Handbook of Technical Writing, Tenth Edition ( PDFDrive )

s ss 324  like / as

ss like / as

To avoid confusion between like and as, remember that like is a prepo­
sition and as (or as if ) is a conjunction. Use like with a noun or pro­
noun that is not followed by a verb.
The supervisor still behaves like a novice.
Use as before clauses, which contain verbs.
He responded as we expected he would.
The presentation seemed as if it would never end.
Like and as are used in comparisons: Like is used in constructions that
omit the verb, and as is used when the verb is retained.
He adapted to the new system like a duck to water.
He adapted to the new system as a duck adapts to water.

L listening

Effective listening enables the listener to understand the directions of
an instructor, the message in a speaker’s presentation, the goals of a
manager, and the needs and wants of customers. Above all, it lays the
foundation for productive communication.

Fallacies About Listening

Most people assume that because they can hear, they know how to
listen. In fact, hearing is passive, whereas listening is active. Hearing
voices in a crowd or a ringing telephone requires no analysis and no
active involvement. We hear such sounds without choosing to listen to
them — we have no choice but to hear them. Listening, however, re-
quires actively focusing on a speaker, interpreting the message, and as-
sessing its worth. Listening also requires that you consider the context
of messages and the differences in meaning that may be the result of dif-
ferences in the speaker’s and the listener’s occupation, education, cul-
ture, sex, race, or other factors. See also biased language, connotation /
denotation, English as a second language, and global communication.

Active Listening

To become an active listener, you need to take the following steps:

listening  325

Step 1: Make a Conscious Decision.  The first step to active listening is
simply making up your mind to listen. Active listening requires a con-
scious effort, something that does not come naturally. The well-known
precept offers good advice: “Seek first to understand and then to be
understood.”*

Step 2: Define Your Purpose.  Knowing why you are listening can go a L
long way toward managing the most common listening problems: drift-
ing attention, formulating your response while the speaker is still talk-
ing, and interrupting the speaker. To help you define your purpose for
listening, ask yourself these questions:

• What kind of information do I hope to get from this exchange, and
how will I use it?

• What kind of message do I want to send while I am listening? (Do
I want to portray understanding, determination, flexibility, compe-
tence, or patience?)

• What factors — boredom, daydreaming, anger, impatience — might
interfere with listening during the interaction? How can I keep
these factors from placing a barrier between the speaker and me?

Step 3: Take Specific Actions.  Becoming an active listener requires a
willingness to become a responder rather than a reactor. A responder
is a listener who slows down the communication to be certain that he
or she is accurately receiving the message sent by the speaker. A reac-
tor simply says the first thing that comes to mind, without checking to
make sure that he or she accurately understands the message. Take the
following actions to help you become a responder and not a reactor.

• Make a conscious effort to be impartial when evaluating a mes-
sage. For example, do not dismiss a message because you dislike
the speaker or are distracted by the speaker’s appearance, manner-
isms, or accent.

• Slow down the communication by asking for more information
or by paraphrasing the message received before you offer your
thoughts. Paraphrasing lets the speaker know you are listening,
gives the speaker an opportunity to clear up any misunderstanding,
and keeps you focused.

• Listen with empathy by putting yourself in the speaker’s posi-
tion. When people feel they are being listened to empathetically,
they tend to respond with appreciation and cooperation, thereby
improving the communication.

*Stephen R. Covey, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People: Powerful Lessons in
Personal Change, 15th ed. (New York: Free Press, 2004).

326 lists

• Take notes, when possible, to help you stay focused on what a
speaker is saying. note­taking not only communicates your at-
tentiveness to the speaker but also reinforces the message and helps
you remember it.

Step 4: Adapt to the Situation. The requirements of active listening
differ from one situation to another. For example, when you are lis-
tening to a lecture, you may be listening only for specific information.
However, if you are on a team project that depends on everyone’s con-
tribution, you need to listen at the highest level so that you can gather
information as well as pick up on nuances the other speakers may be
communicating. See also collaborative writing.

lists

Vertically stacked lists of words, phrases, and other items that are often
highlighted with bullets, numbers, or letters can save readers time by
allowing them to see at a glance specific items or key points in a docu-

L ment. Lists also help readers by breaking up complex statements and
by focusing on such information as steps in sequence, materials or
parts needed, questions or concluding points, and recommendations, as
shown in Figure L–7.
As Figure L–7 also shows, you should provide context for a list with
an introductory sentence followed by a colon (or no punctuation for an

Before we agree to hold the software engineering conference at the
Brent Hotel, we need to make sure the hotel can provide the follow-
ing resources:

• Business center with state-of-the-art digital and printing
services

• Main exhibit area that can accommodate thirty 8-foot-by-
15-foot booths

• Eight meeting rooms, each with a podium or table and seating
for 25 people

• Wi-Fi Internet access and digital projection in each room
• Ballroom dining facilities for 250 people with a dais for four

speakers
To confirm that the Brent Hotel is our best choice, we should tour
the facilities during our stay in Kansas City.

FiguRe L–7. Bulleted List in a Paragraph

literature reviews  327
incomplete sentence). Ensure coherence by following the list with some
reference to the list or the statement that introduced it.

WRITER’S CHECKLIST Using Lists L

Follow the practices of your organization or use these guidelines for
consistency and formatting.

Consistency

4 Do not overuse lists or create extended lists or presentation slides
that are dense with lists.

4 List only comparable items, such as tasks or equipment, that are bal-
anced in importance (as in Figure L–7).

4 Begin each listed item in the same way—whether with nouns,
verbs, or other parts of speech — and maintain parallel structure
throughout.

Formatting

4 Capitalize the first word in each listed item, unless doing so is visually
awkward.

4 Use periods or other ending punctuation when the listed items are
complete sentences.

4 Avoid commas or semicolons following items and do not use the
conjunction and before the last item in a list.

4 Use numbers to indicate sequence or rank.

4 Follow each number with a period and start the item with a capital
letter.

4 Use bullets (round, square, arrow) when you do not wish to indicate
rank or sequence.

4 List bulleted items in a logical order, keeping your audience and pur­
pose in mind. See also methods of development and persuasion.

4 When lists need subdivisions, use letters with numbers. See also
outlining.

literature reviews

A literature review is a summary of the relevant publications (printed and
electronic) available on a particular subject over a specified period of
time. For example, a literature review might describe significant mate-
rial published in the past five years on a technique for improving emer-
gency medical diagnostic procedures, or it might describe all reports

328 literature reviews

written in the past ten years on efforts to improve safety procedures at
a particular company. A literature review tells readers what has been
published on a particular subject and gives them an idea of what mate-
rial they should read in full.

Some trade journal articles or academic papers begin with a brief
literature review to bring the reader up to date on current research in the
field. The writer then uses the review as background for his or her own
discussion of the subject. Figure L–8 shows a literature review that serves
as an introduction for an article that surveys the use of visual communi-
cation in the workplace. A literature review also could be a whole docu-
ment in itself. Fully developed literature reviews are good starting points
for detailed research.

Our field’s growing awareness of the centrality of visual communi-
cation to the work of professional writers has given rise to much
of the visually oriented research in pedagogy, rhetoric, and related

L areas within professional communication (see, for example,
Brasseur, 1997; Kostelnick, 1994). Complementing this work, edu-
cators have also been actively developing courses and programs to
help prepare students for the expanded professional roles they will
likely assume. It is not surprising, therefore, that a 2003 survey of
members of the Association of Teachers of Technical Writing
(ATTW) ascertained that teachers of professional writing give
visual communication top billing as a topic of interest (Dayton &
Bernhardt, 2004). However, while visual communication has estab-
lished a firm foothold in professional communication research and
pedagogy (Allen & Benninghoff, 2004), program coordinators and
faculty more generally lack current data about the role of visual
communication in the workplace. Such data could help to deter-
mine whether academic perceptions of the importance of visual
communication are well founded, and, in turn, whether academic
programs are meeting student needs in terms of workplace prepara-
tion. Such data could also provide concrete evidence in arguments
about curricular design and enrich the information educators are
able to offer students about the workplace life of the professional
writer. As professional communication programs continue to mature
and proliferate, such information will become even more useful.

Source: Brumberger, Eva. “Visual Communication in the Work-
place: A Survey of Practice.” Technical Communication Quarterly
16, no. 4 (Autumn 2007): 369–95.

FiguRe L–8. Literature Review

logic errors  329

To prepare a literature review, you must first research published ma- L
terial on your topic. Because your readers may begin their research based
on your literature review, carefully and accurately cite all bibliographic
information. As you review each source, note the scope of the book or
article and judge its value to the reader. Save all printouts of computer-
assisted searches — you may want to incorporate the sources in a bibli-
ography. See also documenting sources.

Begin a literature review by defining the area to be covered and the
types of works to be reviewed. For example, a literature review may
be limited to articles and reports and not include any books. You can
arrange your discussion chronologically, beginning with a description
of the earliest relevant literature and progressing to the most recent (or
vice versa). You can also subdivide the topic, discussing works in various
subcategories of the topic.

Annotated bibliographies are similar to literature reviews because
they provide information to readers about published material. Unlike
literature reviews, however, an annotated bibliography cites each biblio-
graphic item and then describes it in a single block of text. The descrip-
tion (or annotation) may include the purpose of a published work, its
scope, the main topics covered, its historical importance, and anything
else the writer feels the reader should know.

logic errors

Logic is the study of the principles of reasoning. In most writing, es-
pecially in writing intended to persuade an audience, logic is essential
to demonstrating that your conclusions are valid. This entry describes
typical errors in logic that can undermine the point you are trying to
communicate and your credibility. See also persuasion.
v ETHICS NOTE  Many of the following errors in logic, when used to
mislead readers, are unethical as well as illogical. See also ethics in
writing.  v

Lack of Reason

When a statement is contrary to the reader’s common sense, that state-
ment is not reasonable. If, for example, you stated, “New York City is
a small town,” your reader might immediately question your statement.
However, if you stated, “Although New York City’s population is over
eight million, it is composed of neighborhoods that function as small
towns,” your reader could probably accept the statement as reasonable.

s ss 330  logic errors

Sweeping Generalizations

Sweeping generalizations are statements that are too broad or all-
inclusive to be supportable; they generally enlarge an observation about
a small group to refer to an entire population. A flat statement such as
“Management is never concerned about employees” ignores evidence
that many managers are in fact concerned for their employees. Using
such generalizations weakens your credibility.

Non Sequiturs

A non sequitur is a statement that does not logically follow a previous
statement.
I cleared off my desk, and the report is due today.
The missing link in these statements is that the writer cleared his or her
desk to make space for materials to help finish the report that is due
today. In your own writing, be careful that you do not allow gaps in
logic to produce non sequiturs.

L False Cause

A false cause (also called post hoc, ergo propter hoc) refers to the
logical fallacy that because one event followed another event, the first
somehow caused the second.
I didn’t bring my umbrella today. No wonder it is now raining.
Because we now have our board meetings at the Education Center,

our management turnover rate has declined.
Such errors in reasoning can happen when the writer hastily concludes
that two events are related without examining whether a causal connec-
tion between them, in fact, exists.

Biased or Suppressed Evidence

A conclusion reached as a result of biased or suppressed evidence — self-
serving data, questionable sources, purposely omitted or incomplete
facts — is both illogical and unethical. Suppose you are preparing a re-
port on the acceptance of a new policy among employees. If you distrib-
ute questionnaires only to those who think the policy is effective, the
resulting evidence will be biased. Intentionally ignoring relevant data
that might not support your position not only produces inaccurate re-
sults but also is unethical.

loose / lose  331

Fact Versus Opinion

Distinguish between fact and opinion. Facts include verifiable data or
statements, whereas opinions are personal conclusions that may or may
not be based on facts. For example, it is verifiable that distilled water
boils at 100°C; that it tastes better or worse than tap water is an opin-
ion. Distinguish the facts from your opinions in your writing so that
your readers can draw their own conclusions.

Loaded Argumentss

When you include an opinion in a statement and then reach conclusions L
that are based on that statement, you are loading the argument. Con-
sider the following opening for a memo:

I have several suggestions to improve the poorly written policy
manual. First, we should change . . .

Unless everyone agrees that the manual is poorly written, readers may
reject a writer’s entire message because they disagree with this loaded
premise. Conclusions reached with loaded statements are weak and can
produce negative reactions in readers who detect the loading.

WEB LINK    Avoiding Logical Fallacies
Stephen Downes of the University of Alberta provides a guide to
logical fallacies (“Stephen’s Guide to the Logical Fallacies”) that
offers advice on spotting and correcting fallacies in arguments. See
bedfordstmartins.com/alred and select Links for Handbook Entries.

loose / lose

Loose is an adjective meaning “not fastened” or “unrestrained.” (“He
discovered a loose wire.”) Lose is a verb meaning “be deprived of” or
“fail to win.” (“I hope we do not lose the contract.”)

M

malapropisms

A malapropism is a word that sounds similar to the one intended but is
ludicrously wrong in the context.

incorrect Our employees are less sedimentary now that we have a
fitness center.

correct Our employees are less sedentary now that we have a fit-
ness center.

Intentional malapropisms are sometimes used in humorous writing; un-
intentional malapropisms can confuse readers and embarrass a writer.
See also figures of speech.

M

manuals

Manuals (printed or electronic) help customers and technical specialists
use and maintain products. They are often written by professional tech-
nical writers, although in smaller companies, engineers or technicians
may write them. See also instructions and review the entries process
explanation and technical writing style.

Types of Manuals

User Manuals.  User manuals are aimed at skilled or unskilled users of
equipment and provide instructions for the setup, operation, and main-
tenance of a product. User manuals also typically include safety precau-
tions and troubleshooting charts and guides.
Tutorials.  Tutorials are self-study guides for users of a product or sys-
tem. Either packaged with user manuals or provided electronically, tu-
torials guide novice users through the operation of a product or system.
Training Manuals.  Training manuals are used to prepare individuals
for some procedure or skill, such as operating a respirator, flying an
332

manuals  333

airplane, or processing an insurance claim. Training manuals may be
printed or delivered in electronic or online forms.

Operators’ Manuals.  Written for skilled operators of construction,
manufacturing, computer, or military equipment, operators’ manuals
contain essential instructions and safety warnings. They are often pub-
lished in a convenient format that allows operators to use them at a
work site.

Service Manuals.  Service manuals help trained technicians repair
equipment or systems, usually at the customer’s location. Such manuals
often contain troubleshooting guides for locating technical problems.

Special-Purpose Manuals.  Some users need manuals that fulfill special
purposes; these include programmer reference manuals, overhaul man-
uals, handling and setup manuals, and safety manuals.

Designing and Writing Effective Manuals M

Identify and Write for Your Audience.  Will you be writing for novice
users, intermediate users, or experts? Or will you be instructing a com-
bination of users with different levels of technical knowledge and expe-
rience? Identify your audience before you begin writing. Depending on
your audience, you will make the following decisions:

• Which details to include (fewer for experts, more for novices)
• What level of technical vocabulary to use (necessary technical

terminology for experts, plain language for novices)
• Whether to include a summary list of steps (experts will probably

prefer using this summary list and not the entire manual; once
novices and intermediate users gain more skill, they will also prefer
referring just to this summary list)

Design your manual so that readers can use the equipment, software, or
machinery while they are also reading your instructions. See also layout
and design.

• Provide headings and subheadings using words that readers will
find familiar so that they can easily locate particular sections and
instructions.

• Write with precision and accuracy so that readers can perform the
procedures appropriately.

• Use clearly drawn and labeled visuals to show readers exactly what
equipment, online screens, or other items in front of them should
look like.

s 334  manuals

Provide an Overview.  An overview at the beginning of a manual
should explain the overall purpose of the procedure, how the procedure
can be useful to the reader, and any cautions or warnings the reader
should know about before starting. If readers know the purpose of the
procedure and its specific workplace applications, they will be more
likely to pay close attention to the steps of the procedure and apply
them appropriately in the future.

Create Major Sections.  Divide any procedure into separate goals, cre-
ate major sections to cover those goals, and state those goals in the sec-
tion headings. If your manual has chapters, you can divide each chapter
into specific subsections. In a manual for students about designing a
Web page, an introductory chapter might include these subsections:
(1) obtaining Web space, (2) accessing the new space, (3) using a Web
authoring tool.

Use Headings to Indicate the Goals of Actions.  Within each section,
you can use headings to describe why readers need to follow each step
or each related set of steps. The conventional way to indicate a goal in a
heading is to use the infinitive form of a verb (“To scan the document”)
or the gerund form (“Scanning the document”). Whichever verb form
you choose for headings, use it consistently throughout your manual

M each time you want to indicate a goal. The following example shows
how a heading can indicate the goal of a set of actions with the gerund
form of the verb (“Scanning”).
Scanning Documents
Action 1 Place the document in the feeder
Action 2 Check the box below the window for single-page items
Action 3 Click “SCAN” to open the “Scan Manager”

Use the Imperative Verb Form to Indicate Actions.  The previous exam-
ple shows the conventional way to indicate an action by using the im-
perative form of verbs (“Place the document”; “Check the box”). Use
the imperative form consistently each time you want to indicate an ac-
tion. In the example about scanning documents, the manual writer des-
ignated actions by placing subheads (Action 1, Action 2, and so on) in
the left margin and imperative verbs (“Place,” “Check,” and “Click”)
in the instructions to the right of the subheads.

Use Simple and Direct Verbs.  Simple and direct verbs are most mean-
ingful, especially for novice readers. Avoid jargon and terms known
only to experts, unless you know that they constitute the entire reading
audience.

manuals  335

poor verb choice better verb choice

Attempt Try
Depress, Hit Press
Discontinue Stop
Employ Use
Enumerate Count
Execute Do
Observe Watch
Segregate Divide

Indicate the Response of Actions.  When appropriate, indicate the ex-
pected response of an action to reassure readers that they are perform-
ing the procedure correctly (for example, “A blinking light will appear”
or “You will see a red triangle”). Use the form you choose consistently
throughout a set of instructions to designate a response. In the follow-
ing example, you can see how the response is indented farther to the
right than the action, begins with a subhead (“Response”), and is indi-
cated by a full sentence.

Action 3 s Click “SCAN” to open the “Scan Manager”

  Response The “Scan Manager” will open and ask you to
choose “preview,” “scan,” or “help.”

Check for Usability.  To test the accuracy and clarity of your instruc- M
tions, at a minimum ask someone who is not familiar with the sub-
ject to use the manual to spot missing steps or confusing passages. In
most cases, you should conduct systematic usability testing on manual
drafts so that you can detect errors and other problems readers might
encounter.

WRITER’S CHECKLIST Preparing Manuals

4 Determine the best medium for your manual: online document,
CD-ROM, spiral binding, loose-leaf binding, and so on.

4 Pay attention to organization and outlining because complex prod-
ucts and systems need well-organized manuals to be useful to
readers.

4 Use a consistent format and design for each part of a manual: head-
ings, subheadings, goals, actions, responses, cautions, warnings, and
tips.

4 Use standardized symbols, as described in global graphics, especially
for international readers or where regulations require them.
(continued)

336  maps

WRITER’S CHECKLIST Preparing Manuals (continued)

4 Use visuals — such as screen shots, schematics, exploded-view draw­
ings, flowcharts, photographs, and tables — placing them where they
would most benefit readers.

4 Include indexes to help readers find information.
4 Use warning statements and standard symbols for potential dangers,

as described on pages 270–71.
4 Have manuals reviewed by your peers as well as by technical experts

and other specialists to ensure that the manuals are helpful, accu-
rate, and appropriate. See also revision and proofreading.

maps

Maps are often used to show specific geographic areas and features
(roads, mountains, rivers, and the like). They can also illustrate geo-
graphic distributions of populations, climate patterns, corporate branch

M offices, and so forth. The map in Figure M–1, from an environmen-
tal assessment, shows the overlapping geographic areas served by three
electric utilities in Missouri, Iowa, and Illinois. Note that the map con-
tains a figure number and title, scale of distances, key (or legend), com-
pass, and distinctive highlighting for emphasis. Maps are often used in
reports, proposals, brochures, environmental impact statements, and
other documents in which readers need to know the location or geo-
graphic orientation of buildings and other facilities.

WRITER’S CHECKLIST Creating and Using Maps

4 Follow the general guidelines discussed in visuals for placement of
maps.

4 Label each map clearly, and assign each map a figure number if it is
one of a number of illustrations.

4 Clearly identify all boundaries in the map. Eliminate unnecessary
boundaries.

4 Eliminate unnecessary information that may clutter a map. For
example, if the purpose of the map is to show population centers, do
not include mountain elevations, rivers, or other physical features.

maps  337

M

Source: The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

FIGURE M–1.  Map
WRITER’S CHECKLIST Creating and Using Maps (continued)
4 Include a scale of miles/kilometers or feet/meters to give your read-

ers an indication of the map’s proportions.
4 Indicate which direction is north with an arrow or a compass symbol.
4 Emphasize key features by using color, shading, dots, crosshatching,

or other appropriate symbols.
4 Include a key, or legend, that explains what the different colors, shad-

ings, or symbols represent.

338  mathematical equations

WEB LINK    Maps and Mapping Information
The University of Texas Libraries offer a useful site with links to online
maps and other types of mapping and cartographic resources. See
bedfordstmartins.com/alred and select Links for Handbook Entries.

mathematical equations

You can appropriately present mathematical equations and make them
easy to read by following consistent standards throughout a document.
Mathematicians often use scientific software packages to prepare and
format research articles and reports with mathematical equations. Some
scientific journals, in fact, require documents to be written with soft-
ware packages such as LaTeX, Scientific Workplace, AMSTeX, or simi-
lar versions of TeX (www.latex-project.org). Unless you need to follow
such specific styles or specifications, the guidelines in this entry should
serve you well.

M Formatting Equations
Set short and simple equations, such as x(y) = y2 + 3y + 2, as part of the
running text rather than displaying them on separate lines, as long as
an equation does not appear at the beginning of a sentence. If a docu-
ment contains multiple equations, identify them with numbers, as the
following example shows:

x(y) = y2 + 3y + 2 (1)

Number displayed equations consecutively throughout the work. Place
the equation number, in parentheses, at the right margin of the same
line as the equation (or of the first line if the equation runs longer than
one line). Leave at least four spaces between the equation and the equa-
tion number. Refer to displayed equations by number, for example, as
“Equation 1” or “Eq. 1.”

Positioning Displayed Equations

Equations that are set off from the text need to be surrounded by space.
Triple-space between displayed equations and normal text. Double-
space between one equation and another and between the lines of
multiline equations. Count space above the equation from the upper-
most character in the equation; count space below from the lowermost
character.

mathematical equations  339

Type displayed equations either at the left margin or indented five
spaces from the left margin, depending on their length. When a series of
short equations is displayed in sequence, align them on the equal signs.

p(x,y) = sin(x + y) (2)
p(x,y) = sinx cosy + cosx siny (3)
p(x0, y0) = sinx0 cosy0 + cosx0 siny0 (4)
q(x,y) = cos(x + y) (5)
= cosx cosy − sinx siny
q(x0, y0) = cosx0 cosy0 − sinx0 siny0 (6)

Break an equation that requires two lines at the equal sign, carrying the
equal sign over to the second portion of the equation.

0#1 (fn - r-n fn)2 r dr + 2n 0#1fn fndr (7)
= 0#1 (fn - r-n fn)2 r dr + nf n2(1)

If you cannot break an equation at the equal sign, break it at a plus
or minus sign that is not in parentheses or brackets. Bring the plus or
minus sign to the next line of the equation, which should be positioned
to end near the right margin of the equation.

ø(x, y, z) = (x2 + y2 + z2)1/2 (x - y + z) (x + y - z)2 (8) M
- [ f(x, y, z) - 3x2]

The next best place to break an equation is between parentheses or
brackets that indicate multiplication of two major elements.

For equations that require more than two lines, start the first line
at the left margin, end the last line at the right margin (or four spaces to
the left of the equation’s number), and center intermediate lines between
the margins. Whenever possible, break equations at operational signs,
parentheses, or brackets.

Omit punctuation after displayed equations, even when they end a
sentence and even when a key list of defining terms follows (for example,
P = pressure, psf; V = volume, cu ft; T = temperature, °C). Punctuation
may be used before an equation, however, depending on the grammatical
construction.
folloTwhinegtearlmgeb(nra)ricmdaeyvibcee: written in a more familiar way by using the

(n)r = (n)(n - 1)(n - 2) . . . (n – r + 1)(n - r)(n - r - 1) . . . 3 · 2 · 1 (9)
(n - 4)(n - r - 1) . . . 3 · 2 · 1

= n!
(n - r)!

ss 340  maybe / may be

s maybe / may be

Maybe (one word) is an adverb meaning “perhaps.” (“Maybe the legal
staff can resolve this issue.”) May be (two words) is a verb phrase. (“It
may be necessary to hire a specialist.”)

media / medium

Media is the plural of medium and should always be used with a plural
verb.
Many communication media are available today.
The Internet is a multifaceted medium.

meetings

M Meetings allow people to share information and collaborate to produce
better results than exchanges of e-mail messages or other means would
allow. Like a presentation, a successful meeting requires planning and
preparation. See also selecting the medium.
Planning a Meeting
Begin by determining the focus of the meeting, deciding who should at-
tend, and choosing the best time and place to hold it. Prepare an agenda
for the meeting and determine who should take the minutes.
Determine the Purpose of the Meeting.  The first step in planning a
meeting is to focus on the desired outcome by asking questions to help
you determine the meeting’s purpose: What should participants know,
believe, do, or be able to do as a result of attending the meeting?
Once you have your desired outcome in focus, use the information
to write a purpose statement for the meeting that answers the questions
what and why.
The purpose of this meeting is to gather ideas from the sales force
[what] in order to create a successful sales campaign for our new
security scanner [why].

meetings 341

Decide Who Should Attend. Determine first the key people who need
to attend the meeting. If a meeting must be held without some key par-
ticipants, ask those people for their contributions prior to the meeting
or invite them to participate by speakerphone, videoconference, or such
remote methods as described in Digital Tip: Conducting Online Meet-
ings on page 342. Of course, the meeting minutes should be distributed
to everyone, including appropriate nonattendees.

Choose the Meeting Time. Schedule a meeting for a time when all or M
most of the key people can be present. Consider as well other factors,
such as time of day and the length of the meeting, that can influence its
outcome:

• Monday morning is often a time people use to prepare for the
coming week’s work.

• Friday afternoon is often when people focus on completing the cur-
rent week’s tasks.

• Long meetings may need to include breaks to allow participants to
respond to messages and refresh themselves.

• Meetings held during the last 15 minutes of the day will be quick,
but few people will remember what happened.

• Remote participants may need consideration for their time zones.

Scheduling Meetings online

If you are responsible for scheduling meetings, you can simplify
the process by using the advanced features of your organization’s
calendar application or using one of several free online scheduling
tools. For a list of these tools and tips for scheduling meetings more
effectively, go to bedfordstmartins.com/alred and select Digital Tips,
“Scheduling Meetings Online.”

Choose the Meeting Location. Having a meeting at your own loca-
tion can give you an advantage: You feel more comfortable while your
guests are new to the surroundings. Holding the meeting on someone
else’s premises, however, can signal cooperation. For balance, especially

342 meetings

when people are meeting for the first time or are discussing sensitive
issues, meet at a neutral site where no one gains an advantage and at-
tendees may feel freer to participate.

conducting online Meetings
When participants cannot meet face to face, consider holding an
online videoconference. In such meetings, the participants use an
application on their computers to connect with other computers
running the same application. Many of these applications are
free or inexpensive, but all participants will need computers with
high-speed Internet connections and webcams. For a list of software
programs that support videoconferencing and tips for running a
successful videoconference, see bedfordstmartins.com/alred and
select Digital Tips, “Conducting Online Meetings.”

Establish the Agenda. A tool for focusing the group, the agenda is an
outline of what the meeting will address. Figure M–2 shows a typical
agenda. Always prepare an agenda for a meeting, even if it is only an

M informal list of main topics. Ideally, the agenda should be distributed
to attendees a day or two before the meeting. For a longer meeting in
which participants are required to make a presentation, try to distribute
the agenda a week or more in advance.

Design Meeting Agenda

Purpose: To get creative ideas for the CZX software
Date: Wednesday, May 16, 2012
Place: Conference Room E
Time: 9:30 a.m.–11:00 a.m.
Attendees: New Products Manager, Software Engineering Manager and
Designers, Technical Publications Manager, Technical Training
Manager

Topic Presenter Time

CZX Software Bob Arbuckle 9:30–9:45
The Campaign Maria Lopez 9:45–10:00
The Design Strategy Mary Winifred 10:00–10:15
Discussion Led by Dave Grimes 10:15–11:00

FiGUre M–2. Meeting Agenda

meetings  343

The agenda should list the attendees, the meeting time and place,
and the topics you plan to discuss. If the meeting includes presentations,
list the time allotted for each speaker. Finally, indicate an approximate
length for the meeting so that participants can plan the rest of their day.

If the agenda is distributed in advance of the meeting, it should
be accompanied by a cover letter or message informing people of the
following:

• The purpose of the meeting
• The date and place of the meeting
• The meeting start and stop times
• The names of the people invited
• Instructions on how to prepare

Figure M–3 shows a cover message to accompany an agenda.

Assign the Minute-Taking.  Delegate the minute-taking to someone M
other than the leader. The minute-taker should record major decisions
made and tasks assigned. To avoid misunderstandings, the minute-taker
needs to record each assignment, the person responsible for it, and the
date on which it is due.

For a standing committee, it is best to rotate the responsibility of
taking minutes. See also minutes of meetings and note-taking.

Conducting the Meeting

Assign someone to write on a board or project a computer image of in-
formation that needs to be viewed by everyone present.

During the meeting, keep to your agenda; however, create a produc-
tive environment by allowing room for differing views and fostering an
environment in which participants listen respectfully to one another.

• Consider the feelings, thoughts, ideas, and needs of others — do
not let your own agenda blind you to other points of view.

• Help other participants feel valued and respected by listening to
them and responding to what they say.

• Respond positively to the comments of others whenever possible.
• Consider communication styles and approaches that are different

from your own, particularly those from other cultures. See also
global communication.

Deal with Conflict.  Despite your best efforts, conflict is inevitable.
However, conflict is potentially valuable; when managed positively,
it can stimulate creative thinking by challenging complacency and

344 meetings

From: “E. Lauter” <[email protected]>
To: “R. Arbuckle” <[email protected]>,
“D. Grimes” <[email protected]>,
Sent: “M. Lopez” <[email protected]>,
Subject: “M. Winifred” <[email protected]>,
“Design” <[email protected]>
Fri, 11 May 2012
Design Meeting (May 16 at 9:30 a.m.)

Attachments: Meeting Agenda.doc (29 KB)

Purpose of the Meeting
The purpose of this meeting is to get your ideas for our new CZX
software.

Date, Time, and Location
Date: Wednesday, May 16, 2012
Time: 9:30 a.m.–11:00 a.m.
Place: Conference Room E (go to the ground floor, take a right off the

elevator, third door on the left)

Attendees
Those addressed above to attend.

M Meeting Preparation
Everyone should be prepared to offer suggestions on the following
topics:

• Features of the new software
• Techniques for designing the software
• Customer profile of potential buyers
• FAQs—questions customers may ask

Agenda
Please see the attached document.

FiGUre M–3. e­mail to Accompany an Agenda

showing ways to achieve goals more efficiently or economically. See
collaborative writing.

Members of any group are likely to vary in their personalities and
attitudes, and you may encounter people who approach meetings differ-
ently. Consider the following tactics for the interruptive, negative, ram-
bling, overly quiet, and territorial personality types.

• The interruptive person rarely lets anyone finish a sentence and
may intimidate the group’s quieter members. Tell that person in a

meetings  345

firm but nonhostile tone to let the others finish in the interest of M
getting everyone’s input. By addressing the issue directly, you signal
to the group the importance of putting common goals first.
• The negative person has difficulty accepting change and often con­­
siders a new idea or project from a negative point of view. Such
negativity, if left unchecked, can demoralize the group and suppress
enthusiasm for new ideas. If the negative person brings up a valid
point, however, ask for the group’s suggestions to remedy the issue
being raised. If the negative person’s reactions are not valid or are
outside the agenda, state the necessity of staying focused on the
agenda and perhaps recommend a separate meeting to address
those issues.
• The rambling person cannot collect his or her thoughts quickly
enough to verbalize them succinctly. Restate or clarify this person’s
ideas. Try to strike a balance between providing your own inter-
pretation and drawing out the person’s intended meaning.
• The overly quiet person may be timid or may just be deep in
thought. Ask for this person’s thoughts, being careful not to em-
barrass the person. In some cases, you can have a quiet person jot
down his or her thoughts and give them to you later.
• The territorial person fiercely defends his or her group against real
or perceived threats and may refuse to cooperate with members of
other departments, companies, and so on. Point out that although
such concerns may be valid, everyone is working toward the same
overall goal and that goal should take precedence.

Close the Meeting.  Just before closing the meeting, review all decisions
and assignments. Paraphrase each to help the group focus on what
individual participants have agreed to do and to ensure that the min-
utes will be complete and accurate. Now is the time to raise questions
and clarify any misunderstandings. Set a date by which everyone at the
meeting can expect to receive copies of the minutes. Finally, thank every­
one for participating, and close the meeting on a positive note.

WRITER’S CHECKLIST Planning and Conducting Meetings

4 Develop a purpose statement for the meeting to focus your planning.
4 Invite only those essential to fulfilling the purpose of the meeting.
4 Select a time and place convenient to all those attending.
4 Create an agenda and distribute it at least a day or two before the

meeting.
(continued)

346  memos

WRITER’S CHECKLIST Planning and Conducting Meetings (continued)

4 Assign someone to take meeting minutes.
4 Ensure that the minutes record key decisions; assignments; due

dates; and the date, time, and location of any follow-up meeting.
4 Follow the agenda to keep everyone focused.
4 Respect the views of others and how they are expressed.
4 Use the strategies in this entry for handling conflict and attendees

whose style of expression may prevent getting everyone’s best
thinking.
4 Close the meeting by reviewing key decisions and assignments.

memos

Memos are documents that use a standard form (To:, From:, Date:,
Subject:) whether sent on paper or as an attachment to an e-mail. They
may be used within organizations for routine correspondence, short re-
ports, proposals, and other internal documents.

M Even in organizations where e-mail messages have largely taken the
function of memos, a printed or an attached memo with organizational
letterhead can communicate with formality and authority in addition
to offering the full range of word-processing features. Paper memos are
also useful in manufacturing and service industries, as well as in other
businesses where employees do not have easy access to e-mail. For a
discussion of writing strategies for memos, e-mail, and letters, see cor­
respondence. See also selecting the medium.

Memo Format

The memo shown in Figure M–4 illustrates a typical memo format. As
this example illustrates, the use of headings and lists often fosters clar­
ity and provides emphasis in memos. For a discussion of subject lines,
see page 113.
w  PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  As with e-mail, be alert to the practices of ad-
dressing and distributing memos in your organization. Consider who
should receive or needs to be copied on a memo and in what order — 
senior managers, for example, take precedence over junior managers. If
rank does not apply, alphabetizing recipients by last name is safe.  w

Some organizations ask writers to initial or sign printed memos to
verify that the writer accepts responsibility for a memo’s content. Elec-
tronic copies of memos do not include simulated initials.

memos 347

Professional Publishing Services

MEMORANDUM

TO: Barbara Smith, Publications Manager
FROM:
DATE: Hannah Kaufman, Vice President HK
SUBJECT:
April 11, 2012

Schedule for ACM Electronics Brochures

ACM Electronics has asked us to prepare a comprehensive set of brochures M
for its Milwaukee office by August 10, 2012. We have worked with similar
firms in the past, so this job should be relatively easy to prepare. I estimate
that the job will take nearly two months. Ted Harris has requested time and
cost estimates for the project. Fred Moore in production will prepare the
cost estimates, and I would like you to prepare a tentative schedule for the
project.

Additional Personnel
In preparing the schedule, check the status of the following:

• Production schedule for all staff writers
• Availability of freelance writers
• Availability of dependable graphic designers
Ordinarily, we would not need to depend on outside personnel; however,
because our bid for the Wall Street Journal special project is still under
consideration, we could be short of staff in June and July. Further, we have
to consider vacations that have already been approved.

Time Estimates
Please give me time estimates by April 17. A successful job done on time
will give us a good chance to obtain the contract to do ACM Electronics’
annual report for its stockholders’ meeting this fall.

I have enclosed several brochures that may be helpful.

cc: Ted Harris, President
Fred Moore, Production Editor

Enclosures: Sample Brochures

FiGUre M–4. typical Memo Format (printed with Sender’s handwritten initials)

348  methods of development

Additional Pages

When memos require more than one page, use a second-page header
and always carry at least two lines of the body text over to that page.
The header should include either the recipient’s name or an abbreviated
subject line (if there are too many names to fit), the page number, and
the date. Place the header in the upper left-hand corner or across the
page, as shown in Figure M–5.

ACM Brochure Schedule
Page 2
April 11, 2012

Barbara Smith 2 April 11, 2012

M
FIGURE M–5.  Alternative Headers for the Second Page of Memos

WEB LINK    Writing Memos
For links to articles about when to write memos and tips for following
organization protocol, see bedfordstmartins.com/alred and select Links
for Handbook Entries.

methods of development

A logical method of development satisfies the readers’ need for shape
and structure in a document, whether it is an e-mail, a report, or a Web
page. It helps you as a writer move smoothly and logically from the in­
troduction to a conclusion.

Choose the method or, as is often the case, a combination of meth-
ods that best suits your subject, audience, and purpose. Following are
the most common methods, each of which is discussed in further detail
in its own entry.

methods of development  349

• Cause-and-effect method of development begins with either the M
cause or the effect of an event. This approach can be used to de-
velop a report that offers a solution to a problem, beginning with
the problem and moving on to the solution or vice versa.

• Chronological method of development emphasizes the time element
of a sequence, as in a trouble report that traces events as they oc-
curred in time.

• Comparison method of development is useful when writing about
a new topic that is in many ways similar to another topic that is
more familiar to your readers.

• Definition method of development extends definitions with ad-
ditional details, examples, comparisons, or other explanatory
devices. See also defining terms.

• Division-and-classification method of development either separates
a whole into component parts and discusses each part separately
(division) or groups parts into categories that clarify the relation-
ship of the parts (classification).

• General and specific methods of development proceed either from
general information to specific details or from specific information
to a general conclusion.

• Order-of-importance method of development presents informa-
tion in either decreasing order of importance, as in a proposal
that begins with the most important point, or increasing order of
importance, as in a presentation that ends with the most important
point.

• Sequential method of development emphasizes the order of ele-
ments in a process and is particularly useful when writing step-by-
step instructions.

• Spatial method of development describes the physical appearance
of an object or area from top to bottom, inside to outside, front to
back, and so on.

Rarely does a writer rely on only one of these methods. Documents
often blend methods of development. For example, in a report that de-
scribes the organization of a company, you might use elements from
three methods of development. You could divide the larger topic (the
company) into operations (division and classification), arrange the op-
erations according to what you see as their impact within the company
(order of importance), and present their manufacturing operations in the
order they occur (sequential). As this example illustrates, when outlining
a document, you may base your major division on one primary method
of development appropriate to your purpose and then subordinate other
methods to it.

350 minutes of meetings

minutes of meetings

Organizations and committees refer to offi cial records of their meetings
as minutes. Because minutes are often used to record decisions and to
settle disputes, they must be accurate, complete, and clear. When ap-
proved, minutes of meetings are official and can be used as evidence in
legal proceedings. A section from the minutes of a meeting is shown in
Figure M–6.

Keep your minutes brief and to the point. Except for recording for-
mally presented motions, which must be transcribed word for word,
summarize what occurs and paraphrase discussions. To keep the minutes
concise, follow a set format, and use headings for each major point dis-
cussed. See also note­taking.

Avoid abstractions and generalities; always be specific. Refer to ev-
eryone in the same way — a lack of consistency in titles or names may
suggest a deference to one person at the expense of another. Avoid adjec­
tives and adverbs that suggest good or bad qualities, as in “Mr. Sturgess’s

M NORTH TAMPA MEDICAL CENTER

Minutes of the Monthly Meeting
Medical Audit Committee

DATE: June 25, 2012
PRESENT: G. Miller (Chair), C. Bloom, J. Dades, K. Gilley,

D. Ingoglia (Secretary), S. Ramirez
ABSENT: D. Rowan, C. Tsien, C. Voronski, R. Fautier, R. Wolf
Dr. Gail Miller called the meeting to order at 12:45 p.m. Dr. David
Ingoglia made a motion that the June 4, 2012, minutes be approved as
distributed. The motion was seconded and passed.
The committee discussed and took action on the following topics.
(1) TOPIC: Meeting Time

Discussion: The most convenient time for the committee to meet.
Action taken: The committee decided to meet on the fourth Tuesday
of every month, at 12:30 p.m.

FiGUre M–6. Minutes of a Meeting (partial Section)

mixed constructions  351
capable assistant read the comprehensive report to the subcommittee.”
Minutes should be objective and impartial.

If a member of the committee is to follow up on something and re-
port back to the committee at its next meeting, clearly state the person’s
name and the responsibility he or she has accepted.

WRITER’S CHECKLIST Items to Include in Minutes of Meetings

4 The name of the group or committee holding the meeting M

4 The topic of the meeting

4 The kind of meeting (a regular meeting or a special meeting called to
discuss a specific subject or problem)

4 The number of members present and, for committees or boards of
ten or fewer members, the names of those present and absent

4 The place, time, and date of the meeting

4 A statement that the chair and the secretary were present or the
names of any substitutes

4 A statement that the minutes of the previous meeting were ap-
proved or revised

4 A list of any reports that were read and approved

4 All the main motions that were made, with statements as to whether
they were carried, defeated, or tabled (vote postponed), and the
names of those who made and seconded the motions (motions that
were withdrawn are not mentioned)

4 A full description of resolutions that were adopted and a simple
statement of any that were rejected

4 A record of all ballots with the number of votes cast for and against
resolutions

4 The time the meeting was adjourned (officially ended) and the place,
time, and date of the next meeting

4 The recording secretary’s signature and typed name and, if desired,
the signature of the chairperson

mixed constructions

A mixed construction is a sentence in which the elements do not sen­
sibly fit together. The problem may be a grammar error, a logic error,
or both.

352  modifiers

 , why we
s s s sss Because the copier wouldn’t star^t explains called
a technician.

The original sentence mixes a subordinate clause (Because the copier
wouldn’t start) with a verb (explains) that attempts to incorrectly
use the subordinate clause as its subject. The revision correctly uses
the pronoun we as the subject of the main clause. See also sentence
construction.

modifiers

Modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that expand, limit, or make
otherwise more specific the meaning of other elements in a sentence.
Although we can create sentences without modifiers, we often need the
detail and clarification they provide.

without modifiers Production decreased.

with modifiers Glucose production decreased rapidly.

M Most modifiers function as adjectives or adverbs. Adjectives describe
qualities or impose boundaries on the words they modify.

noisy machinery, ten files, this printer, a workstation

An adverb modifies an adjective, another adverb, a verb, or an entire
clause.

Under test conditions, the brake pad showed much less wear than
it did under actual conditions.
[The adverb much modifies the adjective less.]

The redesigned brake pad lasted much longer.
[The adverb much modifies another adverb, longer.]

The wrecking ball hit the wall of the building hard.
[The adverb hard modifies the verb hit.]

Surprisingly, the motor failed even after all the durability and per-
formance tests it had passed.
[The adverb surprisingly modifies an entire clause.]

Adverbs are intensifiers when they increase the impact of adjectives
(very fine, too high) or adverbs (very slowly, rather quickly). Be cau-

modifiers  353

tious using intensifiers; their overuse can lead to vagueness and a result-
ing lack of precision.

Stacked (Jammed) Modifiersss

Stacked (or jammed) modifiers are strings of modifiers preceding nouns
that make writing unclear or difficult to read.
Your staffing-level authorization reassessment plan should result in

a major improvement.
The noun plan is preceded by three long modifiers, a string that forces
the reader to slow down to interpret its meaning. Stacked modifiers
often result from a tendency to overuse buzzwords or jargon. See how
breaking up the stacked modifiers makes the example easier to read.
Your plan for reassessing the staffing-level authorizations should

result in a major improvement.

Misplaced Modifiersss M

A modifier is misplaced when it modifies the wrong word or phrase. Ass
misplaced modifier can cause ambiguity.
We almost lost all of the files.

[The files were almost lost but were not.]
We lost almost all of the files.

[Most of the files were in fact lost.]

To avoid ambiguity, place modifiers as close as possible to the words
they are intended to modify. Note the two meanings possible when the
phrase is shifted in the following sentences:

The equipment without the accessories sold the best.
[Different types of equipment were available, some with and some
without accessories.]

The equipment sold the best without the accessories.
[One type of equipment was available, and the accessories were
optional.]

Place clauses as close as possible to the words they modify.

remote We sent the brochure to several local firms that had four-
color art.

close We sent the brochure that had four-color art to several
local firms.

s ss 354  mood

ss Squinting Modifiers

ss A squinting modifier is one that can be interpreted as modifying either
of two sentence elements simultaneously, thereby confusing readers
about which is intended. See also dangling modifiers.
We agreed on the next day to make the adjustments.

[Did they agree to make the adjustments on the next day? Or on
the next day, did they agree to make the adjustments?]
A squinting modifier can sometimes be corrected simply by changing its
position, but often it is better to rewrite the sentence.
We agreed that on the next day we would make the adjustments.
[The adjustments were to be made on the next day.]
On the next day, we agreed that we would make the adjustments.
[The agreement was made on the next day.]

mood

M The grammatical term mood refers to the verb functions that indicate
whether the verb is intended to make a statement, ask a question, give a
command, or express a hypothetical possibility.
The indicative mood states a fact, gives an opinion, or asks a
question.
The setting is correct.
Is the setting correct?
The imperative mood expresses a command, suggestion, request, or
plea. In the imperative mood, the implied subject you is not expressed.
(“Install the system today.”)
The subjunctive mood expresses something that is contrary to fact
or that is conditional, hypothetical, or purely imaginative; it can also
express a wish, a doubt, or a possibility. In the subjunctive mood, were is
used instead of was in clauses that speculate about the present or future,
and the base form (be) is used following certain verbs, such as propose,
request, or insist. See also progressive tense.
If we were to finish the tests today, we would be ahead of schedule.
The research director insisted that she [I, you, we, they] be the
project leader.

Ms. / Miss / Mrs.  355

The most common use of the subjunctive mood is to express clearly
that the writer considers a condition to be contrary to fact. If the condi-
tion is not considered to be contrary to fact, use the indicative mood.

subjunctive If I were president of the firm, I would change sev-
eral hiring policies.

indicative Although I am president of the firm, I don’t control
every aspect of its policies.

ESL TIPS  for Determining Moodsss

In written and especially in spoken English, the tendency increasingly M
is to use the indicative mood where the subjunctive traditionally has
been used. Note the differences between traditional and contemporarysss
usage in the following examples.

Traditional (formal) use of the subjunctive mood

I wish he were here now.
If I were going to the conference, I would travel with him.
I requested that she show up on time.

Contemporary (informal) use of the indicative mood

I wish he was here now.
If I was going to the conference, I would travel with him.
I requested that she shows up on time.

In professional writing, it is better to use the more traditional
expressions.

Ms. / Miss / Mrs.

Ms. is used in business and public life to address or refer to a woman.
Traditionally, Miss is used to refer to an unmarried woman, and Mrs. is
used to refer to a married woman. Some women may indicate a prefer-
ence for Ms., Miss, or Mrs., which you should honor. If a woman has
an academic or a professional title, use the appropriate form of address
(Doctor, Professor, Captain) instead of Ms., Miss, or Mrs. See also
bia­ sed language.

ss 356  mutual / common

s mutual / common

Common is used when two or more persons (or things) share some-
thing or possess it jointly.
We have a common desire to make the program succeed.
The fore and aft guidance assemblies have a common power

source.
Mutual may also mean “shared” (mutual friend, of mutual benefit), but
it usually implies something given and received reciprocally and is used
with reference to only two persons or parties.
Melek respects Roth, and from my observations the respect

is mutual.
[Roth also respects Melek.]

M

N 

narration N

Narration is the presentation of a series of events in a prescribed
(often chronological) sequence. Much narrative writing explains how
something happened: a laboratory study, a site visit, an accident, the
decisions in an important meeting. See also chronological method of de­
velopment, trip reports, and trouble reports.

Effective narration rests on two key writing techniques: the careful,
accurate sequencing of events and a consistent point of view on the part
of the narrator. Narrative sequence and essential shifts in the sequence
are signaled in three ways: chronology (clock and calendar time), tran-
sitional words pertaining to time (before, after, next, first, while, then),
and verb tenses that indicate whether something has happened (past
tense) or is under way (present tense). The point of view indicates the
writer’s relation to the information being narrated as reflected in the use
of person. Narration usually expresses a first- or third-person point of
view. First-person narration indicates that the writer is a participant, and
third-person narration indicates that the writer is writing about what
happened to someone or something else.

The narrative shown in Figure N–1 reconstructs the chronology of
an early-morning accident of Chicago Transit Authority Green Line train
run 2. This train struck two signal maintainers who were working near
a tower on the section of the Chicago Loop that is above the intersec-
tion of Lake and Wells Streets. The Loop is elevated, and one maintainer
fell from the structure. The investigators needed to “tell the story” in
detail so that any lessons learned could be used to improve safety. To do
that, they recount and sequence events as precisely as possible. The verb
tenses throughout indicate past action: approached, continued, heard,
removed, stopped.

Although narration often exists in combination with other forms
of discourse (description, exposition, persuasion), avoid interrupting a
narrative with lengthy explanations or analyses. Explain only what is
necessary for readers to follow the events. See audience.

357

358 narration

The Accident*
On the morning of the accident, two night-shift signal maintainers were repairing
a switch at tower 18. Between 4:00 and 4:30 a.m., two day-shift maintainers
joined them.1 As the two crews conferred about the progress of the repair, Green
Line train run 1 approached the tower. A trainee was operating the train, and a
train operator/line instructor2 was observing. Both crew members on the train
later stated that they had not heard the control center’s radioed advisory that
workers were on the track structure at tower 18. The line instructor said that as
the train approached the tower with a proceed (green) signal, he observed way-
side maintenance personnel from about 150 feet away and told the trainee to stop
the train, which he did. One of the maintainers gave the train a hand signal to pro-
ceed, and the train continued on its way. Shortly after the train left, the night-shift
maintainers also left.

The day-shift maintainers continued to work. Just before the accident, they
removed a defective part and started to install a replacement. According to both
men, they were squatting over the switch machine. One was facing the center of
the track and attaching wires, while the other was facing the Loop with his back
to the normal direction of train movements. He was shining a flashlight on the
work area.

The accident train approached the tower on the proceed signal. One main-
tainer later said that he remembered being hit by the train, while the other said
that he was hit by “something.” A train operator/line instructor was operating the
train, and a trainee was observing. Both later said that they had not seen any way-
side workers. They said that they had heard noise that the student described as a
“thump” in the vicinity of the accident and caught a “glimpse” of something.

Both maintainers later stated that they had not seen or heard the train as it ap-
proached. After being struck, one of the maintainers fell from the structure. The
other fell to the deck of the platform on the outside of the structure. He used his

N radio to tell the control center that he and another maintainer had been “hit by the
train.” Emergency medical personnel were dispatched to the scene, and an ambu-
lance took both men to a local hospital.
In the meantime, the accident train continued past the tower and stopped at
the next station, Clark and Lake, where the crew members inspected the train
from the platform and found no damage. They continued on their way until they
heard the radio report that workers had been struck by a train. They stopped their
train at the next station and reported to a supervisor.
According to the operator of the accident train, nothing had distracted her
from her duties, and she had been facing forward and watching the track before
the train arrived at tower 18. The trainee supported her account. Both crew
members said that they had not heard the control center’s radioed advisory
that workers were on the track structure at tower 18.
1All times referred to in this report are central standard time.
2Line instructors are working train operators who provide on-the-job training to
operator trainees.
*Source: National Transportation Safety Board, “Railroad Accident Brief:
Chicago Transit Authority, DCA-02-FR-005, Chicago, Illinois, February 26,
2002.” www.ntsb.gov/publictn/2003/RAB0304.htm

FIGURE N–1. Narration from an Accident Report

newsletter articles  359

naturess

Nature, when used to mean “kind” or “sort,” is vague. Avoid this
usage in your writing. Say exactly what you mean.

  exclusionary clause in

The^nature of the contract caused the problem.

needless to say

The phrase needless to say sometimes occurs in speech and writing.
Eliminate the phrase or replace it with a more descriptive word choice.

  Service logs indicate that

^Needless to say, staff reductions have decreased customer loyalty.

newsletter articles N

If your organization publishes a newsletter, you may be asked to con-
tribute an article on a subject in your area of expertise. In fact, an ar-
ticle is a good way to promote your work or your department.

Before you begin to write, consider the traditional who, what,
where, when, and why of journalism (“Who did it? What was done?
Where was it done? When was it done? Why was it done?”) and then
add how, which may be of as much interest to your colleagues as any of
the five w’s. Next, determine whether the company has an official policy
or position on your subject. If it does, adhere to it as you prepare your
article. If there is no company policy, determine your management’s at-
titude toward your subject. See also audience and context.

Gather several fairly recent issues of the newsletter and study the
style and tone of the writing and the approach used for various kinds
of subjects. Understand those perspectives before you begin to work on
your own article. Ask yourself the following questions about your sub-
ject: What is its significance to the organization? What is its significance
to my coworkers? The answers to those questions should help you es-
tablish the style, tone, and approach for your article and also heavily
influence your conclusion.

Research for a newsletter article frequently consists of interviewing
for information. Interview key personnel concerned with your subject.
Get all available information and all points of view. Be sure to give maxi-
mum credit to the maximum number of people by quoting statements
from those involved in projects and naming those who have developed
initiatives. See also quotations.

360  newsletter articles
Figure N–2 shows an article written for Connection, a newsletter

produced by Ken Cook Company and distributed to current and pro-
spective clients. This article describes how the company developed a
print-on-demand technology called media①off ™. Notice that the sidebar
at the right of the page (“Tech Tools”) uses visual elements to draw read­
ers to the article as well as giving them a sense of its content. By describ-
ing this system, the article aims to demonstrate Ken Cook Company’s

Online Solution Speeds Video Delivery

N You’ve probably heard about Google’s Dealers and end users world-wide are teocohls
recent purchase of YouTube for $1.65 now able to download or burn training
billion in a stock-for-stock transaction. videos to DVDs on demand. media off™
YouTube is a popular free video These files can be used to functionality now includes
sharing web site which lets users demonstrate equipment operation,
upload, view, and share video clips. safety awareness, service and the ability to print large
maintenance instructions, sales system schematics as part
In the six short months following its training, as well as marketing and of the one-off production
debut in November 2005, YouTube promotional applications. process. These schematics
was ranked the tenth most popular With the media off™ video file have two delivery options
website by Alexa, the Amazon.com- solution, the costs associated with
owned subsidiary that tracks web warehousing training program VHS, including rolled and
traffic. It’s estimated that 20 million CD or DVD kits no longer exist. shipped in tubes or folded
visitors log on to YouTube each month. There’s no need to forecast the and shipped. Schematics
amount of orders for these materials, and large format images
What the YouTube craze has pay for duplication up-front, or store
demonstrated is the increasing an inventory that may go unused. can be printed in sizes
success and popularity of video Companies that use media off™ ranging all the way up to
content distribution. Leading simply drop their video files, along
manufacturers that maintain a with other support files, onto an ftp 500 feet long.
commitment to continuous site. The system automatically
improvement are also developing identifies and retrieves those files and teocohls
video technology channels of adds them to the web-based
distribution to provide training media off™ bookstore for immediate The new Print On
programs for their employees, dealers acquisition. Files can be updated as Demand (POD) print
and customers. often as needed—even daily—so up- manuals feature utilizes
to-date materials are available 24/7. media off™ to transform
“Equipment Instructors or students/learners can manuals containing
order training kits and materials online oversized & color pages
manufacturers & others at the time of registration and receive into 8.5” x 11” page sizes
can now offer video them the next day, improving delivery
efficiency and reducing wait times. with color pages
libraries, in addition to Dealers also have instant access to automatically converted to
printed/downloadable training video libraries, allowing them black & white patterns. The
text files, on the online to order materials to review service conversion also includes
techniques, view safety practices and
”bookstores hosted by deliver educational lessons converting oversized or
Ken Cook Co. fundamental to the job, with just a large format schematics
click of the mouse. into segmented 8.5” x 11”
Ken Cook Co. realizes this challenge Entertainment’s online video content
and is committed to providing distribution, marked by YouTube’s pages with a preview
solutions that meet customer needs overwhelming success, is gaining layout page. Conversion is
and keep pace with the latest popularity due to its ability to provide performed at the time the
breakthroughs in technology. international access, cost effectiveness
Recognizing that video and animation and maximum customer value. order is placed & allows
clips are an instrumental element in Similarly, for manufacturers and customers to track &
training, the company has updated its other businesses, the Ken Cook Co.
media off™ literature fulfillment media off™ video library solution manage only one file for
system to handle video files for “one- puts training elements, such as video both full color & POD
off” production. and animation files, in the hands of publications.
end-users world-wide, saving time
This means that equipment and eliminating warehousing costs
manufacturers and others can now and achieving best-in-class
offer video libraries, in addition to customer satisfaction.
printed/downloadable text files on
the online bookstores hosted by
Ken Cook Co.

January 2007 www.media1off.com 7

FIGURE N–2.  Newsletter Article

newsletters  361

commitment “to providing solutions that meet customer needs and keep
pace with the latest breakthroughs in technology.”

WRITER’S CHECKLIST Writing Newsletter Articles

4 Write an intriguing title to catch the audience’s attention; rhetorical
questions often work well.

4 Include as many eye-catching photographs or other visuals as ap-
propriate to entice your audience to read the lead paragraph of your
introduct­ ion. See also layout and design.

4 Fashion a lead, or first paragraph, that will encourage further read-
ing. The first paragraph generally makes the transition from the title
to the body of the article.

4 Offer a well-developed presentation of your subject to hold the read-
ers’ interest all the way to the end of the article.

4 Write a conclusion that emphasizes the significance of your subject
to your audience and stresses the points you want your readers to
retain. See emphasis.

4 Follow the steps listed in the Checklist of the Writing Process on
pages xxiii–xxiv as you prepare your newsletter article.

N

newsletters

Newsletters are designed to inform and to create and sustain interest
and membership in an organization. They can also be used to sell prod-
ucts and services. The two main types of newsletters are organizational
newsletters and subscription newsletters.

Types of Newsletters

Organizational newsletters like the one shown in Figure N–3 are sent to
employees, clients, or members of an association to keep them informed
about issues regarding their company or group, such as the develop-
ment of new products or policies or the accomplishments of individu-
als or teams. Stories in organizational newsletters can both enhance the
image and foster pride among employees of the organization’s products
or services. For example, Figure N–3 shows how Ken Cook Company
partners with cutting-edge companies to produce high-quality training
materials.

362  newsletters

February 2008

www.kencook.com

Bobcat Operates from Remote Control

An Operator Controls Bobcat via Radio Remote Control System

N In this issue: By Mike Marks, Senior Introducing an innovative operates the loader.
Technical Writer system for the Bobcat There can also be some
Bobcat Operates from Remote Skid-Steer Loader, the applications where
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 1 I thought that I’d seen it all company launched its operators are exposed to
in my 10 years of Radio Remote Control worksite environment
From the President . . . . .Page 2 developing operator System with a transmitter discomforts created by
training programs for and receiver, for certain the attachments.
The Instructional Design equipment manufacturers. loaders with Selectable
Continuum . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 4 But when I learned what Joystick Controls (SJC) With the Loader Radio
my latest assignment was, and the Bobcat All-Wheel Remote Control System,
Service Training Increases I discovered that it was Steer (AWS) Loader. this same job can be
Competency . . . . . . . . . . .Page 5 unlike anything I had ever done with one operator,
worked on before. Bobcat recognized that controlling the loader
sometimes two people from a distance, free
AEM Standardization: Bobcat Company recently are required for loader from worksite discomforts.
The Importance of partnered with Ken Cook operation when using Though the operator is
Style Guides . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 6 Co. and Video Arts in attachments such as able to physically see
Fargo, North Dakota, to planers and wheel saws: the loader, no one is
Submit Your Expense Reports, create a training one to help guide the sitting inside the cab
OR ELSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 7 curriculum for a full-sized placement of the controlling it.
Radio Remote Control attachment using hand
Bobcat Skid-Steer Loader. signals, while the other (Continued on page 3)

February 2008 www.media1off.com 1

FIGURE N–3.  Company Newsletter (Front Page)

Subscription newsletters are designed to attract and build a reader-
ship interested in buying specific products or services or in learning more
about a specific subject. Subscribers are buying information, and they
expect value for their money. For example, a person with experience in
the stock market could create a financial newsletter and charge subscrib-
ers a monthly fee for the investing advice in that newsletter; a person
who collects movie memorabilia could create an online newsletter that
includes stories about ways to find and sell rare movie posters.

newsletters  363

Developing Newsletters N

Before you begin to develop a newsletter, decide on its specific pur­
pose and the specific audience you will be targeting; then make sure the
newsletter’s appearance and editorial choices create a sense of identi-
fication among the readership. Newsletters often involve collaborative
writing in which different individuals work on design, content, and
project management. See also persuasion. If you are asked to contribute
an article to a newsletter, see newsletter articles.

You will need to acquire a mailing list (names and addresses of your
readers) and decide on the most strategic way to get the newsletter to
these readers (whether through postal mail, interoffice mail, e-mail, or
Web posting). Because it can be time-consuming and technically prob-
lematic to send out hundreds or thousands of online newsletters by your-
self, you may also need to subscribe to an online list-hosting service.*
w  PROFESSIONALISM NOTE  Update your subscriber lists regularly to be
sure you are contacting only those who wish to continue receiving your
newsletter. You risk damaging your reputation and that of your com-
pany if you badger former customers or current clients with unwanted
mail. Include an opt-out waiver with each newsletter sent to afford sub-
scribers the opportunity to remove themselves from your mailing list.  w

Your research should include trade journals, business and technol-
ogy magazines, the Web, and other sources to find specific angles for
the articles that will appeal to your select audience. Attempt to provide
content that your readers will not find elsewhere, for example, by in-
terviewing and profiling customers, association members, or employees.
Check your facts meticulously — newsletter readers are often specialists
in their fields. Because newsletters are often distributed to branches and
clients abroad, see global communication and global graphics. See also
interviewing for information.

As shown in Figures N–2 and N–3, a newsletter’s format should be
simple and consistent, yet visually appealing to your readership. Use the
active voice and a conversational tone. Use headings and bullets to break
up the text and make the newsletter easy to read. Keep your sentences
simple and paragraphs short. See conciseness and layout and design.

Using word-processing, desktop-publishing, or Web-development
software, create newspaper columns and one or two visuals per page
that complement the text. On the front page, identify the organization
and include the date, volume and issue numbers, and a contents box.

*E-mail list-hosting services have their own servers and provide commercial deliv-
ery of premium e-mail that often contains graphic and other digital forms used for
advertising.

364  nominalizations
For Web newsletters, follow the principles of good Web design. See also
layout and design, photographs, and writing for the Web.

nominalizations

A nominalization is a noun form of a verb that is often combined with
vague and general (or “weak”) verbs like make, do, give, perform, and
provide. Avoid nominalizations when you can use specific verbs that
communicate the same idea more directly and concisely.

   indicate
The tissue culture tests will give an indication if the virus
ss is present. ^

  evaluate
The staff should perform an evaluation of the new software.

^

If you use nominalizations solely to make your writing sound more
formal, the result will be affectation. You may occasionally have an
appropriate use for a nominalization. For example, you might use a
nominalization to slow the pace of your writing. See also conciseness,
technical writing style, and voice.

N

none

None can be either a singular or a plural pronoun, depending on the
context. See also agreement.

None of the material has been ordered.sss
[Always use a singular verb with a singular noun; in this
case, “material.”]

None of the clients has been called yet.
[Use a singular verb even with a plural noun (clients) if the in-
tended emphasis is on the idea of not one.]

None of the clients have been called yet.
[Use a plural verb if you intend none to refer to all clients.]

For emphasis, substitute no one or not one for none and use a singular
verb.

We paid the retail price   not one
was worth the money. for three of the machines,^none of which
s

note-taking  365

nor / or

Nor always follows neither in sentences with continuing negation.
(“They will neither support nor approve the plan.”) Likewise, or fol-
lows either in sentences. (“The firm will accept either a short-term or a
long-term loan.”)

Two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor usually take a
singular verb. However, when one subject is singular and one is plural,
the verb agrees with the subject nearer to it. See also conjunctions and
parallel structure.

singular Neither the architect nor the client was happy with the
design.

plural Neither the architect nor the clients were happy with
the design.

singular Neither the architects nor the client was happy with
the design.

note-taking N

The purpose of note-taking is to summarize and record information
you extract during research. The challenge in taking notes is to con-
dense someone else’s thoughts into your own words without distorting
the original thinking. As you extract information, let your knowledge
of the audience and the purpose of your writing guide you. For taking
notes at a meeting, see minutes of meetings.
v ETHICS NOTE  Resist copying your source word for word as you take
notes; instead, paraphrase the author’s idea or concept. If you only
change a few words from a source and incorporate that text into your
document, you will be guilty of plagiarism. See also paraphrasing.  v

On occasion, when an expert source states something that is espe-
cially precise, striking, noteworthy, or that reinforces your point, you
can justifiably quote the source directly and incorporate it into your
document. If you use a direct quote, enclose the material in quotation
marks in your notes. In your finished writing, document the source of
your quotation. Normally, you will rarely need to quote anything longer
than a paragraph. See also documenting sources and quotations.

When taking notes on abstract ideas, as opposed to factual data, do
not sacrifice clarity for brevity — notes expressing concepts can lose their
meaning if they are too brief. The critical test is whether you can under-
stand the note a week later and recall the significant ideas of the passage.
Consider the information in the following paragraph:

366  note-taking

Long before the existence of bacteria was suspected, techniques
were in use for combating their influence in, for instance, the
decomposition of meat. Salt and heat were known to be effective,
and these do in fact kill bacteria or prevent them from multiplying.
Salt acts by the osmotic effect of extracting water from the
bacterial cell fluid. Bacteria are less easily destroyed by osmotic
action than are animal cells because their cell walls are constructed
in a totally different way, which makes them much less permeable.

The paragraph says essentially three things:
1. Before the discovery of bacteria, salt and heat were used to combat

the effects of bacteria.
2. Salt kills bacteria by extracting water from their cells by osmosis,

hence its use in curing meat.
3. Bacteria are less affected by the osmotic effect of salt than are ani-

mal cells, because bacterial cell walls are less permeable.

If your readers’ needs and your objective involve tracing the origin of
the bacterial theory of disease, you might want to note that salt was tra-
ditionally used to kill bacteria long before people realized what caused
meat to spoil. It might not be necessary to your topic to say anything
about the relative permeability of bacterial cell walls.

You should record notes in a way you find efficient. Some find vari-

N ous shareware note and index programs useful. However, jotting notes
on 3 × 5-inch index cards is often more flexible, and the cards are espe-
cially useful for outlining complex and long-term projects.

WRITER’S CHECKLIST Taking Notes

4 Ask yourself the following questions: What information do I need to
fulfill my purpose? What are the needs of my audience?

4 Record only the most important ideas and concepts. Be sure to record
all vital names, dates, and definitions.

4 When in doubt about whether to take a note, consider the difficulty
of finding the source again should you want it later.

4 Use direct or indirect quotations when sources state something that
is precise, striking, or noteworthy or that succinctly reinforces a point
you are making.

4 Give proper credit. Record the author; title; publisher; place; page
number; URL; and date of publication, posting, or retrieval. (On
subsequent notes from the same source, include only the author and
page number or URL.)

nouns  367

WRITER’S CHECKLIST Taking Notes (continued)

4 Use your own shorthand and record notes in a way that you find ef-
ficient, whether in an electronic document or on index cards.

4 Photocopy or download pages and highlight passages that you in-
tend to quote.

4 Check your notes for accuracy against the original material before
moving on to another source.

nouns

directory Collective Nouns  368
Types of Nouns  367 Plural Nouns  369
Noun Functions  368

A noun is a part of speech that names a person, a place, a thing, a con-
cept, an action, or a quality.

Types of Nouns N

The two basic types of nouns are proper nouns and common nouns.
Proper nouns, which are capitalized, name specific people, places, and
things (H. G. Wells, Boston, United Nations, Nobel Prize). See also
capitalization.

Common nouns, which are not capitalized unless they begin sen-
tences or appear in titles, name general classes or categories of persons,
places, things, concepts, actions, and qualities (writer, city, organiza-
tion, award). Common nouns include collective nouns, concrete nouns,
abstract nouns, count nouns, and mass nouns.

Collective nouns are common nouns that indicate a group or col-
lection. They are plural in meaning but singular in form (audience, jury,
brigade, staff, committee). (See the subsection Collective Nouns on page
368 for advice on using singular or plural forms with collective nouns.)

Concrete nouns are common nouns used to identify those things
that can be discerned by the five senses (paper, keyboard, glue, nail,
grease).

Abstract nouns are common nouns that name ideas, qualities, or
concepts that cannot be discerned by the five senses (loyalty, pride,
valor, peace, devotion).

Count nouns are concrete nouns that identify things that can be sep-
arated into countable units (desks, envelopes, printers, pencils, books).

ss s sss s368  nouns

ss Mass nouns are concrete nouns that identify things that cannot be
separated into countable units (water, air, electricity, oil, cement). See
s ss also English as a second language.

Noun Functions

Nouns function as subjects of verbs, direct and indirect objects of verbs
and prepositions, subjective and objective complements, or appositives.
The metal failed during the test. [subject]
The bricklayer cemented the blocks efficiently.

[direct object of a verb]
The state presented our department a safety award.

[indirect object]
The event occurred within the year. [object of a preposition]
A dynamo is a generator. [subjective complement]
The regional manager was appointed chairperson.

[objective complement]
Philip Garcia, the treasurer, gave his report last. [appositive]
Words normally used as nouns can also be used as adjectives and
adverbs.

N It is company policy. [adjective]

He went home. [adverb]

Collective Nouns

When a collective noun refers to a group as a whole, it takes a singular
verb and pronoun.
The staff was divided on the issue and could not reach its decision

until May 15.
When a collective noun refers to individuals within a group, it takes a
plural verb and pronoun.
The staff have returned to their offices after the conference.
A better way to emphasize the individuals on the staff would be to use
the phrase the staff members.
The staff members have returned to their offices after the

conference.

number (grammar)  369

Treat organization names and titles as singular.s
LRM Associates has grown 30 percent in the last three years; it

will move to a new facility in January.

sPlural Nouns

Most nouns form the plural by adding -s (dolphin/dolphins, pencil/pen-ssss N
cils). Nouns ending in ch, s, sh, x, and z form the plural by adding -es.
search/searches, glass/glasses, wish/wishes, six/sixes, buzz/buzzess
Nouns that end in a consonant plus y form the plural by changing the
y to -ies (delivery/deliveries). Some nouns ending in o add -es to form
the plural, but others add only -s (tomato/tomatoes, dynamo/dynamos).
Some nouns ending in f or fe add -s to form the plural; others change
the f or fe to -ves.
cliff/cliffs, cafe/cafes, hoof/hooves, knife/knives
Some nouns require an internal change to form the plural.
woman/women, man/men, mouse/mice, goose/geese
Some nouns do not change in the plural form.
many fish, several deer, fifty sheep
Some nouns remain in the plural form whether singular or plural.
headquarters, means, series, crossroads
Hyphenated and open compound nouns form the plural in the main
word.
sons-in-law, high schools, editors in chief
Compound nouns written as one word add -s to the end (two table-
spoonfuls).

If you are unsure of the proper usage, check a dictionary. See posses­
sive case for a discussion of how nouns form possessives.

number (grammar)

Number is the grammatical property of nouns, pronouns, and verbs
that signifies whether one thing (singular) or more than one (plural) is
being referred to. (See also agreement.) Nouns normally form the plu-
ral by simply adding -s or -es to their singular forms.

370  numberssss

Partners in successful businesses are not always personal friends.s
Some nouns require an internal change to form the plural.
woman/women, man/men, goose/geese, mouse/mice
All pronouns except you change internally to form the plural.
I/we, he/they, she/they, it/they
By adding -s or -es, most verbs show the singular of the third person,
present tense, indicative mood.
he stands, she works, it goes
The verb be normally changes form to indicate the plural.

singular I am ready to begin work.
plural We are ready to begin work.
See also agreement.

numbers

directory

N Numerals or Words  370 Time  372
Plurals  371 Dates  373

Measurements  371 Addresses  373

Fractions  371 Documents  373

Money  371

The standards for using numbers vary; however, unless you are follow-ss
ing an organizational or a professional style manual, observe the fol-
lowing guidelines.

Numerals or Words

Write numbers from zero through ten as words, and write numbers
above ten as numerals.
I rehearsed my presentation three times.
The association added 152 new members.
Spell out numbers that begin a sentence, however, even if they would
otherwise be written as numerals.

ss numbers  371

One hundred and fifty-two new members joined the association.
If spelling out such a number seems awkward, rewrite the sentence so
that the number does not appear at the beginning (“We added 152 new
members”).

Spell out approximate and round numbers.
We’ve had more than a thousand requests this month.
In most writing, spell out small ordinal numbers, which express degree
or sequence (first, second; but 27th, 42nd), when they are single words
(our nineteenth year), or when they modify a century (the twenty-first
century). However, avoid ordinal numbers in dates (use March 30 or
30 March, not March 30th).

Plurals

Indicate the plural of numerals by adding -s (7s, the late 1990s). Form
the plural of a written number (like any noun) by adding -s or -es or
by dropping the y and adding -ies (elevens, sixes, twenties). See also
apostrophes.

Measurements N

Express units of measurement as numerals (3 miles, 45 cubic feet, 9 me-s
ters). When numbers run together in the same phrase, write one as a
numeral and the other as a word.

  12 six-foot tables.

The order was for^12 6-foot tables.

Generally give percentages as numerals and write out the word percent.
(“Approximately 85 percent of the land has been sold.”) However, in a
table, use a numeral followed by the percent symbol (85%).

Fractions

Express fractions as numerals when they are written with whole num-
bers (271/2 inches, 41/4 miles). Spell out fractions when they are ex-
pressed without a whole number (one-fourth, seven-eighths). Always
write decimal numbers as numerals (5.21 meters).

Money

In general, use numerals to express exact or approximate amounts of
money.

ss 372  numbers

s We need to charge $28.95 per unit.
The new system costs $60,000.
ss Use words to express indefinite amounts of money.
The printing system may cost several thousand dollars.
s Use numerals and words for rounded amounts of money over one mil-
lion dollars.
ssss The contract is worth $6.8 million.
Use numerals for more complex or exact amounts.
The corporation paid $2,452,500 in taxes last year.
For amounts under a dollar, ordinarily use numerals and the word cents
(“The pens cost 75 cents each”), unless other numerals that require dol-
lar signs appear in the same sentence.
The business-card holders cost $10.49 each, the pens cost $.75

each, and the pencil-cup holders cost $6.49 each.

ESL TIPS  for Punctuating Numbers
Some rules for punctuating numbers in English are summarized as

N follows:
Use a comma to separate numbers with four or more digits into
groups of three, starting from the right (5,289,112,001 atoms).
Do not use a comma in years, house numbers, zip codes, and page
numbers.
June 2012
92401 East Alameda Drive
The zip Code is 91601-1243.
Page 1204
Use a period to represent the decimal point (4.2 percent,
$3,742,097.43). See also global communication and global graphics.

Time

Divide hours and minutes with colons when a.m. or p.m. follows (7:30
a.m., 11:30 p.m.). Do not use colons with the 24-hour system (0730,
2330). Spelled-out time is not followed by a.m. or p.m. (seven o’clock
in the evening).

s numbers  373

Dates

In the United States dates are usually written in a month-day-year se-
quence (August 11, 2012). Never use the strictly numerical form for
dates (8/11/12) because the date is not immediately clear, especially in
international correspondence.

Addresses

Spell out numbered streets from one through ten unless space is at a
premium (East Tenth Street). Write building numbers as numerals.
The only exception is the building number one (One East Monument
Street). Write highway numbers as numerals (U.S. 40, Ohio 271, I-94).

Documents

Page numbers are written as numerals in manuscripts (page 37). Chap-
ter and volume numbers may appear as numerals or words (Chapter 2
or Chapter Two, Volume 1 or Volume One), but be consistent. Express
figure and table numbers as numerals (Figure 4, Table 3).

Do not follow a word representing a number with a numeral in pa-
rentheses that represents the same number. Doing so is redundant.
Send five (5) copies of the report.

N