the midrib and parallel. down to its fusion point (v) on the staminode. At the
same time, the few large pollen grains are propelled
Of Interest . . . food: Maranta arundinacea (West Indian from the anther sac. The pistil’s inferior ovary (s) is be-
arrowroot) cultivated for the starchy rhizome: ornamen- low the sepals.
tals: Calathea mackoyana (peacock plant), Calanthea
zebrina (zebra plant), Calathea ornata, Maranta leu- COLOR CODE
coneura kerchoveana (prayer plant, red-spotted arrow-
root, rabbit tracks), Thalia dealbata (water canna). green: petiole sheath (c), petiole pulvinus (d),
peduncle (m)
Maranta leuconeura massangeana Prayer Plant purple-green: stem sheath (b), bracts (l)
red: vein lines (e)
The common name, prayer plant, is derived from the yellow-green: midrib band (f)
orientation of the leaves at dusk. During daylight the dark green: stem (a), remaining blade area (g)
purple: lower blade surface (h), leaf bud (i),
124 shaded area of staminodes (q)
lavender: flower buds (j), staminodes (p)
light green: pedicel (k), sepals (n), ovary (w)
white: petals (o), staminode hood (r),
anther sac (s), stigma (t), style (u)



Palm Family (Arecaceae) the base. Commonly, the plants have separate male
and female flowers (unisexual) on the same plant
Palms are second to the grasses (see 123) in economic (monoecious), or on separate plants (dioecious),
importance. In the tropics, they may be a source of food, while others have flowers with both male and female
clothing, shelter, and fuel. The palms, numbering about parts within one flower (bisexual). Flower parts are usu-
3,500 species, mostly consist of trees. Shrubs and vines ally in 3’s, being separate or fused. Flowers are wind-,
are also represented. insect- or self-pollinated.

Lodoicea maldivica has the world’s largest seed, a Usually the fruit has one seed and is a berry or drupe
“double coconut,” made up of a two-lobed drupe. type. The outside wall of the fruit can be fleshy, fibrous or
Raphia fainifera has the largest flowering plant leaf, up leathery. Storage tissue (endospem) within the seed is
to twenty meters long. oily or fatty rather than starchy. In coconuts (Cocos nu-
cifer), it is liquid encased within the solid coconut “meat”
Palms have a single apical bud, called “heart of palm.” that makes up the solid part of the endosperm.
When it dies or is removed, the plant dies. Tree-like
forms have an unbranched trunk with a terminal crown Of interest . . . economic plants: Areca catechu (be-
of leaves, commonly called “fronds,” which emerge one tel nut palm), Calamus and Caemonorops (rattan
at a time from the apical bud. Lignin, deposited in cell cane), Cocos nucifera (coconut palm), Copernicia (car-
walls of stem (trunk) tissues provides sturdiness. As nauba wax), Elaeis guineesis (oil palm), Metroxy-
monocotyledons, palms have no vascular tissue in the lon (sago palm), Phoenix dactylifera (date palm), Pa-
stem; so there is no secondary growth (see monocot phia pendunculata (raffia, used as twine to tie tall
stem, 15). plants to supports); ornamentals: Arecastrum (queen
palm), Arenga pinnata (sugar palm), Caryota mitis
The leafy frond is made up a blade, a petiole, and (fishtail palm), Chamaedorea elegans (parlor palm),
a sheathing base. Blade types are: fan-shaped with Chamaerops (European fan palm), Chrysalidocar-
feather-like (pinnate) veins, as in Lodoicea (a); fan- pus (Madagascar feather palm), Cocothrinax argen-
shaped with veins arising from one point (palmate), as tea (silver palm), Erythea spp. (Mexican fan palms),
in Sabal (b); feather-shaped (pinnately compound), Howeia spp. (curly palm, sentry palm, flat palm),
as in Chamaedorea (c); or feather-shaped, twice- Jubaea spectabilis (coquitos palm), Livistona spp. (fan
divided (bipinnately compound) as in Caryota (see palms), Metroxylon (sago palm), Rhapidophyllum (nee-
126). dle palm), Rhapis (lady palm), Roystonea regia (royal
palm), Sabal palmetto (cabbage palmetto), Serenoa
Regardless of shape, the young leaf (e) looks like a rod (saw-palmetto), Trachycarpus fortunei (Chinese wind-
with a length-wise strip that peels down like a zipper, to mill palm), Thrinax (peaberry palm), Washingtonia filif-
free the one to many leaflets that unfold like a fan. The era (sentinel palm); food: heart-of-palm; building ma-
leaf petiole may be smooth or toothed on its margin. terials: large palm leaves are used as “thatch” on roofs
of houses/huts in the tropics.
Small flowers are usually formed in loose clusters,
called panicles (f), which have one or more bracts at

COLOR CODE

yellow-green: leaf (a)
green: leaf (b)
dark green: leaf (c), stem (d), new leaf (e)
orange: panicle (f)

125



Palm Family (continued)

Sabal palmetto Cabbage Palmetto

This palm is native to the coastal regions of southeast
United States, the West Indies, and Venezuela. It may
grow up to 21 meters high. The leaf (see 125) is fan-
shaped with palmate venation. Long stems of many
panicles arise with the leaves. A single panicle (a) with
small, white bisexual flowers (b) is shown. The flower
is without a stem (sessile) and consists of 3 bracts (c)
at the base, 3 fused sepals (d), 3 petals (e), 6 stamens
(f), and a single pistil (g) with a superior ovary having 3
fused carpels.

Chamaedora elegans Parlor Palm, Collina,
Neathe Bella

The parlor palm, native to South America, is often used
as a potted houseplant. The fronds (leaves, see 125)
are feather-shaped. Arising with the leaves at the crown
are branched racemes (panicles, h) of flowers which
develop into black drupes (i). Bracts (j) enclose the
base of the panicle.

Chamaedora ernesti variety augusti

Instead of a single trunk, like the parlor palm (see 125)
this Mexican species has many leafy stems arising from
a common base. The panicle (k) has many bracts (l)
enclosing the base and only a few stalks of flowers (m).

Caryota mitis Fishtail Palm

Twice divided (bipinnately compound) leaves distin-
guish this palm. The sub-leaflets (n) are fishtail-like.
Leaves emerge along the stem instead of in a crown at
the top. Panicles of flowers also arise along the length
of the trunk. Flowers mature into fruits (o, p) starting
from the end of the stalk (q). The drupes drop off as
they mature.

COLOR CODE

white: flowers (b), petals (e), pistil (g)
green: panicle stalk (a), sub-leaflets (n),
immature drupe (o)
tan: bracts (c, j, l), stalk end, shaded (q)
light green: sepals (d), stalk, upper portion (r)
orange: panicle stalks (h)
black: drupe (i), mature drupe (p)
dark green: panicle stalk (k)
yellow: stamens (f), flowers (m)

126



Arum Family (Araceae) respiration rates in the developing spadix, in sufficient
amounts to melt the snow and ice.
A unique characteristic of this family is the elaborate
reproductive structure consisting of a fleshy spike of Spathiphyllum Flame Plant
flowers, the spadix, subtended by a leaf-like bract, the
spathe. These mostly tropical and subtropical plants This perennial herb has simple leaf blades (a) with
are usually terrestrial herbs growing on the forest floor. sheathing petioles (b). The spadix (c) of bisexual flow-
Because of their low-light tolerance, they are popular ers is subtended by a white petal-like spathe (d). Each
as houseplants in cool climates. Poisonous calcium ox- flower (e) has 6 tepals (f) enclosing 6 stamens. The an-
alate crystals are present in plant tissues and there may ther (g) of the stamen is shed form a fleshy filament
be a milky sap (latex). (h) after pollen is released. The pistil (i) has a flattened
3-part stigma (j) with ovules (k) in basal placentation
The leaves are simple or compound, occur at the (see 28).
base or are alternate on the stem, and have petiole
bases that sheath the stem. The small flowers on the Arisaema triphyllum Jack-in-the-pulpit
spadix are bisexual or unisexual. The flowers have
an odor of rotten flesh, which attracts fly pollinators This North American wild flower is a perennial herb that
(see 34). There are 1 to 6 stamens and a single pis- arises from a solid bulb-like structure (corm, see 12).
til with one to many carpels. Sepals and petals that The compound leaf blade (l) is divided into 3 leaflets
look alike (tepals) may be present. The fruit type is a (hence, triphyllum). The petiole (m) is enclosed by a
berry. There are about 110 genera and about 2,000 sheath (n) at the base. Plants with one compound leaf
species. have male flowers on the spadix, while plants with two
compound leaves have female flowers.
Of interest . . . ornamentals: Aglaonema (Chinese ev-
ergreen), Amorphophallus (voodoo lily), Anthurium This unusual plant has unisexual flowers on the same
(flamingo flower), Caladium (elephant’s-ear), Dieffen- plant at different times. Young plants with one com-
bachia (dumb-cane), Helicodicerus, Monstera deliciosa pound leaf have only male flowers at the base of the
(Swiss-cheese plant, cut-leaf philodendron), Philo- spadix. In subsequent years, two leaves develop from
dendron, Pistia (water lettuce), Scindapsis (pothos, the corm, and in a developmental sex change, the
devil’s-ivy), Spathiphyllum (flame plant), Zantedeschia spadix produces only female flowers. Energy is ex-
aethiopica (calla lily); food: Alocasia (taro), Coloca- pended in the production of fruit; so food produced in
sia (taro), Xanthosoma (tannia); native wild plants: the leaves and translocated to the corm must be suffi-
Arisaema triphyllum (Jack-in-the-pulpit), Calla palus- cient to assure that shoot and reproductive (flowering
tris (wild calla), Orontium (golden club), Peltandra (ar- and fruiting) development occurs the following year.
row arum), Symplocarpus foetidus (skunk cabbage,
see 34). In autumn, on plants with female flowers, a cluster of
red berries (s) is revealed as the spathe and leaves (t)
As skunk cabbage shoots develop in early spring wither.
in northern temperate regions, they melt the snow
around each shoot. This heat is generated through high

COLOR CODE

green: blades (a), petioles (b, m), leaflets (l),
sheath (n)
white: spadix (c), spathe (d), tepals (f), pistil (i),
stigma (j), ovules (k), filaments (h)
yellow: anthers (g)
light green: outer spathe (o), spadix (q), peduncle (r)
purple: inner spathe (p)
red: berries (s)
tan: peduncle (u), leaves (t)

127



Lily Family (Liliaceae) Veltheimia viridifolia); poisonous: Amianthemum
(stagger-grass), Convallaria majalis (lily-of-the-valley),
Lily flowers have 3 sepals and 3 petals that look alike Ornithogalum umbellatum (star-of-Bethlehem), Ve-
(tepals), 6 stamens, and a single pistil with a supe- ratrum (false hellebore), Zigadenus Nuttallii (death
rior ovary composed of 3 fused carpels. Fruit types are camas, poison camas, merryhearts).
septicidal or loculicidal capsules or berries.
Lily is a confusing common name. Examples of a few
This large family of about 250 genera and about 4,600 plants that are called lilies include lilies (Lilium), and
species consists mostly of perennial herbs with narrow, daylilies (Hemerocallis) in the lily family (Liliaceae).
parallel-veined leaves and underground storage organs Then, there are waterlilies (Nymphaea) in the wa-
such as rhizomes, bulbs, corms, or tubers. Some plants terlily family (Nymphaeae, 79), peace lily (Spathiphyl-
are evergreen succulents, as in Aloe and Haworthia or lum) in the arum Family (Araceae, 127), blackberry lily
vines as in Smilax (see 16). (Belamcanda chinensis) in the iris family (Iridaceae,
129), and spider lilies (Lycoris spp.) in the amaryllis
Leaf characteristics vary greatly from basal and linear family (Amaryllidaceae).
with parallel veins to cauline (growing on a stem), as
shown in the illustration. Some have net (reticulate) ve- Lilium michiganense Michigan Lily
nation (Trillium). Others have leaf-tip tendrils (Gloriosa).
Asparagus leaves are scale-like. This wild lily is a perennial herb that grows to two me-
ters in height. It is native to the midwestern prairie re-
Of interest . . . food: Allium spp. (onion, shallot, leek, gion of the United States. Whorls of leaves (a) occur
garlic, chives), Asparagus officinalis (asparagus); along the stem (b). At the top are flowers with 6 orange
medicine: Aloe vera (sap from leaves is used to treat or, rarely, orange-red, recurved tepals (c) that arise on
burns and relieve the pain of sunburn), Colchicum peduncles (d).
(colchicine), Urginea (red squill); ornamentals: Al-
lium, Aloe, Asphodeline (Jacob’s rod), Agapanthus The flower also has 6 stamens (e) with each filament
(lily-of-the-Nile), Calochortus, Colchicum autumnale (f) attached in the center of the anther (g), providing
(autumn crocus), Convallaria majalis (lily-of-the-valley), for free movement. The single pistil (h) has a superior
Eremurus (foxtail lily), Fritillaria, Gloriosa (gloriosa lily), ovary composed of 3 carpels (i) with numerous ovules
Haworthia, Hemerocallis (daylily), Hosta (hosta), (j) in axile placentation, a long style (k), and a 3-lobed
Hyacinthus (hyacinth), Kniphofia (torch lily, red-hot- stigma (l). Sweat bees, butterflies and hummingbirds
poker), Lilium spp. (lilies), Muscari (grape-hyacinth), are the pollinators.
Sansevieria (snake plant, bowstring-hemp, leopard
lily), Scilla (squill), Smilax (greenbriar, see 16), Tulipa A loculicidal capsule (m) is formed from the ovary.
(tulip); native wild plants: Erythronium spp. (dog- One of the 3 locules shows a stack of flat, winged
tooth violet, trout lily), Maianthemum (false lily-of the seeds (n).
valley), Lilium, Medeola virginiana (Indian cucumber-
root), Polygonatum (Solomon’s seal), Smilacina spp.
(false Solomon’s seal), Trillium spp., Uvularia (bellwort),

COLOR CODE

green: leaves (a), stem (b), peduncle (d),
pistil (h)
orange: tepals (c), anther (g)
brown: stamens (e), capsule (m)
light green: filament (f), style (k), stigma (l)
white: carpels (i), ovules (j)
tan: seed (n)

128



Iris Family (Iridaceae) with hairs (g). The 3 upright petals (h), “banners,” curve
inward. Above each sepal is a stamen (j).
Plants are perennial herbs or subshrubs with under-
ground storage organs of rhizomes, bulbs, or corms. In the flower structure drawing, an upright stamen made
The leaves sheath at the base, overlapping each up of filament (k) and anther (l) can be discerned clearly.
other transversely to form a flat fan-like arrangement Nectar glands (m) occur where the filament emerges
(equitant) unique to this family. Venation is parallel. from the sepal tube (f).

The 3 sepals of flowers in this family are colored and Where is the pistil? The bulge below the sepal tube is an
petal-like. They may differ in size, shape, and color from obviously inferior ovary (n) with indentations denoting
the 3 petals. The bisexual flower has 3 stamens and a the three fused carpels. In an ovary cross-section, each
single pistil with an inferior ovary composed of 3 fused carpel (o) has a chamber (locule, p) with ovules (q) in
carpels. The fruit type is a loculicidal capsule. There axile placentation.
are about 70 genera and about 1800 species.
In the flower structure drawing, only one portion re-
Of interest . . . ornamentals: Antholyza, Belamcanda mains unidentified. What looks like a petal with crested
chinensis (blackberry or Chinese lily), Crocus, Eustylis, wings above is one of 3 styles (r) with a flap of tissue,
Freesia, Gladiolus, Iris, Ixia, Moraea, Nemastylis, Neo- the stigma (s).
marica, Sisyrinchium, Tigridia; commercial: Crocus
sativus (saffron flavoring, saffron dye), Iris rhizomes Pollination involves insects. When a bee (t, u) alights on
(orris root). the sepal, it is guided by the beard hairs and color mark-
ings to the nectar location. As it works its way through
Iris germanica Flag, Bearded Iris, German Iris a tunnel between style (v, r) and sepal (f) to the nectar
glands, pollen on its body from another flower is rubbed
Iris plants are perennial herbs with a rhizome (a) storage off onto the stigma flap (w, s). Then, as the bee backs
organ and adventitious roots (b). Sword-shape leaves out of the flower, its hairs are dusted with pollen that is
(c) overlap at the base in a fan-like arrangement. shed outwardly from anther sacs ( j, l). At maturity, the
sepals raise upward against the styles, closing off the
Flower color is wide-ranging in cultivated hybrids. It tunnels.
varies from white, yellow, orange, blue, purple, red, pink,
to tan and various bicolors. A pair of green bracts (d) The iris fruit is a loculicidal capsule (x) with seeds.
occurs below the elaborate flower. Bracts cover a flower
bud (e). The 3 petal-like sepals (f), “falls,” are bearded

COLOR CODE

tan: rhizome (a), roots (b), capsule (x)
green: leaves (c), bracts (d), bud (e),
peduncle (i)
yellow: beard (g), bee’s thorax (t) and
abdomen (u)
optional: 1 color from text: sepals (f), petals (h),
styles (r, v)
white: stamen ( j), filament (k), anther (l), nectar
glands (m), ovary (n), carpel (o), ovules
(q), stigma (s, w)

129



Orchid Family (Orchidaceae) quest for more exotic specimens, growers combine
genera through plant breeding to form multigeneric
The orchid flower is so specialized that the illustrated types. For example Sophrolaeliocattleya is a hybrid
species is needed for a description of its structures. In composed of Sophronitis, Laelia,and Cattleya, abbrevi-
general, the flower is usually bisexual, has 3 sepals that ated as Slc. Further tinkering has produced Slc. Jewel
may resemble the 3 petals in color and form, a column of Box ‘Scheherazade,’ with Sophronitis coccinea, used
fused stamens and stigmas, and an inferior ovary com- to produce red hybrids; Laelia is used to produce
posed of 3 carpels. Flower colors and color patterns free flowering and a fleshy substance, and Cattleya is
vary widely. Nectar, odor, and form of the flower attract used to produce size and modify form of foliage and
pollinators (specific in many cases). The fruit is a cap- flower.
sule that contains very tiny seeds. Since the endosperm
aborts as seeds mature, a mutualistic fungal relation- Cattleya bowringiana
ship has evolved that provides a source of metabolites
for seed germination. This plant is a tropical perennial epiphyte. Pseudob-
ulbs (a) provide nutrient storage. Reduced leaves (b)
The plants are generally leafy, sometimes leafless. cover the stem. Expanded leaves (c) are alternate and
Leaves are alternate, very rarely opposite, whorled or strap-shaped. A sheath (d) encloses the base of the
reduced to scales. They are simple, thickened, usually peduncle (e). In this genus, the flower’s sepals (f) are
linear, strap-shaped or round, and basally sheathing the strap-shaped, whereas, the 3 petals (g) are ruffled.
stem. These perennial herbs are distributed worldwide
and comprise the largest plant family, with an estimated In orchids, the central petal, called a lip, is usually
30,000 species. They are terrestrial and saprophytic, larger and highly modified, sometimes occurring in quite
deriving nutrients from soil and dead organic matter. bizarre forms. The lip encloses the column, result-
Or they are epiphytic, attached to the surface of an- ing from a fusion of male and female parts. At the
other plant, where they obtain nutrients from the atmo- tip of the column is an anther cap (h) with 4 masses
sphere and debris accumulations among the roots. Or- of pollen, called pollinia (i), tucked into 2 pocket-like
chids have fungus-root (mycorrhizal) association. structures. A pollinium has a sticky pollen sac (j) and
a hooked caudicle (k). The remaining end of the col-
Nutrient storage organs may be swollen stems (pseu- umn is formed by 3 fused fertile stigmas (l) with the end
dobulbs, see 16) or swollen root-stem tubers, which of the terminal stigma forming a sterile, sticky flap, the
the Greeks called “orchis” for their testiculate appear- rostellum (m).
ance; hence, the orchid name. Roots of most epiphytes
are covered with a layer of white-colored dead corky An insect follows the nectar guides (n) in order to lo-
cells called velamen. Habitats vary enormously from cate the nectar tube (o), dislodges the anther cap, and
dry sand to acidic bogs and wet meadows, from tem- carries pollinia to another flower, where they stick to
perate forest and mangrove swamps to tropical cloud the rostellum. The 3-carpelled ovary (p), surrounding
forests. There is even an underground orchid, Thizan- the nectar tube, contains minute ovules. The remain-
thella gardneri. ing part of the column (q) is stamen-style tissue, and is
therefore, bisexual. A capsule (r) fruit is formed.
Of interest . . . flavoring: Vanilla (vanilla extract from
capsules, commonly called beans); wild: most wild or- COLOR CODE
chids are considered to be endangered species and
are legally protected. In the United States, there are tan: pseudobulb (a), reduced leaves (b),
about 62 native genera; ornamentals: Anagrecum, green: withered petals (s)
Brassavola nodosa (lady-of-the-night, named for re- pink-purple: expanded leaves (c), sheath (d),
lease of scent at night when moth pollinators will yellow: peduncle (e), capsule (r)
be attracted), Brassia spp. (spider orchids), Cattleya, white: sepals (f), petals (g)
Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Habenaria spp. pollinia (i), pollen sac (j)
(fringed orchids), Laelia, Miltonia spp. (pansy orchids), purple: anther cap (h), caudicle (k), stigmas (l),
Odontoglossum, Oncidium, Paphiopedilum spp. (lady’s rostellum (m), nectar tube (o), ovary (p),
slipper orchids), Phalaenopsis spp. (moth orchids), column (q)
Stanhopea, and Vanda are a few examples. In the nectar guides (n)

130



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132

Glossary of Word Roots

a not, without (acephala) gamet spouse, sex cell (gamete)
ab away from (abscise) gamo union, marriage (oogamy)
aleuron flour (aleurone) gen origin, birth (gene)
andro male (androecium) genus race (genus)
angio box, vessel (angiosperm geo earth (epigeous)
sporangium) glab bald (glabrous)
anth flower (perianth) gland secrectory spot (glandular)
antheros flowery (antheridium) glut glue (glutinous)
anti against (antipodal) gymn naked (gymnosperm)
apertur opening, hole (triaperturate) gyn female (gynoecium)
api tip, apex (apical) habitus condition, physique (habit)
arche beginning (archegonium) hal salt (halophyte)
asco sac (ascocarp) hemi half (hemiparasite)
ate provided with, (perfoliate) hetero other, different (heterospory)
formed into hex six (hexagonal)
auto self (autotrophic) holo entire (holoparasitic)
basidio small base (basidiocarp) homo same, alike (homospory)
bi two, double (biloba) hydro water (hydroponics)
cap head (capitate) hyph web (hyphae)
capill hair (capillitium) hypo below (hypogeous)
carp fruit (schizocarp) idium diminutive ending (antheridium)
caul stem (cauline) il diminutive ending (lentil)
cephal head (acephala) infra below (infrared)
chloro green (chlorophyll) inter between (intercalary)
chrom color (chromosome) intra within (intracellular)
cid cut, kill (septicidal) iso equal, homogenous (isogamy)
circ circle (circinate) karyron nut, nucleus (eukaryote)
cleisto closed (cleistothecium, lab lip (bilabiate)
cleistogamous) lamel plate, layer (lamella)
coll glue (collenchyma) lamin blade (Laminaria)
coma hair (comose) lance lance, blade (lanceolate)
cyan dark blue (anthocyanin) leuco white (leucocyte)
cyst bladder, bag (pneumatocyst) lig strap, ribbon (ligulate)
cyt cell (leucocyte) lith stone (Lithops)
dendr tree (dendrite) loc a small place, cell (locule)
dent tooth (dentate) ligne wood (lignin)
derm skin (epidermis) logos discourse, study (ecology)
di two, separate (dicot) macro large, long (macroscopic)
dictyo net (Dictydium, mega large (megaspore)
dictyosome) meiosis reduction (meiosis)
dichotomos cut into two (dichotomous) meri part, segment, (mericarp,
el diminutive ending (pedicel) component meristem)
endo inside (endocarp) meso middle (mesophyll)
epi upon (epiphyte) micro small, tiny (microphyll)
equinus horse (Equisetum, mitos thread (mitosis)
equitant) mono one, single (monocot)
erythr red (phycoerythrin) morph form, structure (dimorphic)
eu true, good (eukaryote) myco fungus, mushroom (Basidiomycota)
ex from, beyond (excise) myx slime (Myxomycota)
exo outside (exocarp) nat born, borne (circinate)
fer bearer (conifer) nom name (binomial)
fil thread-like (filiform) ode like (phyllode)
fissio splitting (fission) oec household (dioecious, ecology)
flagellum whip (flagellum) oid like (rhizoid)
flav yellow (riboflavin) ol little (petiole)
flor flower (inflorescence) orth straight (orthotropism)
fol leaf (perfoliate) ostiol little door (ostiole)
fungus mushroom (fungus) ov egg (ovule, ovary)
funiculus a small cord (funiculus) paleo ancient (paleobotany)

133

palm hand (palmate) septum partition, wall, (septate)
palustr swamp (palustris) enclosure
para beside (parasite) sessilis fit for sitting (sessile)
pect comb (pectinate) soma body (somatic)
ped, pod foot, stalk (stylopodium, soros heap (sorus)
peduncle) species kind (species)
pelt shield (peltate) sperm seed (angiosperm)
per through, by means of (perfoliate) sphen wedge (sphenophyll)
peri around (perianth) sporo seed, spore (sporophyte)
phellos cork (phelloderm) stell star (stellate)
phil love (Philodendron) strobilos twisted object, top, (strobilus)
phloos bark (phloem) pinecone
phore bearer (antheridophore) stoma mouth (stomate)
phyle tribe (phylogenic) stroma cushion, mattress (stroma)
phyll leaf (sporophyll) stylo pillar (stylopodium)
phyco seaweed (phycoerythrin) sub under, less than (subtropical)
phyte plant (epiphyte, super, supar above, over (superior)
phytoplankton) syn, sym together, with, at the (synergid)
pinn feather (pinnate) same time
plast thing molded (protoplast) taxis arrangement, order (taxonomy)
ploid fold (polyploid) terra earth (terrestrial)
plume feather (plumose, plumule) tetra four (tetraspore)
pneum lung, air, gas (pneumatocyst) thall shoot (thallus)
poly many, much (Polyporus) tri three (triaperturate)
por small opening (pore, poricidal) trichom hair (trichome)
prim first (primordial) trop bend (tropism)
pro before (prophase) troph nourish, food (autotrophic)
protiston the very first (Protista) tuber knob, swelling (tuberous)
proto first, original (protoplast) ul little (pinnule)
pseud false (pseudobulb) uni one (unisexual)
psilos bare, mere (Psilotum) vor eat (insectivorous)
pterid fern (Pteridophyta) xanthos yellow (xanthophyll)
pyle gate (micropyle) xer dry (xerophyte)
rad root (radicle) xylon wood (xylem)
reticulum a small net (reticulate) zygo yoke, pair (zygote, zygospore)
rhap needle (Rhapidophyllum)
rhiz root (mycorrhizae) Singular (Plural) Endings
rhodon rose color (Rhodophyta,
Rhododendron) alga (algae)
ros rose (rosette) mitochondrion (mitochondria)
sagitt arrow (sagittate) nucleus (nuclei)
sapro rotten (saprophyte) phytum (phyta)
schiz deeply divided (schizocarp)
scis cut (abscise)
sect cut (dissect)
semi half (Semibegoniella)

Metric Equivalents

nanometer (nm) = 10−9 meter
1 micrometer (micron, µm) = 10−6 meter
1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 meter, 0.04 inch
1 centimeter (cm), 10 mm = 0.01 meter, 0.39 inch
2.54 centimeters = 1 inch
1 decimeter, 10 cm = 3.9 inches
0.91 meter = 1 yard
1 meter (m), 100 cm = 3.28 feet

134

Index Anabaena, 44, 70 Asteridae, 75
Anacardiaceae, 106 Asterionella, 56
Aaron’s-beard, 98 Anacardium occidentale, 106 Astilbe, 98
Abies, 73 Anagrecum, 130 Astraeus, 53
Abrus precatorius, 100 Andreaea, 63 Astragalus, 100
Absidia, 47 Andromeda glaucophylla, 97 ATP (adenosine triphosphate), 24
Abutilon, 90 Anemone, 80 Atropa belladonna, 112
Acacia, 23, 100 Anemonella, 80 Aubrieta, 96
Acalypha hispida, 103 Anethum graveolens, 26, 109 Aucuba, 101
Acer Angelica, 109 Auricularia, 49
Angel’s trumpet, 111 Aurinia saxatilis, 96
ginnala, 105 Angiosperms, 75 Australian gum tree, 75
japonicum, 105 Anise, 109 Autotroph, 55, 58, 115
macrophyllum, 105 Anthoceros, 63 Auxin, 19, 20
negundo, 35 Anthriscus cerefolium, 109 Avena sativa (oat), 19, 20, 26, 49, 123
palmatum, 105 Anthurium, 75, 127 Avocado, 78
platanoides, 105 Antigonon, 89 Azalea, 97
pseudoplatanus, 105 Antirrhinum, 115 Azolla, 44, 67, 70
saccharinum, 14, 38, 105 Aphanomyces, 46
saccharum, 26, 105 Apiaceae, 109 Baby’s-breath, 87
Aceraceae (Maple Family), 35, 105 Apical dominance, 19 Bacillariophyceae, 56
Acetabularia, 58 Apium graveolens, 109 Bacillus radicicola, 43
Achimenes, 116 Apple, 4, 16, 31, 39, 49, 75, 99 Bacteria, 6, 12, 24, 25, 41, 42, 45
Achlya, 46 Apricot, 99 Bald cypress, 73
Aconitum, 80 Aquilegia, 81 Balsam poplar, 95
Adder’s-tongue ferns, 67 Arabis, 96 Bamboo, 123
Adiantum, 67, 72 Araceae (Arum Family), 23, 34, 127 Bambusa, 123
Aegopodium, 109 Arachis, 100 Banana Family, 124
Aeschynanthus lobbianus, 116 Araucaria, 73 Banana shrub, 77
African violet, 116 Arborvitae, 73 Barberry, 23, 49
Agar, 20, 57 Arbutus, 97 Bark, 9, 10, 15
Agaricus, 50 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, 97 Barley, 26, 49, 123
Aglaonema, 127 Arcyria, 45 Basil, 113
Agrostemma githago, 87 Areca catechu, 125 Basket-of-gold, 96
Agrostis, 123 Arecaceae, 125, 126 Bauhinia, 100
Ajuga, 113 Arecastrum, 125 Bay laurel, 78
Albizzia, 100 Arecidae, 75 Bazzania, 63
Albugo, 46 Arenaria, 87 Bean, 12, 14, 40, 100
Alder, 35, 84 Arenga pinnata, 125 Bearberry, 97
Aleurites fordii, 103 Aril, 73, 102 Beauty-bush, 117
Alfalfa, 12, 100 Arisaema triphyllum, 127 Beebalm, 113
Algae (see also Plant Kingdom) Armillaria, 50 Beech, 35, 52, 83
Blue-green “Algae,” 4, 6, 24, 41, 44, Armoracia, 96 Beech Family, 35, 83
Arrow arum, 127 Beet, 2, 4, 12, 88
54,70 Arrowhead, 120 Begonia, 12, 93
Brown Algae, 4, 41, 59, 60, 61 Arrowroot, 124 Begoniaceae, 93
Golden Algae, 41, 56 Arrowroot Family, 124 Begonia Family, 93
Green Algae, 4, 41, 54, 58, 62 Arrow-wood, 117 Begoniella, 93
Red Algae, 4, 41, 57 Artemisia dracunculus, 119 Beilschmiedia, 78
Yellow-green Algae, 41, 56 Artichoke, 119 Belamcanda, 129
Alisma, 120 Artist’s fungus, 50 Bell morel, 48
Alismataceae, 120 Arum Family, 23, 34, 127 Bell pepper, 111
Alismatidae, 75 Asclepiadaceae, 110 Bells-of-Ireland, 113
Allium (onion), 16, 49, 128 Asclepias Bellwort, 128
Allomyces, 46 Berberis (barberry), 23, 49
Almond, 99 curassavica, 110 Bergamot, 113
Alnus, (alder), 35, 84 syriaca, 38, 110 Bermuda grass, 123
Alocasia, 127 tuberosa, 110 Beta (beet), 2, 4, 12, 88
Aloe, 128 Ash, 35, 99, 114 Betel nut palm, 125
Althea rosea, 90 Asparagus officinalis, 128 Betula
Altingis, 81 Aspen, 50, 95
Alyssum, 75, 96 Aspirgillus, 48 papyrifera, 84
Amanita, 50 Asplenium nidus, 67 pendula, 75, 84
Ambrosia, 119 Aster, 19, 119 Betulaceae (Birch Family), 35, 84
American chestnut, 48, 83 Asteraceae, 119 Biennial, 12, 26, 87, 109, 115, 118, 119
American elm, 38, 82 Aster Family, 119 Big leaf maple, 105
Amianthemum, 128
Amorphophallus, 127 135
Amur maple, 105

Bindweed, 112 Butter-and-eggs, 115 Cayenne pepper, 111
Birch, 35, 52, 75, 85 Buttercup, 80 Cedar, 49, 73
Birch Family, 35, 85 Buttercup Family, 80 Celastraceae, 102
Bird-of-paradise Family, 124 Butterfly-weed, 110 Celery, 109
Bird’s-nest fern, 67 Butterwort, 10, 23 Cell structure
Bird’s-nest fungus, 53
Bishop’s-cap, 98 Cabbage, 97 cell organelles, 2, 3, 7, 18, 41, 59
Bitter nightshade, 111 Cabbage palmetto, 125, 126 amyloplast, 3, 13
Bittersweet, 102 Cabomba, 79 chloroplast, 2, 3, 10, 13, 22, 24, 55,
Blackberry, 99 Cactaceae, 4, 16, 85, 86 56, 58, 59
Blackberry lily, 129 Cactus Family, 4, 16, 85, 86 chromoplast, 2, 3
Black-eyed Susan, 119 Cafta, 102 dictyosome, 2, 3
Black locust, 38 Caladium, 127 endoplasmic reticulum, 2, 3
Black medic, 38 Calamites, 43, 66 leucoplast, 2, 3
Black nightshade, 111 Calamus, 125 mitochondrion, 2, 3
Black oak, 39 Calathea, 124 nucleus, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 30, 31, 32,
Black raspberry, 39, 99 Calceolaria, 115 37, 41, 44, 45, 58
Bladderwort, 23 Calcium carbonate, 2, 63 plastid, 2, 3, 41
Blood-flower, 110 Calcium oxalate, 127 ribosome, 2, 3, 43
Blueberry, 97 California laurel, 78 vacuole, 2, 4, 5, 59
Bluegrass, 123 Calla lily, 127
Blue-green “Algae,” 4, 6, 24, 41, 44, 54, Calla palustris, 127 cell wall, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 43, 44
Callirhoe¨ , 90 chromosome, see Chromosome
70 Callisia, 121 cytoplasm, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 18, 24, 43, 58
Blue lace-flower, 109 Calodendrum, 107 middle lamella, 2
Blue milkweed, 110 Calonyction aculeatum, 112 nucleoid, 6, 43
Blushwort, 116 Caltha, 80 nucleolus, 2, 7, 58
Bog rosemary, 97 Calvatia, 53 plasma membrane, 2, 5, 43
Boston fern, 67 Caemonorops, 125 pit field, 2, 8, 10, 11, 72
Boston ivy, 104 Camphor, 78 protoplast, 2, 8, 43, 56
Botrychium, 67 Camptosorus, 67 Cell types
Bougainvillea, 23 Candy-tuft, 96 antipodal cell, 32
Bouncing Bet, 87 Cannaceae,123 bulliform cell, 22
Bowstring-hemp, 20, 128 Canna Family, 124 collenchyma cell, 8
Box elder, 35 Cantaloupe, 94 companion cell, 8, 11
Bracken fern, 67 Cape chestnut, 107 cork cell, 9, 10, 15, 22
Bract, 23, 29, 33, 34, 36, 38, 75, 77, 83, Cape primrose, 116 egg cell, 27, 30, 32, 46, 56, 59, 60, 61,
Capillitium, 45, 53
87, 93, 95, 101, 103, 109, 112, Caprifoliaceae, 117 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 71
117, 118, 119, 122, 123, 124, 126, Capsella bursa-pastoris, 96 epidermal cell, 10, 13, 22
127, 129 Capsicum, 111 eukaryotic cell, 2, 41, 42
Brasenia, 79 Caraway, 109 fiber cell, 8, 11, 22
Brassavola, 130 Carbon dioxide, 24, 25, 43, 47 guard cell, 10, 22, 24
Brassia, 130 Carbon fixation, 3, 24 laticifer, 11
Brassica, 38, 96 Carex hystericina, 122 mother cell, 30, 31, 32
Brassicaceae (Mustard Family), 38, 96 Carnation, 87 parenchyma cell, 8, 11, 13, 22, 60, 124
Bridal wreath, 99 Carnauba palm, 125 prokaryotic cell, 41, 43, 44
British soldiers, 54 Carnegiea gigantea, 36 sclereid (stone cell), 8, 11, 22
Broccoli, 96 Carnivorous plants, 19, 23, 91 sclerenchyma cell, 8, 22
Browallia, 111 Carrion-flower, 110 sex cell (gamete), 6, 30, 45, 46, 55, 57,
Brown Algae, 4, 41, 59, 60, 61 Carrot, 4, 12, 38, 109
Brussels sprouts, 96 Carrot Family, 109 59, 60, 61, 65
Bryophyte, 63 Carophyllaceae, 87 sieve element, 11
Bucklandia, 81 Carum carvi, 109
Buckwheat, 89 Caryophyllidae, 4, 75 sieve cell, 8, 11
Buckwheat Family, 89 Caryota mitis, 125, 126 sieve tube element, 8, 11, 18
Bud Cashew, 106 silica cell, 10, 22
axillary (lateral) bud, 14, 19 Cashew Family, 106 somatic (vegetative) cell, 6, 30
flower bud, 29 Casparian strip, 13 subsidiary cell, 10, 22
terminal bud, 14, 19, 25 Cassia, 100 synergid cell, 32, 37
Bud scale, 14, 35, 82, 83 Castanea, 83 tracheary element, 11
Bud scale scar, 14 Castilleja coccinea, 115 tracheid, 8, 11, 17
Bugbane, 80 Castor-bean, 103 vessel element, 8, 11, 17
Bugloss, 113 Catha, 102 Cellulose, 2, 8
Bulb, 8, 12, 16, 18, 128, 129 Catnip, 113 Celtis tenuifolia, 82
Bull-bay, 77 Cattail Family, 35 Centaurea, 4
Bulrush, 122 Cattleya, 130 Cephalaria, 118
Bunchlberry, 101 Cauliflower, 96 Cerastrium, 87
Bur-head, 120 Ceratium, 55
Burning bush, 102 Ceratocystis ulmi, 48, 82
Cercis, 100
136 Ceropegia woodii, 110
Cetarias, 54

Chaetomium, 48 Clubmosses, 41, 42, 65 Cucumis, 39, 94
Chamaecyparis, 73 Coccoloba uvifera, 89 Cucurbita, 94
Chamaedorea, 125, 126 Cocklebur, 26, 119 Cucurbitaceae (Gourd Family), 39, 94
Chamaerops, 125 Coco-de-mer, 125 Cumin, 109
Chantharellus, 51 Coconut palm, 125 Cuminum cyminium, 109
Chara, 62 Cocothrinax argentea, 125 Cup-of-gold, 111
Charophyta, 41, 62 Codiaeum, 103 Cupressus, 73
Cheeses, 90 Colchicine, 128 Curled dock, 38
Chenille plant, 103 Colchicum, 128 Curled mallow, 90
Chenopodiaceae, 88 Coleus, 19, 113 Curly palm, 125
Chenopodium, 26, 89 Collinea, 126 Currant, 98, 104
Cherry, 39, 99 Colocasia, 127 Cuscuta, 112
Chervil, 109 Columbine, 80 Cutin, 2,10,13, 22
Chestnut, 35, 83 Columnea, 116 Cut-leaf philodendron, 127
Chestnut blight, 48, 83 Commelina, 121 Cyanobacteria, 41, 44
Chichorium, 119 Commelinaceae, 121 Cyanotis, 121
Chick pea, 100 Commelinidae, 75 Cyathus, 53
Chickweed, 87 Common blue violet, 92 Cycads, 41, 42, 44, 71, 72
Chicory, 119 Common mallow, 90 Cycadophyta, 41, 71
Chinese anise, 77 Common rue, 107 Cydonia, 99
Chinese elm, 82 Common toadflax, 115 Cylindrospermum, 44
Chinese evergreen, 127 Cone, 38, 71, 73, 74 Cymbalaria, 115
Chinese lantern, 111 Coneflower, 26, 119 Cymbidium, 130
Chinese water chestnut, 122 Conifer, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 21, 22, 33, 38, Cynara scolymus, 119
Chinese windmill palm, 125 Cynodon, 123
Chionanthus, 114 40, 41, 42, 50, 63, 71, 73, 76 Cyperaceae, 122
Chitin, 46 Conium maculatum, 109 Cyperus, 122
Chives, 128 Convallaria majalis, 128 Cypress, 73
Chlamydomonas, 58 Convolvulaceae, 112 Cypress spurge, 88
Chloroplast, 2, 3,10,13, 22, 24, 55, 56, Convolvulus, 112 Cypress vine, 112
Copernicia, 125 Cyrtomium, 67
58, 59 Coprinus, 51 Cytokinin, 19
Chlorophyll, 3, 4, 24, 47, 56, 57, 58, 59, Coquitos palm, 125
Coral bells, 98 Dacryopinax, 49
62, 66 Corallina, 57 Dactylis, 123
chlorophyll a, 4, 24, 45, 55, 56, 57, 58, Coral plant, 115 Dahlia, 12, 119
Coral-sumac, 106 DaIdinia concentrica, 48
59, 62 Cordaites, 42 Dandelion, 119
chlorophyll b, 4, 58, 62 Coriander, 109 Darlingtonia, 91
chlorophyll c, 4, 55, 56, 59 Coriandrum sativum, 109 Date palm, 125
chlorophyll d, 4, 57 Coriolus, 52 Datura, 111
Choanephora, 47 Cork, 9, 10, 15, 22 Daucus carota (carrot), 4, 12, 38, 109
Chondrus, 57 Cork tree, 107 Dayflower, 121
Christmas rose, 80 Corm, 12, 16, 18, 65, 128, 129 Day lily, 128
Christmas vine, 112 Corn, 12, 19, 24, 40, 123 Deadly nightshade, 111
Chromosomes, 2, 6, 7, 30, 55 Cornaceae, 101 Dead man’s finger, 48
crossing-over (chiasma), 6, 30 Corn cockle, 87 Death camas, 128
diploid (2n), 6, 30, 37, 59, 61, 64, 67 Cornelian cherry, 101 Delonix, 100
haploid (1n), 6, 30, 31, 37, 59, 61, 63, Cornflower, 4 Delphinium, 4, 80
Cornus, 101 Dendrobium, 130
64, 67 Cortinarius, 50 Deptford-pink, 87
Chrysophyceae, 56 Corylopsis, 81 Destroying angel, 50
Chysalidocarpus, 125 Corylus, 84 Deuteromycota, 46
Chysanthemum, 19, 26, 119 Coscinodiscus, 56 Deutzia, 98
Cibotium, 67 Cotinus coggygria, 106 Devil’s-ivy, 127
Cicer, 100 Cotton, 10, 90 Diachea, 45
Cicuta maculata, 109 Cottonwood, 95 Dianthus, 75, 87
Cimicifuga, 80 Cow cockle, 87 Diatom, 4, 41, 56
Cinnamomum, 78 Cow-parsnip, 109 Diatrypella, 48
Cinnamon, 78 Cranberry, 97 Dichondra, 112
Cirsium, 119 Crane’s-bill, 109 Dichorisandra, 121
Cissus, 104 Crataegus, 99 Dicot (dicotyledon), 1, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15,
Citron, 94, 107 Crocus, 16, 129
Citrullus lanatus, 94 Cronartium, 49 19, 21, 22, 27, 31, 37, 74, 75,
Citrus, 39, 107 Croton, 103 77–119
Cladonia, 54 Crown-of-thorns, 103 Dictamnus, 107
Cladophora, 58 Crucibulum, 53 Dictydium, 45
Clathrus, 53 Cucumber, 39, 94 Dictyophora, 53
Claviceps, 48 Cucumber tree, 77 Didymium, 45
Clavulinopsis, 52
Clematis, 16, 80 137
Clover, 12, 26, 33, 100

Dieffenbachia, 127 Erodium, 108 gynoecium, 27
Digitalis purpurea, 115 Eryngium, 109 nectaries, see Nectar
Dill, 26, 109 Erythea, 125 perianth, 27, 75
Dilleniidae, 75 Erythronium, 128 petals, 10, 27, 28, 29, 33, 34, 35, 36,
Dinobryon, 56 Eucalyptus, 75
Dinoflagellates, 41, 55 Eudorina, 58 75
Dioecious condition, 28, 35, 60, 63, 71, Euonymus, 102 bilabiate, 34, 36, 113, 115, 116, 117
Eupatorium rugosum, 119 cruciform, 96
72, 73, 74, 78, 95, 105 Euphorbia, 23, 26,103 funnelform, 34, 112
Dionaea, 23 Euphorbiaceae (Spurge Family), 16, 103 pistil (stigma, style, ovary), see Pistil
Dioo¨ n edule, 71 European fan palm, 125
Dipsacaceae, 118 European spindle-tree, 102 structure
Dipsacus, 118 European white birch, 84 placenta, 27, 28, 32, 111
Dipteronia, 105 Evernias, 54 receptacle, 27, 29, 99, 120
Diseases of plants, 43, 46, 47, 48, 49, 82, sepals, 27, 28, 29, 33, 35, 75
Fabaceae (Pea Family), 34, 39, 100 stamen (anther, filament, connective),
83 Fagaceae (Beech Family), 35, 83
Dittany, 107 Fagopyrum, 89 see Stamen structure
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 2, 3, 6, 7, Fagus, 83 staminoids, 78, 116, 124
Fairy ring mushroom, 50 tepals, 1, 26, 27, 36, 76, 85, 86, 89, 93,
24, 41, 43, 44 False cypress, 73
Doctor gum, 106 False dragonhead, 113 127, 128
Dodder, 112 False goat’s-beard, 98 Flower symmetry, 34, 75
Dogtooth lily, 128 False hellebore, 128 Flower types
Dogwood Family, 101 False Iily-of-the-valley, 128
Douglas fir, 73 False mallow, 90 bisexual (perfect), 28, 33, 35, 36, 75,
Draba, 96 False sandalwood, 82 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 86, 87, 88, 89,
Dracaena, 15 False Solomon’s seal, 128 90, 91, 97, 99, 101, 102, 107, 108,
Drosera, 23 Fan palm, 125 114, 115, 117, 119, 121, 122, 123,
Drymaria pachyphyua, 87 Fanwort, 79 124, 126, 127, 130
Dryopteris carthusiana (spinulosa), 68 Fennel, 109
Duckweed, 75 Ferns, 8, 41, 42, 44, 67, 68, 69, 70 complete, 28
Dulse, 57 Fertilization, 27, 33, 34, 37, 62, 63, 64, dicot, 27, 77–119
Dumb-cane, 127 incomplete, 28
Dusty miller, 87 65, 66, 67, 71 monocot, 27, 120–130
Dutch elm disease, 82 Festuca, 123 unisexual (imperfect), 28, 33, 35, 75,
Dwarf chinkapin oak, 83 Festue grass, 123
Dwarf hackberry, 82 Figwort, 115 83, 84, 93, 94, 95, 103, 104, 105,
Dyer’s woad, 96 Figwort Family, 115 106, 119, 120, 125, 127
Filbert, 84 Fly agaric, 50
Ear fungus, 49 Fir, 73, 76 Fly amanita, 50
Earth star, 53 Firethorn, 99 Foeniculum vulgare, 109
Earth tongue, 48 Fishtail palm, 125, 126 Fomes, 52
Echinodorus, 120 Flag, 34, 129 Fool’s huckleberry, 97
Echinopsis, 85 Flagellum, 43, 44, 45, 46, 55, 56, 57, 58, Forsythia, 114
Ecosystem, 43, 44, 45, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59 Fortunella, 107
Ectocarpus, 59 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 71 Fossils, 42
Edelweiss, 119 Flamingo flower, 75, 127 Fothergilla, 81
Egg, 27, 30, 32, 37, 46, 56, 59, 60, 61, Flame plant, 127 Foxglove, 115
Flat palm, 125 Foxtail grass, 123
62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 71 Flower arrangement (inflorescence), 19, Fragaria (strawberry), 20, 26, 39, 99
Elaeis guineesis, 125 Fragrant olive, 114
Elaeodendron, 102 27, 33, 35 Fraxinella, 107
Elderberry, 117 catkin (ament), 35, 75, 83, 95 Fraxinus, 99, 114
Eleocharis tuberosa, 122 cyme, 84, 102, 108, 111 Freesia, 129
Elephant’s-ear, 127 fleshy spike (spadix), 34, 75, 127 Fringe tree, 114
Elm, 35, 38, 82 head (capitulum), 33, 75, 118, 119 Fritillaria, 128
Elm Family, 35, 82 panicle, 106, 114,124,125, 126 Fruiting body, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51,
Encyclia, 16 raceme, 96, 100, 120 52, 53, 54
Endiandra, 78 single (scapose), 80, 85, 87, 90, 91, aethalium, 45
Endive, 119 ascocarps:
Endothia parasitica, 48, 83 92, 112 apothecium, 48, 54
English oak, 83 spike, 88, 115, 122, 123 cleistothecium, 48
Enzyme, 2, 3, 4, 10 umbel, 109, 110 perithecium, 48
Ephedra, 74 Flowering dogwood, 101 basidiocarps:
Epidendrum, 130 Flowering maple, 90 bird’s-nest, 53
Epiphyte, 16, 20, 59, 64, 67, 76, 130 Flowering plants, 1, 30, 31, 33, 41, 75, coral, 50, 52
Episcia, 116 earthstar, 53
Equisetum, 15,16, 20, 43, 66 77–130 mushroom, 49, 50, 51
Ergot of rye, 48 Flower structure, 27, 28, 33, 34 puffball, 49, 53
Erica, 97 shelf, 49, 50, 52
Ericaceae, 97 androecium, 27 stinkhorn, 53
calyx, 27, 34 toothed, 50, 52
corolla, 27, 33 plasmodiocarp, 45
sporangium, 45

138

Fruit (ovary wall) tissues, 38, 39 Gazania, 119 Gypsophila, 87
endocarp, 39, 107 Geastrum, 53 Gyromitra, 48
exocarp, 39, 107 Gelidium, 57
mesocarp, 8, 39, 97, 107 Geoglossum, 48 Haberlea, 116
pericarp, 38, 39, 40, 94, 123 Geologic time scale, 41, 42 Hackberry, 35, 82
Geraniaceae, 108 Hair (trichome), 8, 9, 10, 13, 17, 22, 23,
Fruit types, 38, 39 Geranium, 108
achene, 38, 39, 80, 89, 118, 119, 122 Geranium, 4, 108 44, 67, 70, 77, 81, 85, 86, 88, 90,
berry, 39, 79, 86, 98, 104, 111, 117, Geranium Family, 108 91, 94, 95, 97, 98, 106, 111, 116,
127 Gesneria Family, 116 117, 129
capsule, 38, 81, 87, 90, 92, 93, 95, 98, Gesneriaceae, 116 Hamamelidaceae, 81
102, 108, 114, 121, 128, 129, Giant sequoia, 73 Hamamelidae, 75
130 Giant water lily, 79 Hamamelis, 81
cypsela, 38 Gibasis geniculata, 121 Hapalosiphon, 44
drupe, 39, 78, 82, 97, 101, 106, 114, Ginger Family, 124 Haworthia, 128
125, 126 Ginkgo, 16, 21, 41, 71, 72 Hawthorn, 49, 99
drupelet, 39 Ginkgophyta, 41, 42, 72 Hazelnut, 35, 84
follicle, 38, 77, 110 Gladiolus, 16, 129 Heath, 97
grain (caryopsis), 3, 19, 38, 40, 48, 123 Gleditsia, 100 Heath Family, 97
hesperidium, 39, 107 Gloetrichia, 44 Hedera, 16
legume, 8, 38, 100 Gloiopeltis, 57 Hedge bindweed, 112
loment, 38, 100 Gloriosa, 128 Helenium, 119
mericarp, 38, 90, 109 Gloriosa lily, 16, 128 Heliamphora, 91
nut, 8, 38, 83 Gloxinia, 116 Helianthus
nutlet, 38, 88, 97, 113 Glycine, 100 annuus, 19, 119
pepo, 39, 94 Gnetes, 41, 42, 71, 74 tuberosus, 119
pome, 39, 99 Gnetophyta, 41, 74 Helichrysum, 119
samara, 38, 82, 84, 105, 114 Gnetum, 74 Helicodicerus, 127
schizocarp, 38, 90, 103, 109 Golden Algae, 41, 56 Helleborus, 80
silicle, 38, 96 Golden bells, 114 Helminthostachys, 67
silique, 38, 96 Golden-chain tree, 100 Helwingia, 101
Golden club, 127 Helvella, 48
Fuchsia, 4, 20, 36 Goldenrod, 38, 119 Hemerocallis, 128
Fucus, 61 Golden seal, 80 Hemitrichia, 45
Fullmoon maple, 105 Goldfish plant, 116 Hemlock, 73, 109
Fungi, 1, 12, 24, 41, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, Gonyaulax, 55 Hepatica, 80
Gooseberry, 98 Heracleum, 109
50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 64, 82, 83 Gossypium hirsutum, 90 Hericium, 52
Fungi Kingdom Gourd, 94 Herpobasidium, 49
Gourd Family, 39, 94 Hesperis, 96
Ascomycetes, 47, 48, 54, 82, 83 Goutweed, 109 Heterospory, 65, 70
Euascomycetidae (molds, wilts, Grape, 16, 39, 104 Heuchera sanguinea, 98
blight, mildews), 48 Grape Family, 104 Hevea brasiliensis, 103
Hemiascomycetidae (yeast, peach Grapefern, 67 Hibiscus
leaf curl), 47 Grapefruit, 107 esculentus, 90
Grape-hyacinth, 128 rosa-sinensis, 29
Basidiomycetes, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54 Grape ivy, 104 syriacus, 26
Agaricales (gill, pore, coral, toothed Graphis, 54 Hillebrandia, 93
fungi), 50, 51, 52 Grass Family, 10, 15, 19, 22, 23, 24, 35, Hoary cress, 96
Auriculariales (jelly fungi), 49 Holly fern, 67
Dacrymycetales (jelly fungi), 49 38, 76, 122, 123, 125 Hollyhock, 49, 90
Lycoperdales (puffball fungi), 53 Green Algae, 4, 41, 54, 58, 62 Hollyhock mallow, 90
Nidulariales (bird’s-nest fungi), 53 Green ash, 114 Homospory, 64, 65, 66
Phallales (stinkhorn fungi), 53 Greenbriar, 16, 128 Honesty, 38, 96
Tremellales (jelly fungi), 49 Greenheart, 79 Honey-dew melon, 94
Uredinales (rusts), 49 Green violet, 92 Honey locust, 100
Ustilaginales (smuts), 49 Grey dogwood, 102 Honey mushroom, 50
Griselinia, 102 Honeysuckle, 117
Chytridiomycetes (chytrids & allies), 46 Ground cherry, 111 Honeysuckle Family, 117
Myxomycetes (slime molds), 45 Growth Hop-hornbeam, 84
Oomycetes (water molds, downy Hop tree, 107
primary, 9, 13, 15 Hordeum vulgare, 26, 123
mildews, white rusts), 46 secondary, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 65, 67, 71 Hormones, 19, 20, 24, 26
Zygomycetes (black bread mold & Growth movements, 20 Hornwort, 42, 63
Growth rings, 15 Horse-bush, 119
allies), 47 Gymnocladus, 100 Horse-radish, 96
Gymnodinium, 55 Horsetails, 41, 42, 66
Gaillardia, 119 Gymnosperm, 41, 71, 72, 73, 74 Hosta, 128
Galaxaura, 57 Gymnosporangium, 49 Howeia, 125
Gametophyte, 31, 32, 40, 57, 59, 60, 61, Gymnosporia, 102
139
63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 72
Ganoderma, 50
Garlic, 128
Gas-plant, 107
Gaultheria, 97
Gaylussacia, 97

Hoya carnosa, 110 Lagenaria, 94 monocot leaf, 1, 21, 40, 120–130
Huckleberry, 97 Lambkill, 97 phyllode, 23
Huernia, 110 Lamb’s quarters, 26, 88 plumule, 40
Hyacinth, 128 Lamiaceae (Mint Family), 34, 113 scale leaf, 12, 16, 85
Hyacinthus, 128 Laminaria, 60 seed leaf (cotyledon), 1, 8, 37, 40, 72,
Hybanthus, 92 Larch, 73
Hybrid, 1, 6, 77 Larkspur, 4, 80 75
Hydrangea, 98 Larix, 73 simple leaf, 21, 67, 77, 79, 81, 83,
Hydrastis, 80 Latex, 11, 79, 103, 110, 112
Hypha, 12, 46, 47, 48, 50, 54 Lathyrus latifolia, 100 84, 85, 97, 101, 103, 107, 108,
Lauraceae, 78 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 117,
Iberis, 96 Laurel Family, 78 130
Illicium vernum, 77 Laurus nobilus, 78 spathe, 23, 127
Inch plant, 121 Lavandula, 113 spine, 23, 36, 85, 103
Indian paint-brush, 115 Lavatera, 90 succulent leaf, 23
Indian pipe, 97 Lavender, 113 Leaf venation
Ipomoea Leaf arrangement dichotomous, 21, 71, 72
palmate, 21, 67, 90, 93, 94, 105, 108,
batatas, 12, 112 alternate, 21, 72, 81, 88, 93, 95, 97, 125
pandurata, 12 102, 104, 110, 112, 115, 121, 123, parallel, 21, 120, 121, 123, 128
purpurea, 112 124 pinnate, 21, 67, 68, 125, 126
tuberosa, 16, 112 Leatherleaf fern, 69
Iridaceae (Iris Family), 34, 129 decussate, 87 Leatherleaf, 97
Iris, 16, 34, 129 equitant, 129 Leek, 128
Iris Family, 34, 129 opposite, 21, 74, 87, 102, 105, 113, Lemon, 39, 107
Irpex, 52 Lens, 100
Irish moss, 57 114, 116, 117, 118 Lentil, 100
Ironwood, 35 spiral, 65, 71 Leonotis, 113
Isatis tinctoria, 96 rosette, 63, 65, 91, 109, 116 Leontopodium, 119
Isoetes, 65 whorled, 21, 74, 128 Leopard lily, 128
Ivy, 12, 16 Leaf, blade margin Lepidium, 96
Ixia, 129 entire, 77, 78, 101, 114, 116, 121 Lepidodendron, 43
lobed, 67, 70, 72, 78, 79, 83, 90, 94, Letharia, 54
Jack-in-the-pulpit, 127 Lettuce, 119
Japanese dogwood, 101 104, 108, 111, 120 Leucothoe¨ , 97
Japanese honeysuckle, 117 peltate, 79 Levisticum officinale, 109
Japanese lacquer-tree, 106 saw-toothed (serrate), 80, 82, 84 Lichen, 44, 54, 76
Japanese laurel, 101 scalloped (crenate), 92 Light wavelength, 4, 34
Jasmine, 114 toothed (dentate), 80, 83, 95, 99, 102, Lignin, 8, 10, 23, 125
Jasminum, 114 Ligustrum, 114
Jerusalem artichoke, 119 105 Lilac, 14,114
Jerusalem-cherry, 111 Leaf, external structure, 21 Liliaceae, 1, 15,128
Jimson weed, 111 Lilidae, 75
Jubaea spectabilis, 125 blade, 21, 23 Liliopsida, 1, 75,120–130
Juncaceae, 35 cuticle, 17, 22 Lilium michiganense, 1, 38, 128
Juniper, 49, 73 coleoptile, 20, 40 Lily, 1, 38,128
Juniperus (cedar, juniper), 49, 73 leaflet (pinna, pinnule), 21, 23, 33, 67, Lily-of-the-valley, 128
Lily Family, 1, 15, 128
Kale, 96 68, 69, 70, 71, 80, 100, 106, 109, Lime, 107
Kalmia, 97 125, 126, 127 Linaria vulgaris, 115
Kapuka, 101 petiole (stalk), 8, 14, 21, 22, 23, 68, 69, Lindera benzoin, 78
Kelp, 15, 59, 60 70, 71 Linnaea borealis, 117
Kenilworth ivy, 115 pulvinus, 100, 124 Linnaeus, Carolus, 41
Kentucky coffee tree, 100 sheath (petiole), 21, 66, 109, 120, 121, Lion’s-ear, 113
Kinnikinik, 97 123, 124, 127, 129, 130 Lipstick plant, 116
Kniphofia, 128 stipule, 16, 23, 77, 84, 89, 90, 92, 93, Liquidambar styraciflua, 81
Knotweed, 89 99, 100, 102, 108 Liriodendron tulipifera, 77
Kochia, 88 Leaf persistence Lithocarpus, 83
Kohleria, 116 deciduous, 21, 72, 76 Lithops, 23
Kohlrabi, 96 evergreen, 21, 65, 68, 76 Lithothamnium, 57
Kolkwitzia, 117 Leaf types, 21, 23, 40 Litsea, 78
Kudzu vine, 100 bract, 23, 29, 33, 34, 36, 38, 75, 77, Liverwort, 41, 44, 63
Kumquat, 107 83, 87, 93, 95, 101, 103, 109, 112, Living stones, 23
117, 118, 119, 122, 123, 124, 126, Livistona, 125
Laburnum, 100 129 Lobularia maritima, 75, 96
Lactuca sativa, 119 carnivorous leaf, 23 Locoweed, 100
Lady palm, 125 conifer leaf, 15, 21, 22 Locule, 27, 31, 32
Lady’s thumb, 89 dicot leaf, 21, 37, 40, 77–119 Locust, 38, 100
Laelia, 130 compound leaf, 21, 35, 67, 68, 69, 70, Lodoicea maldivica, 125
71, 100, 106, 109, 125, 126, 127 Loganberry, 99
140 fern leaf, 67, 68, 69, 70
microphyll, 65
megasporophyll, 65, 71
microsporophyll, 65, 71
sporophyll, 66, 71

Lolium perenne, 26 apical meristem, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 25, Mycophycophyta, 54
Lonicera, 117 40 Mycorrhizae, 12, 46, 50, 64, 97, 130
Loofah, 94 Myrrhis odorata, 109
Loropetalum, 81 cork cambium, 9, 13, 15 Myxomycetes, 45
Lousewort, 115 ground meristem, 13, 15
Lovage, 109 intercalary meristem, 15, 66, 74 Nannyberry, 117
Luffa cylindria, 94 procambium, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15 Narcissus, 31
Lunaria annua, 38, 96 protoderm, 13, 15 Nasturtium, 96
Lupine, 100 vascular cambium, 9, 13, 15 Neathe bella, 126
Lupinus, 100 Metopium toxiferum, 106 Nectar, 33, 34, 36, 47, 99, 109, 115
Lychnis, 87 Metroxylon, 125 Nectar gland, disc, 8, 10, 23, 33, 34, 35,
Lycogala, 45 Mexican fan palm, 125
Lycoperdon, 53 Michelia fuscata, 77 36, 75, 81, 94, 95, 96, 97, 101,
Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), 3, 4, Michigan lily, 1, 38, 128 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 112,
Microasterias, 58 115, 116, 129
111 Microglossum, 48 osmophor, 10
Lypodium, 65 Microsphaera, 48 Nectar guide, 33, 34, 92, 116, 130
Lyonia mariana, 97 Milkweed, 38, 110 Nectar spur, 33, 34, 36, 92, 115
Milkweed Family, 110 Nectar tube, 33, 34, 130
Maclura pomifera, 39 Millet, 123 Neddle palm, 125
Madagascar featherpalm, 125 Miltonia, 130 Nemopanthus, 116
Madagascar-jasmine, 110 Mimosa, 38, 100 Neoporteria, 85
Magnolia, 75, 77 Mimulus, 115 Nepeta, 113
Magnoliidae, 75 Miniature hollyhock, 90 Nephrolepis, 67
Magnoliaceae, 77 Mint, 38, 113 Nereocystis, 60
Magnolia Family, 77 Mint Family, 113 Neurospora, 48
Magnoliophyta, 1, 75 Mitella, 98 New Zealand spinach, 88
Magnoliopsida, 1, 75, 77–119 Mitosis, 7, 30, 31, 32, 45 Nicotiana, 34, 111
Maianthemum, 128 Mock orange, 98 Nidularia, 53
Maiden hair fern, 67, 72 Molucella, 113 Nierembergia, 111
Maiden hair tree, 72 Monarda, 113 Nightshade Family, 111
Majorana, 113 Money plant, 96 Ninebark, 99
Mallow Family, 90 Monera, 41 Nitrogen, 12, 23, 25, 43, 70, 100
Malope, 90 Monilinia, 48 Nitrogen fixation, 12, 25, 43, 44, 100
Maltese cross, 87 Monkey-flower, 115 Nori, 57
Malus (apple), 4, 16, 31, 39, 49, 75, 99 Monkshood, 80 Norway maple, 105
Malvaceae, 90 Monocot (monocotyledon), 1, 9, 11, 12, Nucleic acid, 24
Malva, 90 Nucleoid, 6, 43
Mammillaria, 85, 86 13, 15, 21, 22, 27, 31, 35, 40, 75, Nucleolus, 2, 7, 58
Mangifera indica, 106 120–130 Nucleoplasm, 2
Mango, 106 Monoecious condition, 28, 70, 73, 74, 83, Nucleus, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 30, 31, 32, 37, 41,
Mangrove, 12 84, 93, 94, 104 45, 58
Manihot, 103 Monotropa, 97 Nuphar, 79
Manroot, 12 Monstera deliciosa, 127 Nutrients, 25
Maple, 26, 35, 38, 105 Moonflower, 112 Nymphaeaceae, 79
Maple Family, 35, 105 Morel, 48 Nymphaea, 79
Maranta, 124 Morchella, 48
Marantaceae, 124 Morina, 118 Oak, 17, 35, 38
Marasmius, 50 Morning glory, 112 Oats, 19, 20, 26, 49, 123
Marchantia, 63 Morning Glory Family, 112 Ochrolechia, 54
Marigold, 75, 119 Moses-in-the-cradle, 121 Ocimum, 113
Marjoram, 113 Mosquito fern, 67, 70 Ocotea, 78
Marsilea quadrifolia, 70 Moss, 41, 51, 63 Odontoglossum, 130
Marsh marigold, 80 Mother-of-thousands, 98 Oil palm, 125
Mastic tree, 106 Moth orchid, 75 Okra, 90
Matthiola, 96 Mountain ash, 99 Olea, 114
Maytenus, 102 Mountain laurel, 97 Oleaceae, 114
Meadow rue, 80 Mountain-rose vine, 89 Olive, 114
Medicago, 12, 38, 100 Mouse-ear chickweed, 87 Olive Family, 99, 114
Meiosis, 30, 31, 32, 45, 46, 61, 63 Mucor, 47 Oncidium, 130
Melilotus, 100 Mullein, 115 Onion, 16, 49, 128
Melocactus, 85 Murraya, 107 Onoclea, 67
Melon, 94 Musaceae, 124 Ophioglossum, 67
Mentha, 38, 113 Muscari, 128 Opuntia, 16, 85
Menziesia ferruginea, 97 Musk mallow, 90 Orange jessamine, 107
Mercurialis, 103 Mustard, 38, 96 Orchard-grass, 123
Mercury, 103 Mustard Family, 38, 96 Orchid, 16, 75, 130
Meristem, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 25, 40, 60, Mutinus, 53 Orchidaceae, 130
Mutualist (symbiont), 12, 44, 46, 54, 55 Orchid Family, 130
66, 69, 71, 74 Mycelium, 46, 47, 48, 49
141

Orchid tree, 100 Photosynthesis, 3, 4, 5, 8, 24, 40, 41, 44, inferior, 28, 33, 38, 39, 75, 84, 86,
Oregano, 113 60, 63, 85 93, 94, 98, 99, 101, 109, 116, 117,
Oriental walnut, 78 118, 119, 124, 129, 130
Origanum, 113 Phyllanthus, 103
Ornithogalum umbellatum, 128 Phellodendron, 107 superior, 28, 29, 33, 38, 75, 77, 78,
Orontium, 127 Physalis, 111 82, 87, 88, 90, 91, 96, 97, 100,
Oryza sativa (rice), 3, 19, 26, 38, 70, 123 Physarum cinereum, 45 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 109, 111,
Osage-orange, 39 Physcia, 54 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 121, 122,
Osmanthus, 114 Physocarpus, 99 123, 126, 128
Osmosis, 5,18 Physoderma, 46
Osmunda, 67 Physostegia, 113 ovule, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 37, 40, 75,
Ostrya, 84 Phytophthora infestans, 46 78, 79, 80, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 93,
Oswego tea, 113 Picea, 73 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 106,
Otaheite gooseberry, 103 Pieris, 97 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 118,
Oxypetalum caeruleum, 110 Pigments, 2, 3, 4, 24, 44 119, 122, 123, 126, 129
Oyster mushroom, 50
accessory pigments, 4, 24, 44 antipodal cells, 32
Pachystima, 102 betalains, 4, 76, 87, 88 egg, 27, 30, 32, 37
Paeonia, 80 embryo sac, 27, 30, 32, 37
Palm, 15, 25, 125 betacyanin, 4, 75 endosperm, 37, 40, 75, 123
Palmaria, 57 betaxanthin, 4, 75 filiform apparatus, 32
Palm Family, 125, 126 carotenoids, 3, 4, 10 funiculus, 32, 40
Pansy, 92 carotene, 4, 44, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, integument, 32, 37, 40, 75
Papaver, 38 micropyle, 32, 37, 40
Paper birch, 84 62 nucellus, 32
Paphiopedilum, 130 xanthophylls, 3, 4, 55, 57, 58, 62 polar nuclei, 32, 37
Paprika, 111 synergid cells, 32, 37
Parasite, 46, 47, 49, 54, 55, 112, 115 fucoxanthin, 4, 56, 59 stigma, 27, 29, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 81,
Parlor palm, 125, 126 leutein, 4
Parmelia, 54 peridinin, 55 85, 86, 91, 92, 93, 96, 97, 98, 99,
Parsley, 109 violaxanthin, 4, 59 100, 101, 103, 106, 107, 108, 110,
Parsnip, 109 zeaxanthin, 4 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117,
Parthenocissus chlorophylls, see Chlorophyll 118, 120, 121, 124, 128, 129, 130
flavinoids, 4 branched, 86, 122
quinquefolia, 16, 104 anthocyanin, 4, 25, 87 capitate, 96, 104
tricuspidata, 104 flavin, 4 double (bifurcate), 95, 98, 103, 113
Pastinaca sativa, 109 riboflavin, 4 feathery (plumose), 35, 82, 87, 105,
Pea, 12, 40, 100 phycobilins, 4, 57 123
Peaberry palm, 125 phycocyanin, 4, 44, 57 style, 27, 29, 32, 33, 36, 37, 77, 81, 84,
Peach, 99 phycoerythrin, 4, 44, 57 86, 88, 91, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100,
Pea Family, 34, 38, 100 phytochrome, 4 101, 103, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113,
Peanut, 15, 100 Pimpinella anisum, 109 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121,
Pear, 8, 49, 99 Pincushion cactus, 85, 86 124, 128, 129
Peat moss, 63 Pincushion flower, 118 Pisum, 12, 40, 100
Pedicularis, 115 Pine, 41, 49, 73, 76 Pitcher-plant, 23, 91
Pelargonium, 4, 108 Pinophyta, 41, 73 Pitcher-plant Family, 91
Peltandra, 127 Pinguicula, 10, 23 Planera albelica, 82
Penicillium, 48 Pink, 75, 87 Plantain, 38
Penny cress, 96 Pink Family, 87 Plant body, 8, 9, 11
Pepper-grass, 96 Pinnularia, 57 Plant communities, 76
Perennial, 12, 14, 21, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, Pinus, 40, 73 Plant Kingdom (Plantae), 41,
Pistachio, 106 Bryophyta, 41, 63
79, 80, 86, 88, 91, 92, 93, 96, 98, Pistacia, 106 Anthocerotae (Hornworts), 63
100, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, Pistia, 126 Hepaticae (Liverworts), 63
120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 127, 128, Pistil structure, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 37, 38, Musci (Mosses), 63
129, 130 77–130 Charophyta (Stoneworts), 41, 62
Pereskia grandifolia, 85 carpel, 27, 28, 29, 32, 35, 38, 39, 75, Chlorophyta (Green Algae), 41, 58
Persea, 78 79, 80, 92, 93, 94, 99, 101, 102, Cycadophyta (Cycads), 41, 71
Petroselinum crispum, 109 103, 105, 108, 109, 110, 111, Equisetophyta (Horsetails & Scouring
Petunia, 26, 111 112, 113, 114, 115, 121, 128, Rushes), 41, 66
Phaeophyta, 41, 59, 60, 61 129 Ginkgophyta, 41, 72
Phalaenopsis, 75, 130 ovary, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, Gnetophyta (Gnetes), 41, 74
Phallus, 53 38, 39, 75, 77, 78, 79, 82, 90, 92, Lycopodiophyta, 41, 65
Phaseolus (bean), 12, 14, 40, 100 93, 95, 97, 99, 101, 105, 109, 110, Isoetales (Quillworts), 65
Philadelphus, 98 113, 114, 116, 118, 119 Lycopodiales (Clubmosses), 65
Philodendron, 16, 127 ovary placentation, 27, 28, 32, 75 Selaginellales (Spikemosses), 65
Phleum, 123 axile, 28, 81, 91, 97, 114, 128, 129 Magnoliophyta (Flowering Plants), 41,
Phloem, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 22, 24, basal, 28, 75, 120, 127 75
42 free-central, 28, 75, 87 Liliopsida (monocotyledons), 75
Phoenix dactylifera, 125 parietal, 28, 75, 86, 92, 94, 98, 100, Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons), 75
110 Phaeophyta (Brown Algae), 41, 59, 60,
142 ovary position, 28, 33 61
haif-inferior, 28, 81, 116

Ectocarpales, 59 Porphyra, 57 bulb, 8, 12, 16, 18, 128, 129
Fucales, 61 Potato, 3, 16, 46, 111 conidium, 47, 48
Laminariales (kelps), 60 Pothos, 127 corm, 12, 16, 18, 65, 128, 129
Pinophyta (Conifers), 41, 73 Prayer plant, 124 cyst, 55, 58
Polypodiophyta (Ferns), 41, 67 Precatory bean, 100 gemma, 63, 64
Marsileales (water ferns), 70 Prickly ash, 107 isidium, 54
Ophioglossales (adder’s-tongue Prickly-pear, 85 pseudobulb, 16, 130
Privet, 114 pycnidium, 54
ferns), 67 Protein (amino acids), 2, 3, 6, 24, 34, 36, rhizome, 16, 20, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70,
Polypodiales (common ferns), 68, 69
Salviniales (floating ferns), 70 37, 40, 43, 123 79, 92, 108, 124, 128, 129
Psilophyta (Whisk Ferns), 41, 64 Prunus, 39, 99 sporangium (spore case), 46, 59, 60,
Rhodophyta (Red Algae), 41, 57 Pseudotsuga, 73
Bangiophycidae, 57 Psilocybe, 50 64, 65, 66, 67, 68
Florideophycidae, 57 Psilophyta, 41, 64 sporocarp, 70
Plantago, 38 Psilotum, 43, 64 stolon, 16, 20
Plasmolysis, 5 Ptelea, 107 strobilus, 65, 66
Plasmopara viticola, 46 Pteridium, 67 tuber, 3, 8, 16, 18, 112, 130
Platycerium, 67 Pterocephalus, 118 tuberous root, 18
Pleurotus, 50 Puccinia, 49 sexual:
Plum, 99 Pueraria lobata, 100 anisogamy, 55, 59
Poa, 123 Puffball, 53 isogamy, 55, 59
Poaceae (Grass Family), 10, 15, 19, 22, Pumpkin, 94 oogamy, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62
Pyracantha, 99 sexual structures:
23, 24, 35, 38, 76, 122, 123, 125 Pyrethrum, 119 aethalium, 45
Podosphaera, 48 Pyrola, 97 antheridium, 46, 56, 60, 61, 62, 63,
Poinciana, 100 Pyrrophyta, 41, 55
Poinsettia, 23, 26, 103 Pyrus, 99 64, 66, 67
Poison-ivy, 106 Pythium debaryanum, 46 archegonium, 63, 64, 66, 67
Poison-oak, 106 Pyxie cup, 54 ascus, 47, 48
Poison-sumac, 106 basidium, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53
Poison-wood, 106 Quaking aspen, 95 carpogonium, 57
Pollen (pollen grain), 27, 30, 31, 33, 34, Quamoclit pennata, 112 gametangium, 46, 59
Queen Anne’s lace, 109 megasporangium, 32, 65
35, 36, 37, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 92, Queen-of-the-border, 90 microsporangium, 31, 65, 71
94, 97, 108, 111, 112, 113, 115, Queen palm, 125 oogonium, 46, 56, 60, 61, 62
118, 119, 120, 124, 127, 129, 130 Quercus, 38, 83 plasmodiocarp, 45
Pollen sac, see Stamen structure Quillworts, 41, 42, 65 sporangium (spore case), 45, 46, 47,
Pollen tube, 31, 37 Quince, 8, 99
Pollination, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 49, 71, 72, 74
cross-pollination, 33, 92, 109, 113 Radish, 96 strobilus, 71, 72, 73, 74
self-pollination, 33, 92, 109, 125 Raffia, 125 trichoblast, 57
wind pollination, 33, 35, 75, 82, 83, 84, Ragweed, 119 Resin, 2, 10, 15, 22, 98, 106
88, 89, 95, 105, 123, 125 Ragwort, 119 Respiration, 3, 24, 43
Pollinators Ramonda, 116 Rex begonia, 93
bats, 36 Ranunculaceae, 80 Rhapidophyllum, 125
birds, 36, 116 Ranunculus, 80 Rhapis, 125
insects, 33, 34, 35, 75, 81, 92, 95, 109, Raphanus, 96 Rheum, 89
113, 125, 127, 129, 130 Raphia, 125 Rhizine, 54
bees, 34, 110, 113, 115, 129 Rasamala, 81 Rhizobium radicicola, 43
beetles, 33 Raspberry, 99 Rhizoid, 57, 58, 62, 63, 64
butterflies, 33 Rechsteineria, 116 Rhizome, 16, 20, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 79,
flies, 34, 127 Red Algae, 4, 41, 57
moths, 33, 34, 117 Red campion, 87 92, 108, 124, 128, 129
Polygamodioecious condition, 28, 102 Red crown cactus, 85 Rhizophora, 12
Polygamomonoecious condition, 28 Red-hot-poker, 128 Rhizophore, 65
Polygonaceae, 89 Redleg, 89 Rhizopus, 47
Polygonatum, 128 Red-osier dogwood, 101 Rhododendron, 38, 97
Polygonum, 89 Red squill, 128 Rhodophyta, 41, 57
Polyploidy, 6 Redwood, 15, 73 Rhoeo, 121
Polypodiophyta, 41, 67, 68, 69, 70 Reindeer moss, 54 Rhubarb, 89
Polyporus, 50 Reproduction Rhubarb chard, 88
Polysiphonia, 57 Rhus, 106
Poncirus, 107 asexual: Rhynia, 43
Pond spice, 78 budding, 47 Ribes, 98
Poplar, 35, 95 division (fission), 3, 7, 43, 44, 47, 55, Rice, 3, 19, 26, 38, 44, 70, 123
Poppy, 38 56 Ricinus communis, 103
Poppy mallow, 90 fragmentation, 47, 56, 57, 59, 63 Rinorea, 92
Populus, 95 River-bank grape, 104
Porana paniculata, 112 asexual structures: RNA (ribonucleic acid), 2, 3, 24
Porcupine sedge, 122 akinete, 44 Rock cress, 96
Robinia, 38, 100
Roccella, 54

143

Rocket, 96 Sansevieria, 20, 128 conifer, 40, 41, 71, 73
Root, external structure, 12, 13, 17, 20, Sap, 2, 8, 18, 79, 89, 103, 110, 112, 127 cycad, 41, 71
Saponaria, 87 Ginkgo, 41, 71, 72
40 Saprolegnia, 46 gnete, 41, 71, 74
coleorhiza, 40 Saprophyte, 46, 49, 115, 130 Selaginella, 65
nodule, 12, 43, 100 Sarracenia, 23, 91 Semibegoniella, 94
root cap, 3, 9, 13, 20 Sarraceniaceae, 91 Senecio, 119
root hair, 9, 10, 13, 17 Sassafras albidum, 78 Senna, 100
root tip (apex), 9, 13, 25, 40 Satureja, 113 Sensitive fern, 67
Root types, 12 Saucer magnolia, 77 Sensitive plant, 100
adventitious roots, 12, 13, 16, 123, 129 Savory, 113 Sentinel palm, 125
aerial roots, 12, 20 Saw-palmetto, 125 Sentry palm, 125
contractile roots, 12 Saxifraga, 16, 98 Sequoiadendron giganteum, 73
lateral root, 12, 13, 20 Saxifragaceae, 98 Sequoia sempervirens, 73
primary root, 12 Saxifrage Family, 98 Serenoa, 125
prop roots, 12 Scabiosa, 118 Setaria, 123
radicle, 12, 40 Scarlet oak, 83 Shaggy mane, 51
seminal roots, 12 Scarlet sage, 113 Shallot, 128
storage roots, 12, 18 Scenedesmus, 58 Sheepberry, 117
tap root, 12, 109 Scent (odor, aroma, fragrance), 33, 34, Shepherd’s purse, 96
tuberous roots, 18 Shinleaf, 97
Rosa, 99 35, 36, 62, 72, 78, 98, 109, 111, Shoot, 9, 19, 20, 37, 40
Rosaceae (Rose Family), 39, 99 113, 127, 130 bud, 14, 19, 25, 29
Rose, 99 Schinopsis, 106 plumule, 40
Rose cactus, 85 Schizanthus, 111 spur shoot, 16, 72, 99
Rose Family, 39, 99 Scirpus, 122 tiller, 19
Rosemary, 113 Schlumbergera, 26, 85 tip (apex), 14, 15, 16, 18
Rose-of-China, 29, 90 Scilla, 128 Siberian elm, 82
Rose-of-Sharon, 26, 90 Scindapsis, 127 Sidalcea, 90
Roselle, 90 Scotch elm, 82 Silica, 2, 10, 56, 66
Rosidae, 75 Scleranthus, 87 Silver-lace vine, 89
Rosmarinus, 113 Sclerotium, 45, 48 Silver maple, 14, 38, 105
Royal fern, 67, 68 Scouring rush, 20, 41, 42, 66 Silver palm, 125
Royal palm, 125 Script lichen, 54 Silvery lupine, 100
Royal water lily, 79 Scrophularia, 115 Sinningia, 116
Roystonea regia, 125 Scrophulariaceae, 115 Sisyrinchium, 129
Rubus, 39, 99 Sea grape, 89 Skunk cabbage, 34, 127
Rubutia, 85 Sea holly, 109 Slime molds, 41, 45
Rudbeckia hirta, 26, 119 Secale cereale (rye), 19, 48, 123 Slipper-flower, 115
Rue anemone, 80 Sedge, 122 Smartweed, 89
Rumex crispus, 38 Sedge Family, 23, 76, 122 Smilacina, 128
Rumohra adiantiformis, 69 Seed, 27, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 71, 72, 73, Smilax, 16, 128
Rush Family, 35 74, 77, 79, 81, 82, 84, 86, 87, 90, Smithiantha, 116
Russelia, 115 92, 93, 95, 96, 99, 100, 102, 105, Smoke tree, 106
Russula, 51 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 128, 129, Snake plant, 128
Rusty hoof fungus, 52 130 Snapdragon, 115
Ruta, 107 Seed ferns, 41, 42 Sneezeweed, 119
Rutabaga, 96 Seedling, 20, 40 Snowberry, 117
Rutaceae (Rue Family), 39, 107 Seed structure, 37, 40 Solanaceae, 111
Rye, 19, 48, 123 aleurone, 40, 123 Solanum
Ryegrass, 26 coleoptile, 20, 40 dulcamara, 111
coleorhiza, 40 nigrum, 111
Sabal palmetto, 125, 126 coma (surface hairs), 10, 90, 95 pseudocapsicum, 111
Sacaline, 89 embryo, 12, 37, 40, 75, 107, 123 tuberosum (potato), 3, 16, 111
Saccharomyces, 47 endosperm, 8, 37, 40, 75, 123, 125, Solidago, 38, 119
Saccharum, 123 130 Solomon’s seal, 128
Saffron, 129 epicotyl, 40 Sonchus, 119
Sage, 113 hilum, 40 Sorbus, 99
Sagittaria latifolia, 120 plumule, 40 Sorghum bicolor, 24, 123
Sago palm, 125 radicle, 12, 40 Sorus, 67, 68
Saguaro cactus, 36 seed coat (testa), 20, 37, 40, 123 South African stinkwood, 78
Saint Augustine grass, 123 seed leaf (cotyledon), 1, 8, 37, 40, 72, Sow-thistle, 119
Saintpaulia ionantha, 116 75 Soybean, 100
Salicaceae (Willow Family), 35, 95 scutellum, 40 Spadix, 34, 75, 127
Salix (willow), 10, 35, 95 Seed types Spathe, 34, 75, 127
Salvia, 113 angiosperm, 41, 75 Spathiphyllum, 127
Salvinia, 70 dicot, 40, 75 Spatterdock, 79
Sambucus, 117 monocot, 40, 75 Spiraea, 99
Sandwort, 87 gymnosperm, 41, 71, 72, 74

144

Speedwell, 115 areole, 85, 86 Swamp laurel, 97
Sperm, 31, 37, 56, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, bud scale scar, 14 Swamp mallow, 90
internode, 14, 15, 16, 25, 62, 66 Sweet alyssum, 96
66, 67, 71 leaf scar, 14, 35, 71, 83 Sweet-bay, 77
Sphaerotheca, 48 lenticel, 14, 15, 17 Sweet bay, 78
Sphagnum, 63 node, 14, 16, 21, 62, 66, 74, 85, 87, Sweet cicely, 109
Spice bush, 78 Sweet clover, 100
Spiderwort, 121 89, 100, 104 Sweet gum, 81
Spiderwort Family, 121 spur shoot, 16, 77, 99 Sweet orange, 107
Spikemosses, 41, 42, 65 vascular bundle scar, 14 Sweet pea, 100
Spinach, 26, 88 Stemonitis, 45 Sweet potato, 12, 112
Spinacia oleracea, 26, 88 Stem types Swiss chard, 88
Spinulose woodfern, 68 bulb, 8, 13, 16, 18, 128, 129 Swiss-cheese plant, 127
Spirillum lipoferum, 43 conifer, 9, 15 Sycamore maple, 105
Spirogyra, 58 corm, 12, 16, 18, 65, 128, 129 Symbegonia, 93
Spore, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 57, dicot, 9, 15 Symphoricarpos, 117
herbaceous stem, 1, 9, 15, 65 Symplocarpus foetidus, 34, 127
63, 65, 66, 67 monocot, 9, 15 Synchytrium, 46
ascospore, 47, 48, 54 pedicel, 27, 35, 39, 78, 95, 96, 100, Synechococcus, 44
basidiospore, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54 Syringa vulgaris, 14, 114
carpospore, 57 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109,
conidium, 47, 48 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116, 120, Tagetes patula, 75, 119
endospore, 43 121 Tahitian bridal veil, 121
exospore, 44 peduncle, 26, 27, 29, 33, 34, 36, 39, Talauma, 77
megaspore, 27, 32, 65, 70 79, 80, 81, 91, 92, 98, 99, 101, Tamarack, 73
microspore, 31, 65, 70, 71 103, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 115, Tamarind, 100
oospore, 46, 56, 62 117, 119, 120, 121, 124, 127, 128, Tamarindus, 100
statospore, 56 129, 130 Tangerine, 107
teleutospore, 49 pseudobulb, 16, 130 Tannia, 127
tetraspore, 57 rhizome, 16, 20, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 79, Tannin, 10, 15, 22
zoospore, 46, 56, 59, 60 92, 108, 124, 128, 129 Tan oak, 83
zygospore, 47 stolon, 16, 20 Taphrina, 47
Sporophyte, 40, 59, 60, 63, 64, 66, 67 storage stem, 16 Tapioca, 103
Spruce, 73, 76 succulent (fleshy) stem, 16, 17, 85, 93, Taraxacum, 119
Spurge Family, 16, 103 103 Taro, 127
Squash, 94 tuber, 3, 8, 16, 18, 112, 128, 130 Tarragon, 119
Squill, 128 vine, 12, 16, 20, 67, 74, 78, 80, 89, 94, Taxodium, 73
Staff-tree Family, 102 97, 102, 104, 106, 111, 113, 114, Taxus, 73
Stagger-bush, 97 116, 117, 119 Teasel, 118
Stagger-grass, 128 woody stem, 1, 9, 15, 72, 73 Teasel Family, 118
Staghorn fern, 67 Stenotaphrum, 123 Temple bells, 116
Staghorn sumac, 106 Stephanotis floribunda, 110 Tendril, 16, 94, 100, 104
Stamen structure, 27, 28, 30, 31, 33, 35, Stinkhorns, 53 Tetradymia, 119
Stock, 96 Tetragonia expansa, 88
36, 75, 77–130 Stomata, 10, 15, 17, 22, 23 Tetraphis, 63
androecial types: Stoneworts, 41, 62 Thanksgiving cactus, 26, 85
Stork’s-bill, 108 Thalia dealbata, 124
didynamous, 115 Strawberry, 20, 26, 39, 99 Thalictrum, 80
monadelphous, 90 Strawberry-blite, 88 Thistle, 119
tetradynamous, 96 Strawberry begonia, 16, 98 Thlaspi, 96
anther (pollen sac), 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, Strawflower, 119 Thrinax, 125
Strelitziaceae, 124 Thuja, 73
35, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 90, 93, 94, Streptocarpus, 116 Thyme, 113
97, 106, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, String-of-hearts, 110 Thymus, 113
114, 116, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, Striped inch plant, 121 Tilletia, 49
127, 128, 129 Strobilus, 65, 66, 71, 72, 73, 74 Timothy, 123
connective, 27, 93, 113 Stroma, 3, 24, 48 Tissue
filament, 27, 29, 31, 35, 36, 79, 87, 90, Stylites, 65
94, 96, 97, 100, 104, 106, 107, Succulent plants, 17, 23, 67, 76, 93, 103, dermal tissue, 9, 13
108, 111, 112, 113, 119, 120, 121, 110, 128 collenchyma, 15, 39
127, 128, 129 Sugar, 2, 5, 10, 18, 24, 33, 37 cortex, 8, 9, 13, 15, 17, 72
pollen, see Pollen Sugar beet, 88 endodermis, 9, 13, 17, 22
staminode, 78, 116, 121, 124 Sugar cane, 24, 123 endosperm, 8, 37, 40, 75, 123, 125,
tapetum, 31 Sugar maple, 26, 105
Stanhopea, 130 Sugar palm, 125 130
Stapelia, 110 Suillus, 51 epidermis, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15, 22, 23, 24,
Star anise, 77 Sulfur mushroom, 50
Starch, 3, 13, 24, 36, 37, 39, 40, 55, 57 Sumac, 106 39
Star magnolia, 77 Sundew, 23 ground tissue, 9, 13, 15, 22
Star-of-Bethlehem, 128 Sunflower, 19, 119 hypodermis, 22
Starwort, 87 leaf tissue, 17, 22
Stellaria, 87
Stem, external structure, 14, 15, 40 145

mesophyll, 15, 17, 22, 23, 24 Urocystis cepulae, 49 Weigela, 117
parenchyma, 8, 13, 15, 16, 18, 22, 38, Urophlyctis, 46 Welwitschia, 15, 74
Usneas, 54 West Indian arrowroot, 124
39, 56 Ustilago, 49 West Indian silkwood, 107
pericycle, 9, 13, 17 Utricularia, 23 Wheat, 19, 26, 49, 123
periderm (outer bark), 9, 15, 102 Uvularia, 128 Whisk ferns, 41, 64
phelloderm, 9, 15 White birch, 84
pith, 8, 9, 15, 72, 122 Vaccinium, 97 White campion, 87
root tissue, 13 Vanda, 130 White snakeroot, 119
sclerenchyma, 8, 13, 15, 22, 38 Vanilla, 130 Wild black currant, 98
stem tissue, 15 Varnish tree, 106 Wild buckwheat, 89
transfusion tissue, 22 Vascular bundle (vein), 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, Wild cabbage, 96
vascular tissue, 2, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, Wild calla, 127
22, 23, 24, 25, 99 Wild carrot, 38, 109
18, 22, 37, 42, 63 Vaucheria, 56 Wild mustard, 96
phloem (food-conducting), 8, 9, 11, Velvet-leaf, 90 Williamsonia, 42
Vein, see Vascular bundle Willow, 10, 35, 95
13, 15, 17, 18, 22, 24, 42 Venus’-flytrap, 23 Willow Family, 35, 95
xylem (water-conducting), 2, 8, 9, Veratrum, 128 Wind flower, 80
Verbascum thapsus, 115 Winged wahoo, 102
11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 22, 24, 42 Vernal witch hazel, 81 Wintergreen, 97
Tmesipteris, 43, 64 Veronica, 115 Winter hazel, 81
Tobacco, 34, 111 Verpa, 48 Wishbone flower, 115
Tomato, 3, 4, 111 Vetch, 100 Wisteria, 100
Toothed fungus, 52 Viburnum, 117 Witch hazel, 81
Torch lily, 128 Vicia, 100 Witch Hazel Family, 81
Torenia, 115 Victoria amazonica, 79 Wolffia, 75
Toxicodendron, 106 Viola, 23, 92 Wood, 1, 9, 14, 15, 72, 73, 75
Trachycarpus fortunei, 125 Violaceae, 92 Wood rose, 16, 112
Trachymeme, 109 Violet, 23, 92
Tradescantia, 121 Violet Family, 92 Xanthium strumarium, 26, 119
Translocation, 18 Virginia creeper, 16, 104 Xanthoria, 54
Transpiration, 10, 17 Vitaceae, 104 Xanthosoma, 127
Trebouxia, 54 Vitamin, 24, 92, 123 Xylaria, 48
Tree fern, 67 Vitis (grape), 16, 39, 104 Xylem, 2, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 22, 24,
Tree-mallow, 90 Vivipary, 107
Tremella, 49 Voodoo lily, 127 42
Trifoliate orange, 107
Trifolium, 12, 26, 33, 100 Wafer ash, 107 Yeast, 47
Trillium, 128 Walking fern, 67 Yellow-green Algae, 41, 56
Tripterygium, 102 Walnut bean, 78 Yellow poplar, 77
Triticum (wheat), 19, 49, 123 Wandering Jew, 121 Yellow water lily, 79
Wapato, 120 Yew, 73
aestivum, 26 Washingtonia filifera, 125 Yucca, 15
Tropisms, 20 Water canna, 124 Yulan magnolia, 77
Truffle, 48 Water clover, 70
Tsuga, 73 Water cress, 96 Zamia furfurscea, 71
Tuber, 3, 8, 16, 18, 112, 128, 130 Water fern, 44, 70 Zantedeschia, 127
Tuber, 48 Water hemlock, 109 Zanthoxylum, 107
Tuberous begonia, 12, 93 Water lettuce, 127 Zea mays (corn), 12, 19, 24, 40, 123
Tulip, 128 Water lily, 79 Zebrina pendula, 121
Tulipa, 128 Water Lily Family, 79 Zingiberaceae, 124
Tulip tree, 77 Watermelon, 94 Zingiberales, 124
Turgor pressure, 5, 10, 123 Water-plantain, 120 Zingiberidae, 75
Turkey tail fungus, 52 Water-plantain Family, 120 Zinnia, 119
Twinflower, 117 Water shield, 79 Zoysia, 123
Typhaceae (Cattail Family), 35 Water spangles, 70 Zoysia grass, 123
Wattle, 100 Zygadenus, 128
Ulmaceae (Elm Family), 35, 82 Wax begonia, 93 Zygomycota, 41, 47
Ulmus, 38, 82 Wax-plant, 110 Zygote, 37, 45, 46, 60, 62, 63, 64, 66,
Umbellularia californica, 78 Wayfaring tree, 117
Umbrella plant, 122 67
Umbrella sedge, 122
Umbrella tree, 77
Urginea, 128

146