2020_An_Introduction_to_Applied_Linguist

388 Index

communicative competence, concept of 5, 20 dialect levelling model 156
communicative language teaching (CLT) 6, 22 Dictionary of the English Language
communicative principle of relevance 77
competence 21 (Samuel Johnson) 3
complexity theory 10 dictionary use 45, 87
comprehensible input 6 direct method 4
computer-assisted language learning discoursal variation 152–153
discourse analysis 8, 55–56; approaches to
(CALL) 7–8
concordance program 100 58–59; corpus linguistics and 68–69; critical
concordances of target words 104 65; implications for pedagogy 69–70; lin-
connectionism 115–116 guistic approaches: Birmingham School
consciousness-raising tasks 30 63–64; systemic functional linguistics
construction grammar 22–23 64–65; sociolinguistic approach 61–63;
construct theory 299 ethnography 62; variation theory 63;
content schemata 227 sociology approach: adjacency pair 60–61;
contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH) 114 conversation analysis 59–61; turn-taking 60;
controlled composition 286 in speaking and writing 56–58, 65–67
controlled processing 115 discourse-based framework, for language
converging pairs 61 teaching 12
conversational implicature 76 discourse community 281
conversation analysis 59–61, 80 discourse grammar 24–25
Conversation Management (CM) dispreferred sequence 61
ditransitive/double object construction 22
approach 198 documentation portfolios 308
Co-operative Principle 76, 78 Dörnyei’s Motivational Self System
core idioms 36 Model 177
corpus/corpora 8, 12 91, 92; compilation drafting 282
dual language environment 129
95–96; computer-based tools, use of 91, Dynamic(al) systems theory 10
92; design 93; issues in 94–95; general
93–94; markup and annotation 96–97; EFL writers 285
specialized 94; spoken 94, 96; tagged 97, electroencephalography (EEG) 130
102; types of corpora 93–94; types of eliciting exchange 64
studies 102–103; word counts and basic e-mail messages 95
corpus tools 97–102 emergentism 28
corpus-based information 104 English as second language 2 see second
corpus linguistics 8, 68, 91 language
teaching, impact on 103–105; natural language (L2) acquisition
language, analysis of 91; overview 91–93; English Language Teaching (ELT) 48, 215
quantitative and qualitative analysis 92–93; English verb-argument constructions 22
and variation in discourse 68–69 see also error analysis 286
corpus; computer-based tools, use of ESL writing 285
Corpus of Contemporary American ethnography 62
English (COCA) 92 Europe-wide language teaching
Council of Europe project 5
courtroom discourse 199–201 system 5–6
covert prestige 154 evaluation portfolios 308
creoles 153 event-related potential (ERP)
critical discourse analysis (CDA) 59, 65
critical linguistics 59 10, 130, 134
cross-cultural pragmatics 84 exchanges 64
executive motivation 177
declarative knowledge 114 Exploring Spoken Language 103
deictic expressions 75 Extensive Reading Foundation 40
deliberate vocabulary learning 41–43 eye-movement studies 10
descriptive grammar 19 eyetracking 134
dialect 148
dialectal variation 152 face model of politeness 78
feedback 31
figuratives 36

Index 389

fluency development 43; the richness approach insecure science 72 see also pragmatics
43; the well-beaten path approach 43 interlanguage 28, 29, 118
interlanguage pragmatics 85
focus-on-form movement 7 International Corpus of Learner English
foreign language writers 285
forensic linguistics 2, 190 (ICLE) 94
formal grammar 21 International English Language Testing
form-focused instruction 32
formulaic language 12, 36 Service (IELTS) 290
formulaic sequences 26, 36 International Journal of Speech, Language
formulas 36
Functional Magnetic Resonance and the Law 190
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
Imaging (fMRI) 10
150, 151
Gardner’s Socio-Educational Model 176 interpersonal function 5
genderlect 154 Investigative forensic linguists 191–194
General Service List of English Words
job interviews 57
(Michael West) 4, 37
generative grammar 21 key word in context (KWIC) 100
generative (transformational) theory of keyword technique 44

grammar 21 L1 acquisition research 2
genre, concept of 62 L2 acquisition research see second language
graded readers 40
grammar: descriptive 19, 20; development of, (L2) acquisition
Lancaster/Oslo–Bergen (LOB) Corpus 92
history of 3–4; discourse 24–25; formal language: assessment 7; competence 5, 8;
versus functional approach 21–23; inter-
connected dimensions of 23, 29; invariant corpus-based analyses of 91 (see also
rules and informal variants 20; learning corpus linguistics); integrative and holistic
27–30; lexicogrammar 26–27; and lexis, approach 11–12; learner 12–13; perfor-
interdependence of 26–27; pedagogical 20; mance 8; processing 9; second 2, 5, 6;
prescriptive 19; spoken and written 25–26; skills 13–14 see also second language
systemic-functional 5; teaching 30–32; (L2) acquisition
three-prong approach 23; traditional 21; language aptitude 166
type versus token 23–24; universal grammar language assessment 7, 294; defined 300–301;
(UG) 5, 28 fundamental issues in 295–296; purpose
grammaring 30 294; washback 305–307
grammar-translation method 4 language assessment literacy (LAL) 312
grammatical competence 21 language asymmetries, in bilingual
gravity model of diffusion 156 switching 139
Grice, Paul 75 language experience, early 140
guessing: learning from 44; training in 44 language history questionnaires 131–132
Language in the Workplace Project (LWP) 87
habit formation, verbal 27 language learner 165; aptitude 166; classifying
Helsinki Corpus 92, 94 strategies 172; learning styles 166–168;
historical corpora 94 pedagogical implications 181–182;
Hong Kong Corpus of Spoken English 94 strategies 168–169
hypercorrection 154 language learning, pre-conscious stages of 10
language-related disorders, research on 2–3
ideational function 5 language threshold 274
idiolect 147 LEAP-Q 131
immersion programs 6 learner, individual characteristics of 13
incidental learning 40 learner errors 31
information processing model 115, 224 learner strategies 13
inhibition, role of in bilingual language learner’s corpus 94
learning grammar 27–30
production 138 learning journals 7
Inhibitory Control Model (ICM) 138 lemma 35
input flooding 30 letter fluency tasks 132

390 Index neuroplastic effects 130
noticing hypothesis 86
lexical bar 49–50 notional syllabuses 22
lexical density, in text 57
lexical patterns, in spoken language 67–68 observer’s paradox 82, 155
lexical phrases 26, 36, 100 one-way listening 225–226
Lexical Quality Hypothesis 271 optical character recognition
lexical variable 152
lexicogrammar 12, 26–27 (OCR) software 96
lexicography 8 outcomes-based assessment 311–312
Lextutor website (Tom Cobb) 47
linguistic analysis 286 paragraph pattern approach 286–287
linguistic annotation 97 part-of-speech tagging 97
linguistic grammars 20 pattern extraction 9
linguistic variable 150 pedagogical grammar 20
listening 40, 223; active 223; difficulty factors peer-assessment 7
peer interaction 30
234–235; ethnographic research 232; Perceptual Assimilation Model (PAM) 135
features of 223–224; one-way 225–226; person deictics 75
passive 223; pedagogic tasks 231; process phrasal variations 152
226–227; repeated 40; skills 228; skills picture naming tasks 132
training 236–237; strategies 229–231; test pidgin languages 153
performances 231–232; theory to practice pie chart 23
233–234; two-way 226 place deictics 75
literals 36 Plato 3
The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Plötz, Karl 4
Written English 100–101, 103 plurilingualism 207
Police and Criminal Evidence Act 197
maxims of conversation 76 politeness maxims 78
meaning-focused input, learning from 39–40 Politeness Principle 78
meaning-focused output, learning from 40–41 portfolios 7; documentation 308; evaluation
meaningful repetition 31
mental grammar 19, 20 308; showcase 308
Meta-cognitive Awareness Listening positive face, and negative face 78
pragmalinguistic perspective, and
Questionnaire (MALQ) 230
MICASE word list 98, 99 sociopragmatic perspective 78
Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken pragmatic competence 21
pragmatics 8, 23, 72–73; assignment of
English (MICASE) 94
models of listening: communication theory reference 74–75; context, role of 80–82;
conversational patterns and structure 80;
model 224; information processing model cross-cultural 84; figuring out what is
224; situated action model 225; social/ communicated directly 75; figuring out
contextual model 224–225 what is communicated indirectly 75–77;
modesty maxim 78 language instruction and pragmatic profi-
monitor theory 6, 113 ciency 85–86; language learning and
monolinguals 128, 129 teaching, role in 84–88; materials and
motivation process 175–176; learners 179–180 methods for pragmatic proficiency 86–88;
Multilingual International Naming Test performance and learner identity 88;
(MINT) 132 pragmatic transfer, possibility of 84–85;
multilingualism 128, 205; educational research 82–84; sample dialogue 73; social
responses to 214; future of 218; language factors, impact of 77–80; task of 74
hierarchies 211; retrospective view 210 preferred sequences 61
preformulated language 36
narrative fragmentation 201 prescriptive grammar 19
Native Language Magnet Theory priming studies 10
processability theory 116
(NLMT) 135 progress grids 7
negative concord 152 project work 7
negotiation, and vocabulary learning 40
neural network models 28
neurolinguistics 14

Index 391

pronunciation: prominence 248; roles/degrees 288–289; paragraph pattern approach
of involvement 249; stress and unstress 286; process approach 287–288
249–250; tone units/chunking 247; self-assessment process 7, 309–310
turn-taking 248 self-motivating strategies 183–184
semantics 23, 73–74
psycholinguistic perspectives 9–10 semantic verbal fluency task 132
psycholinguistics 5, 128–129; bilingual sense relation network sheet 155
sentence-final clauses 25
language selection 138–139; characterizing sentence-initial adverbial clauses 25
variation in language experience 129–131; service encounters 57
cognitive consequences of bilingualism
139–142; dual language activation 132; at Short Introduction to English
lexical level 132–135; at phonological level
135–136; at syntactic level 136–138; Grammar (Robert Lowth) 3
methods to characterize language showcase portfolios 308
experience 131–132; radical
transformation in 128 single language environments 129
public speech 57
situated action model 225
reaction-timing studies 10
reading 259; definition of 260; L1 transfer skilful listeners 230
Social/contextual model 224–225
effects 261–262; L2 and L1 reading center social network 155
264; L2 readers 262; morphological
awareness 272–274; print/extensive social pragmatics 78, 80, 82
274–275; process 260; strategies 275–276
Reading method 4 sociocultural theory 9
recipient design 154 sociolect 147
reference, assignment of 74–75
relevance theory 76 sociolinguistic approaches, to discourse
relexicalization 67, 68
representative corpus 95 analysis 61; ethnography 62; variation
restructuring 115
resulting copulas 105 theory 63
retrospection method 233 sociolinguistics 8, 146–147; applications of
revision process 283
rhetorical schemata 228 160–161; data, collection and analysis 155;
rich instruction 42 data, interpretation of 155–156; definition
rote learning 44 of 146; dialect, accent and language
rule formation 27 planning 148–149; discoursal variation
152–153; grammatical variable 152; idiolect
schema 227 and sociolect 147; issues in 147–155;
Searle, John 77 language loyalty 148; lexical variable 152;
second language (L2) acquisition 5, 6, 28, 111,
linguistic variable 150; linguistic variation
205; behaviourism 113–114; cognitive
psychology 114–115; connectionist 153; models and frameworks, use of
approach 115–116; developmental 156–157; phonological variation 150–151;
sequences 118–119; instruction and prestige and stigmatization 148; social
121–123; interactionist perspectives 117; L1
influence 119–121; learner language factors, and language variation 153 (age)
118–121; linguistic perspectives 112–113; 154 (audience) 154–155 (gender and power)
monitor theory 113; processability 154 (geographical and social mobility) 154
theory 116; psychological perspectives
113–116; sociocultural perspective 117; (identity) 155; social network relations 155;
theories of 111–118; universal
grammar (UG) approach speech communities 149; standard,
112–113 non-standard and codification 147–148;
second language writing: controlled Teesside study 157–160
composition 286; genre-based approach solidarity routines 61
sound segments 250–251
speaking 240; exchange 244–245; genres of
243; issues 241–242; schematic structure
243–244; topic management 246–247
SPEAKING grid 62

speech community 149
speech event 62

Speech Learning Model (SLM) 135

spiral syllabus 31
spoken and written grammar, differences

between 25–26
spoken corpora 94, 96

392 Index

spoken discourse: analysis of 56; informal and validation 301–303
formal 58; and written discourse 56–58, variation theory 63
65–67 verbal fluency tasks 132
vocabulary 35–36; deliberate vocabulary
spoken language, lexical patterns in 67–68
spontaneous speech 56 teaching 42–43; English 48–51; frequency
stakeholders 7 studies, results of 37–39; high-frequency 37,
standardization 147–148 39; knowledge, assessment of: Productive
stimulus-response conditioning 27 Levels Test 46; lexical bar 49–50;
structural syllabus design 22 pre-teaching of 42; purposes of vocabulary
structured observation 7 tests 46; size and language proficiency
switch-cost asymmetry 139 50–51; technical 39; Vocabulary Dictation
syllabus design, influence of models of tests 47; Vocabulary Levels Test 46;
Vocabulary Size Test 47; V_YesNo test 47
grammar on 22 vocabulary learning 39; deliberate
Symposium Organizing Committee 291 learning 41–43; dictionary use 45–46;
syntactic priming 136–137 fluency development activities 43;
syntax 23 guessing from context 44; from meaning-
systemic-functional grammar 5 focused input 39–40; from meaning-focused
systemic functional linguistics (SFL) 59, 64–65 output 40–41; strategies for development of
43–46; what to learn, considerations in
tagged corpus 97, 102 37–39; from word cards 44–45; word
Tagmemics 282 parts, use of 45
target language 4, 27 Vocabulary Control Movement 4
teachability hypothesis 116 vocabulary knowledge 271
technical vocabulary 39
test analysis: correlation 304–305; West, Michael 4
willingness to communicate (WTC) 10
difficulty analysis 303–304; word: cards 41–42, 44–45;
quantitative 303
test conditions 7 high-frequency 37, 43; low-frequency 37, 44
Test of Written English (TWE) 290 word families, counting 35–36
text linguistics 55 see also discourse analysis word list 97–100
textual function 5 word recognition 270
token description 24 word types, counting 35
top-down processing 227 World War II 4
transcription system 96 writing 279; aspect of 279–280; process
turn-taking 60
two-way listening 226 279; revision 283; strategic aspect
type description 23–24 281–283; textual aspect of
283–284
universal grammar (UG) 5, 28, 112–113 written bias 26
untagged corpus 97 written legal language 194–196
urban dialectology 154
use-based ideas 4 zero copula 152
utterance 56, 75 Zipfian profile of language 29