Part: 1 Living like Jesus: A Torah Observant Jew ... - IJFM

PDaelrigthIt:inLgivininGgodlik’seLaJweCsfuors,InacaTrnoartaiohn-aOl WbsitenrevssatnotMJeuswlim: sby Joshua MasseyIslam, Once a Hopeless Frontier, Now?

Introduction

hristian missionaries have a serious problem when trying to pro-
claim good news to devout Muslims. Without major life adjust-
ments, even the most spiritually vibrant among us tend to appear
to orthodox Muslims as unclean pagans, whose devotion is often mistaken
for irreverence toward God. Many of these Muslims would not dare enter a
Christian home lest they become ritually defiled. Missionaries who embrace
contextualization and adjust their diet accordingly may grow a beard and don
local clothes, but the actual practice of their faith often does not always com-
municate holy living to onlooking Muslims. Such missionaries generally do
not pray liturgically in a particular direction, perform ritual ablutions before
prayer, or pray at set times throughout each day. In short, most missionaries to
Muslims, even pro-C4 and pro-C5 workers,1 simply do not live and worship
according to Muslim categories of righteousness, which we typically perceive
as legalistic and works-oriented. As a result, most missionaries ultimately fail
to earn the spiritual respect needed to be effective witnesses among devout
Muslims. This, of course, does not imply that most missionaries fail to earn
the respect of all Muslims, or even the spiritual respect of nominal or less

devout Muslims. The emphasis here is on God-fearing, devout and orthodox

Muslims, whose religious worldview is deeply immersed in ritual purity and

other Islamic categories of righteousness. Ironically, however, these categories

of righteousness are extremely similar to Jewish Torah-observance as prac-

Joshua Massey is a cultural ticed by Jesus and his earliest followers. Therefore, if Gentile missionaries
anthropologist, linguist, and to Muslims begin to live more like Jesus and his apostles lived—like Torah-
missiologist, laboring among Asian observant Jews—we will be far more likely to earn the spiritual respect of
Muslims since 1985. He is currently Muslims, and thereby be more effective messengers of the Gospel.
coordinating the development of
indigenous literature to assist Muslim In order for Gentile Torah-observance to be genuine, and not some kind of
followers of Jesus proclaiming God’s contextual façade or legalistic delusion, we need to take a fresh look at the
Kingdom and making disciples in Asia. role of the Law in the New Covenant, and Gentile freedom to obey it. We
He has published several missiological will be greatly helped in this task by surveying the theological work of several
articles on church planting and Messianic Jewish theologians.
ethnographies on folk-Islamic ritual.

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14 Living Like Jesus, a Torah Observant Jew

Why spend so much time building preeminent rabbinic theologian Christian theology have strayed so far
(i.e., Jesus Christ our Lord) will
a foundation for incarnational living not only help us live incarnation- in this matter of the Law?
ally among Muslims, but it will
on the Torah when Paul’s example help us preach a Gospel with First, we have confused an abuse and
of becoming all things to all men is far Law that truly is good news perversion of the Law (called legalism)
simpler and more than adequate? A to Muslims. A gospel without with the beauty of the Law as God
cursory look at Paul’s example in 1 Cor Law may have been good news intended it. The Psalmist sings of his
9 may suffice for ministry to Gentiles, to Gentiles in the first century love for and delight in the Torah in
but we must go much deeper into who didn’t want to keep the Psalm 119,
Paul’s understanding of the Law if we Law in the first place, but it is
want to minister effectively to peoples not good news to most Muslims, 1. Blessed are those whose way is
whose worldview is dominated by who share a Jewish appreciation blameless, who walk in the law of
divine law and religio-legal catego- of delighting in the Law as “a the LORD!
ries of thought, as is the case with lamp unto our feet and a light unto 18. Open my eyes, that I may behold
both Jewish and Muslim peoples. In our path” (Ps 119:105). A gospel wondrous things out of thy law.
ministry to Muslims then, we need to without Law is to most Muslims 34. Give me understanding, that I may
look less at Paul’s approach to Gentiles, keep thy law and observe it with my
and closely study how he, Jesus and In ministry to Muslims whole heart
all Christ’s apostles lived amongst and we need to look less at 44. I will keep thy law continually, for
ministered to Jews. Paul’s approach to Gentiles, ever and ever;
A better understanding and apprecia- and closely study how 51. Godless men utterly deride me,
tion of the Law is therefore critically he, Jesus and all Christ’s but I do not turn away from thy law.
important for four salient reasons: apostles lived amongst and 53. Hot indignation seizes me because
1) Knowing the difference between ministered to Jews. of the wicked, who forsake thy law.
55. I remember thy name in the night,
legalism and being free to obey O LORD, and keep thy law.
the Law will help prevent the 61. Though the cords of the wicked
inconsistencies of “contextual ensnare me, I do not forget thy law.
chameleons,” whose behav- 70. their heart is gross like fat, but I
ior oscillates according to the delight in thy law.
people they are with at any 72. The law of thy mouth is better to
me than thousands of gold and silver
given moment (e.g., Muslims pieces.
or Christians), often resulting 77. Let thy mercy come to me, that I
may live; for thy law is my delight.
92. If thy law had not been my
in a nagging incongruity that delight, I should have perished in my
can pester missionaries about more akin to antinomianism, a affliction.
their own authenticity, i.e., “if lawless, chaotic existence that 97. Oh, how I love thy law! It is my
my Muslim friends saw me now, demands unbridled freedoms meditation all the day.
might they feel I misled them and eventually results in what 113. I hate double-minded men, but I
to think I live differently than I we see today in the “Christian” love thy law.
actually do?” West: the virtual rebirth of 126. It is time for the LORD to act, for
Sodom and Gomorrah. thy law has been broken.
2) Rooting incarnational witness 136. My eyes shed streams of tears,
in the Law frees a missionary “The Law,” Paul taught “is good if one because men do not keep thy law.
from the occasional discomfort uses it properly” 2 and doesn’t pervert it 142. Thy righteousness is righteous for
of wondering whether or not it into burdensome legalism. How then ever, and thy law is true.
is healthy to adopt Islamic forms are we to understand the Law in order 150. They draw near who persecute
which are ultimately rooted in to use it properly? me with evil purpose; they are far
flawed theology. However, when from thy law.
Torah-observance guides our Understanding the Law 153. Look on my affliction and deliver
personal liturgical practice and me, for I do not forget thy law.
diet (among other things), it “The Law,” according to David 163. I hate and abhor falsehood, but I
becomes clear that we are actu- Stern, author of The Messianic Jewish love thy law.
ally living more like our Lord Manifesto, “is the great terra incognita 165. Great peace have those who
and his Jewish apostles. (the unexplored territory) of Christian love thy law; nothing can make them
theology” (1991:126). Stern maintains stumble.3
3) The Torah provides a much that the church hardly knows what Jesus also made his attitude toward the
firmer foundation to explain to make of the Torah or how to fit it Law crystal clear in Matthew 5:17–18,
our lifestyle adjustments to together with the New Testament, Think not that I have come to abol-
accusing Christians who think then concludes that Gentile ish the law and the prophets; I have
we’ve abandoned the faith or Christianity has gone far astray in its come not to abolish them but to
succumbed to syncretism. understanding of the Law. Therefore, fulfill them. For truly, I say to you, till
according to Stern, the most urgent heaven and earth pass away, not an
4) Fourthly, understanding the Law task of theology today is to correct its
as interpreted by the world’s view of the Law (:125). How could

International Journal of Frontier Missions

iota, not a dot, will pass from the Messiah comes,” the Samaritan woman Joshua Massey 15
law until all is accomplished. said, “ he will explain everything to us” to realize that Jesus is not condemning
Strangely, these verses are often under- (John 4:25 NIV). This same verse in the Law of Moses as such—a law that
stood by Gentile Christians to mean the ancient Aramaic Peshitta makes he too would have regarded as divine
that Jesus did abolish the Law after he this expectation even clearer, “... he will revelation,” (1995:38) retaining its
fulfilled it with a perfect life. However, teach us everything” (Lamsa 1990). And validity till heaven and earth pass away
even a cursory look at this verse makes that is exactly what Jesus did. (Mt 5:18).
it clear that Jesus taught the Torah will As seen in the Sermon on the Mount, This is, in fact, the position of a great
retain its validity “till heaven and earth Jesus’ commentary on the Law didn’t number of Messianic Jews today. The
pass away.” really lower any of its requirements Law of Moses, they say, remains in
Furthermore, no Jew would ever accuse at all; it heightened them. The Law full force today—for Jewish people. This
a rabbi of putting “an end” to the Law simply stated one must not commit was clearly the position of early Jewish
for his very vocation was to teach the adultery; but Jesus taught that if a man Christians, as seen in Acts 21:18-26,
Law. Instead, the Greek terms for merely looks upon a woman with lust where Luke writes,
“abolish” and “fulfill” are technical in his heart, he has already committed
terms in rabbinic argumentation. An it (Mt 5:29). The Law states one must ... Paul went in with us to James; and
accusation of “abolishing” (kataluo) the not commit murder; but Jesus taught all the elders were present. After
Law was levied against one who misin- that anyone who is angry with his greeting them, he related one by one
terpreted it as a poor exegete. The term brother or insults him will be in danger the things that God had done among
“fulfill” (plerosai) implies “to cram full, of hell fire (Mt 5:22). In short, Jesus the Gentiles through his ministry. And
bring to full expression, show forth taught people that the Law is con- when they heard it, they glorified
the intended meaning” (Fischer 1990: cerned with the attitude of our hearts, God. And they said to him, “You see,
23). Therefore, the end of the Law, not just what is acted out in behavior. brother, how many thousands there
as Christians often suppose is being Jesus surely showed contempt for some are among the Jews of those who
discussed, is not at all the issue here. of the Oral Law, also known as the have believed; they are all zealous
Instead, Jesus is saying he has not “tradition of the elders” (Mt 15:2), for the law, and they have been told
come to give yet another misleading which was believed to have been given about you that you teach all the Jews
interpretation of the Torah, but rather by God orally to Moses on Sinai.5 who are among the Gentiles to forsake
to help people understand it fully. According to rabbinic interpretation, Moses, telling them not to circumcise
David Bivin, director of the Jerusalem God enjoined Moses not to record their children or observe the customs.
School of Synoptic Research, has accu- these additional laws, maxims, and What then is to be done? They will
rately paraphrased Jesus’ teaching in explanations of the Written Law, but certainly hear that you have come. Do
Matthew 5:17–18, to deliver them to the people by word therefore what we tell you. We have
“Never imagine for a moment,” Jesus of mouth. They therefore remained four men who are under a vow; take
says, “that I intend to abrogate the unwritten for centuries before finally these men and purify yourself along
Law by misinterpreting it. My intent being recorded in the Mishna at the with them and pay their expenses, so
is not to weaken or negate the Law, beginning of the third century CE. This that they may shave their heads. Thus
but by properly interpreting God’s Oral Law was believed to provide a all will know that there is nothing in
Written Word I aim to establish it, hedge of protection around the Written what they have been told about you
that is, make it even more lasting. I Law. Unfortunately, it sometimes but that you yourself live in observance
would never invalidate the Law by ... missed God’s purpose in the Law and of the law. But as for the Gentiles who
removing something from it through therefore, according to Jesus, hindered have believed, we have sent a letter
misinterpretation. Heaven and earth proper obedience to the Law, e.g., with our judgment that they should
would sooner disappear than some- regarding ritual purity, Corban, and abstain from what has been sacrificed
thing from the Law. Not the smallest Sabbath observance (Mt 5:2–9, 12: to idols and from blood and from what
letter in the alphabet, the yod, nor 2). Jesus also disagreed strongly with is strangled and from unchastity.”
even the decorative spur,4 will ever more than a few halakhic laws (a form Then Paul took the men, and the next
disappear from the Law.” (1983:115) of rabbinic legislation derived from day he purified himself with them and
“Filling” the Law with all the meaning biblical texts) when these, like the Oral went into the temple, to give notice
God intended was actually a com- Law, misinterpreted God’s intention when the days of purification would
monly expected role of the Messiah in in the Law. We should not conclude be fulfilled and the offering presented
Second Temple Judaism, as articulated therefore that all oral and halakhic for every one of them.
by the Samaritan woman at the well. law missed the mark. Indeed, as we For James, the brother of Jesus and
Jews everywhere were arguing whether shall see later, Jesus and his apostles leader of the Jerusalem Council, Paul’s
Shammai or Hillel’s interpretation of fully observed many of these traditions course of action was clear. Paul not only
the Torah was correct. Some favored and extra-biblical laws. Furthermore, had to show Jewish believers that he was
one sage, while others favored another. where Jesus does take issue with oral or Torah-observant, but that he was also
How was the common person to sort halakhic misinterpretations of the Law, still living according to Jewish customs.
out so many divergent views among as Arthur Patzia notes, “it is important Paul’s epistle to Galatians clearly
Torah commentators? “When the taught Gentiles not circumcise their
sons or live according to Jewish
customs. Nevertheless, Gentiles
aren’t Jewish, and need not convert
to Judaism or live like Jews to follow

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16 Living Like Jesus, a Torah Observant Jew

Jesus. The Jerusalem Council had given a Hebrew name, and called a son One can almost hear these believing
already made this clear in Acts 15, as or daughter of Abraham. By contrast, Pharisees put forth their case to James
James reminded us above. However, proselytes of the gate (ger ha-sha’ar) were and the elders:
James knows it is inconceivable that half-converts, also called “God-fear-
Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, ers”, and did not assume Jewish iden- How did the Lord reply to the rich
would teach Jews not to circumcise tity (Ac 10:22, 13:26). These were not young ruler who asked how to
their sons or live according to the baptized, circumcised or required to inherit eternal life? Did Jesus not
Torah. Such baseless slander needed to obey all the Mosaic Law. Instead, they reply that he should ‘keep the com-
be exposed, so Paul did not hesitate to were only required to obey the seven mandments ’?8 Do not the Scriptures
do exactly as James prescribed so many Noahic Laws, which were believed to tell us that Gentiles must first be
thousands of Jewish Christians—all have been given to Noah and therefore circumcised before they celebrate
zealous for the Law—could see that binding upon both Jew and Gentile.7 the Passover with us? As it is writ-
Paul himself was living in observance of These were to abstain from (1) idolatry, ten, ‘No uncircumcised male may
the law (Ac 21:20,24). (2) blasphemy, (3) murder, (4) sexual eat of it .’9 How then can Gentiles
We could add countless biblical exam- immorality, (5) theft, (6) eating a eat the body and drink the blood
ples showing that Jesus, Peter, Paul and portion of a living animal, and (7) to of Christ, our Passover lamb, with-
other apostles remained Torah-obser- establish a legal system administer- out first being circumcised?10 Even
vant throughout their lives (Friedman ing justice and enforcing the prior six if Jesus left room for two kinds of
2001; Young 1995, 1997; Stern 1991), commandments when living in lands converts to Messianic Judaism, why
and more will be mentioned below as where they are not already codified as should Gentiles settle for becom-
we explore how the Law guides us in law. God-fearing Gentiles (i.e., half- ing half-converts when they can
incarnational witness to Muslims. converts) were therefore free to remain delight in and benefit from all of
uncircumcised, eat non-kosher, and do God’s glorious Law? Circumcision is
The Clash of Jewish Missiologies “as they please” on the Sabbath. As you not just Law; it precedes the Law
might imagine, absence of a circumci- by several centuries! It is the sign
However, if Jesus and his apostles sion requirement alone was enough to of God’s covenant with Abraham
remained Torah-observant and insure that the number of God-fearers to bless all nations of the earth!
believed that the Law would retain its far exceeded that of full-proselytes. Why should those nations not also
validity until heaven and earth passed But if Jewish missionary practice carry the same sign of the covenant
away, how then could Christian theol- already had two categories of Gentile in their flesh after they have been
ogy have strayed so far off the path converts, and one was not required to blessed by him who has been given
of exegetical integrity and confused be circumcised and obey all the Mosaic all authority in heaven and on
proper Torah-observance with a Law, why then did these believing earth, who was himself circumcised
perversion of the Law called legalism? Pharisees insist before the Jerusalem on the eighth day according to the
Acts 15:1 reveals the source of an early Council that all Gentiles do so? The Law of Moses?11 God almost struck
conflict that arose between various answer may lie within their under- Moses down when he failed to
Jewish followers of Jesus, “Some men standing of the Great Commission circumcise his son.12 Rabbi Paul, you
came down from Judea and were teaching itself, where Jesus clearly taught that yourself circumcised Timothy before
the brethren, ‘Unless you are circumcised baptism was to be part of discipling all allowing him to journey with your
according to the custom of Moses, you nations (Mt 28:19). Given the two cat- team.13 Why such inconsistency?
cannot be saved.’” Paul and Barnabas egories of proselytes already operational You teach the Law is good if used
took the matter directly to the highest at the time, and the fact that proselyte properly,14 so why should we water
authority, the Jerusalem Council, where baptism was reserved only for full down the expectations for following
“some believers who belonged to the party of converts to Judaism, who were also cir- the Messiah, endorsing a position
the Pharisees rose up, and said, ‘It is neces- cumcised and required to obey all of the that will encourage Gentiles to live
sary to circumcise them, and to charge them Law, it is highly likely that many Jewish without the glorious guiding light
to keep the law of Moses’” (15:5). Christians naturally concluded Jesus of God’s Law? As the Psalmist wrote,
To process what happens next, we need was not interested in making half- ‘Blessed is the man who walks not in
to review some basic Jewish missiology converts to Judaism. Surely, they may the counsel of the wicked, nor stands
during the Second Temple period, have reasoned, Jesus wants Gentiles to in the way of sinners, nor sits in the
before Jesus was born. Jewish mis- enjoy and delight in all of the Law. Did seat of scoffers; but his delight is in
sionaries acknowledged two different he not teach, “Whoever then relaxes one the law of the LORD, and on his law
kinds of Gentile converts. Proselytes of the least of these commandments and he meditates day and night’.15 The
of righteousness (ger tsedeq) were full teaches men so, shall be called least in the Law is no burden; it is a light unto
converts to Judaism, adopted Jewish kingdom of heaven; but he who does them our feet!
identity, were baptized in a miqveh,6 and teaches them shall be called great in the Clearly, there were no easy answers
circumcised if male, and required to kingdom of heaven” (Mt 5:19)? to settle this dispute. “After there had
obey all the Law of Moses. They were been much debate,” Peter reminds them
considered like “a new-born child,” that God fully accepted the Gentiles
who believed, as evidenced by “giving
them the Holy Spirit” (Ac 15:7–8), even
though they had not become Jewish
or submitted to the whole Torah.
Peter then adds another jaw-dropping
statement regarding Jewish identity,

International Journal of Frontier Missions

Joshua Massey 17

“God made no distinction between us and But if eating the meat of strangled ani- tions—the seventh, you will recall,
them” (15:9), showing their distinction mals was forbidden because of blood, is not a prohibition but an injunction
between God-fearers and full-prose- why then is abstinence from blood to establish a legal system to admin-
lytes to be superfluous. Therefore, Peter repeated as a fourth item? In view of
could boldly baptize Gentiles without ister justice. The two omitted by the
the fact that the Greek for blood åima council were theft and blasphemy,
them first becoming Jewish (10:47). (haima) is sometimes used idiomati- which hardly needed mentioning since
cally for murderous “bloodshed,”17 some
James then pronounced the Council’s scholars believe this may be a reference theft was already illegal throughout
final decision on the matter, requiring to murder. Others believe it refers to the empire and blasphemy was rather
Gentile Believers to abstain from (1) the eating of blood, e.g., Greek dishes obvious, even for Gentiles, since “Moses
food polluted by idols, (2) sexual immo- cooked in blood stew. Risking redun- has been preached in every city from the
rality, (3) the meat of strangled animals, dancy, the council may have mentioned earliest times” (Ac 15:21 NIV).
and (4) blood (15:19–20). The first two blood directly because Gentiles unfa- If the Law is indeed still in full force
prohibitions seem clear enough, but the miliar with Torah needed both kinds for Jews today (as many Messianic
third and fourth often require clarifica- of blood cuisine spelled out clearly to Jewish scholars firmly believe), and if
tion for Gentile readers. A common avoid confusion. the Jerusalem Council did not require
Greek delicacy involved roasting an Either way, the Jerusalem Council’s Gentile believers to keep it all, are we
animal which had been killed without ruling helps us see that the apostles to conclude that God still expects Jews
the shedding of blood, usually accom- did not expect Gentile Believers to to keep all of the Torah—as inter-
plished by strangulation or drowning. keep all of the Mosaic Law—oppos- preted by Jesus and his apostles—and
If the blood of an animal does not drain ing Judaizing believers who insisted Gentiles to keep only some of it? A
according to Biblical Law, it congeals in otherwise—but did expect them to growing number of Messianic Jewish
keep some of it. Why? “To keep peace theologians agree that the testimony of
Unquestionably,veins and makes the meat illegal to eat. when fellowshipping with Jews,” is a Scripture does point in this direction.
Gentiles were expectedGod commanded Moses, typical Gentile Christian understand- David Stern, author of the Messianic
Jewish Manifesto and the Jewish New
If any man of the house of Israel or Testament, reminds us,

to keep some of theof the strangers that sojourn among The Jerusalem Council made no
change whatever in the Torah as it
them eats any blood, I will set my face applies to Jews, so that a number
of years later there could still be in
Law, but not all of it.against that person who eats blood, Jerusalem “tens of thousands ” of
Messianic Jews who were “zealots
and will cut him off from among his for the Torah.” 19 It should not
people. For the life of the flesh is in the surprise us if New Covenant Torah
blood; and I have given it for you upon specifies different commandments
the altar to make atonement for your for Jews and Gentiles. The Five
Books of Moses have commands
souls; for it is the blood that makes which apply to some groups and
not others—to the king but not to
atonement, by reason of the life. his subjects, to cohanim (priests)
Therefore I have said to the people of but not to other Jews, to men but
Israel, No person among you shall eat not to women. [Similarly], the New
blood, neither shall any stranger who
sojourns among you eat blood. Any
man also of the people of Israel, or
of the strangers that sojourn among
them, who takes in hunting any beast
or bird that may be eaten shall pour
out its blood…. (Lev 17:10-13)

According to Mosaic Law, eating ing of this ruling, as if we can now Testament too has different com-
blood was illegal for both Jews and enjoy blood sausage and blood stew18 mands for different categories of
Gentiles. The penalty for such an at church pot lucks, especially given people—men and women, husbands
offence would not only result in being the unlikelihood that Jews might visit and wives, parents and children,
“cut off from among his people,” but God on any given Sunday. Unfortunately, slaves and masters, leaders and fol-
himself testifies, “I will set my face this understanding doesn’t explain the lowers, and widows as distinct from
against that person”—a punishment additional command to abstain from other women. (1991:156)
reserved throughout Scripture only sexual immorality. Can we now be
for those who offer their children to sexually immoral if Jews don’t attend Different contexts and parties require
Molech (Lev 20:3), turn to mediums our congregations? Surely not. different laws. Surely the Israelites,
and wizards (20:6), and reject God’s Unquestionably, Gentiles were God’s firstborn among the nations, are
Law or spurn his commandments expected to keep some of the Law, but a unique party in a unique context of
(26:15–17).16 Naturally, with such not all of it. In fact, the Law that the God’s plan for redemptive history.20
severe consequences for both Jewish Jerusalem Council expected Gentiles Therefore, it is not difficult to conceive
and Gentile offenders, the Jerusalem to keep is remarkably similar to that God may desire this “holy, set
Council forbade Gentile believers from the Seven Noahic Laws. If blood is apart nation” to observe unique laws
eating the meat of strangled animals. understood as bloodshed, the council which are not required for all peoples.
To insist otherwise is to disregard the
then affirmed four of the six prohibi- plain meaning of terms like “everlast-
ing” and “forever” which God used

21:1 Spring 2004

18 Living Like Jesus, a Torah Observant Jew

to describe the Israelites’ contractual You shall love the Lord your God with Nazarene Jewish believers in the late
second century appear to have accepted
obligation to, for example, laws of all your heart, and with all your soul,
and with all your mind. This is the the four canonical Gospels as sacred
circumcision and Sabbath.21 great and first commandment. And Scripture, but did not accord Pauline
It is interesting to note which com- a second is like it, You shall love your epistles with similar approval (Bauer
mandments of the Decalogue are miss- neighbor as yourself. On these two 1971:259–260). In short, some Jewish
ing from the Noahic Laws: (1) Honor commandments depend all the law followers of Jesus (though by no means
your father and mother. (2) Do not and the prophets. (Mt 22:37–40) all) seem to have been unable to accept
covet your neighbor’s property or wife. God’s expanded and detailed answer the legitimacy of “Gentile believers.”
(3) Do not bear false witness or give is the entire Law of Moses, a com- Given that the Hebrew term ywg (goy)
false testimony. (4) Keep my Sabbath prehensive extrapolation of these two is sometimes translated in the Bible
day holy by doing no work. Which of great commandments. Would it not be as pagan, sometimes heathen, and
these four commandments are Gentile wonderful to know how God wants to sometimes Gentile, we often have little
Christians exempt from obeying? Is be loved, and how he wants us to love comprehension of just how stigma-
it permissible for Gentile Christians one another? Then meditate on the tized and paradoxical the phrase goyim
to dishonor their parents, covet their Law day and night, especially as taught believers must have seemed to early
neighbor’s wife and property, lie, or Jewish followers of Jesus. Though
profane the Sabbath? There is surely Ebionite Jewish most Bible translators diplomatically
a wide range of Christian opinion Christians rejected Paul render its Greek equivalent as “Gentile
about the Sabbath, coverage of which entirely, accusing him believers” (Ac 15:23, 21:25), it could
would take us far from the focus of this of watering down the just as well have been rendered “pagan”
paper.22 However, few would argue requirements of the Gospel or “heathen believers”—and doubt-
that Gentiles would do well to obey to make it more appealing less would have by some first-century
more of the Mosaic Law than what is Jewish Christians. How else could they
contained in the Seven Noahic Laws, to Gentiles. explain the propensity of Greek believ-
especially laws affirmed by Jesus’ ers to eat blood cuisine?
teaching in the Gospels. by the world’s preeminent rabbinic Interestingly, recent scholarship has
In fact, Gentiles are free to obey as much theologian, Jesus Christ our Lord. As shown that the Judaizers of Scripture
of the Mosaic Law as they like. As long the Psalmist said long ago, “Blessed is may not all have been Jewish followers
as Gentile Christians understand that the man... [whose] delight is in the law of of Jesus, but non-Christian Jews who
they will gain no extra points with God the LORD, and on his Law he meditates preyed upon Gentile believers as easy
day and night” (Ps 1:1–2). converts to Judaism (Nanos 2002).
for self-Judaizing, and they do not allow Whatever the case may be, Scripture
Judaizers and Legalism is clear that some Jews (be they all
their Torah-observance to inhibit fel- followers of Jesus or not) were teaching
lowship with other believers (Gal 2:12), If all Jewish Christians had been that Gentile followers of Jesus needed
they are completely free to delight in all in agreement with the Jerusalem to follow the whole Law to be saved.
of God’s Law because, as Paul wrote, Council, early church history would Paul was quick to correct such legalistic
“the law is holy, righteous and good” (Rom have been different—very different. perversion with very strong language.
7:12), and “the law is good if one uses it Unfortunately, we know the story does
properly” (1 Tim 1:8). not end here. Some Jewish Christians, Under the Law, Works of the
The Law was never meant to save perhaps citing Jesus’ command to Law, Curse of the Law
anyone. Abraham’s righteousness baptize Gentiles, continued to insist
came by faith before he was circum- that Gentiles convert fully to Judaism, In Romans, 1 Corinthians and
cised. Circumcision was merely the be circumcised and required to obey all Galatians, we find ten occurrences of
sign of God’s covenant with him. A of the Law. Ebionite Jewish Christians the phrase “under the law” (upo nomon),
renowned Pharisee of the first century rejected Paul entirely, accusing him ten occurrences of “works of the law”
wrote, “We who are Jews by birth and of watering down the requirements of (erga nomou), and one occurrence of
not ‘Gentile sinners’ know that a man the Gospel to make it more appeal- “curse of the law”. Whatever Paul was
is not justified by observing the law, but ing to Gentiles.23 They also rejected trying to communicate with these
by faith...” (Gal 2:15–16). Justification the Gospels of Mark, Luke and phrases, he clearly believed they had
never came through Torah-observance, John, preferring a Hebrew version of potential to ensnare or deceive. To be
but rather, the Torah is God’s detailed Matthew’s Gospel,24 in addition to the under the law is not to be led by the Spirit
answer to two very crucial questions: Bible Jesus read, the Old Testament. (Gal 5:18). We are justified by faith, not
(1) How does God want to be loved by works of the law (Rom 3:28). And the
by his firstborn among the nations, a curse of the law is something from which
holy priesthood set apart to bless all Christ freed us (Gal 3:13). It may
nations? And (2) how does God want therefore seem that in contrast to Jesus’
them to love their fellow man? God’s teaching on the Law, Paul taught that
concise answer is what Jesus calls the the Law is of little value to us today—as
two greatest commandments,

International Journal of Frontier Missions

many Gentile Christian scholars have The Rise of Christian Joshua Massey 19
concluded. However, such conclusions Anti-Semitism In 135 when Jerusalem was evacuated
are incongruous with Paul’s teaching by Jewish Christians—many flee-
that the law is “holy and just and good ” The issues leading to the rise of anti- ing east beyond the reach of Roman
(Rom 7:12), and that “the law is good if Semitism among early Gentile believers oppression—Christianity essentially
one uses it properly” (1 Tim 1:8). How are complex and disturbing. Emperor lost its center for church authority.
then are we to understand these appar- Hadrian outlawed Judaism and Many Western Gentile Christians later
ent contradictions? expelled all Jews from Jerusalem in 135 alleged this authority shifted to Rome,
David Stern explains that Greek lan- CE after crushing the Second Jewish though both Greek and Aramaic-
guage in Paul’s day had no single term Revolt. After the practice of Judaism speaking Eastern Gentile Christians
like “legalism” to easily distinguish became illegal, living or worshipping in insisted otherwise, as they do today.28
between a proper use of the Law and a way that might appear Jewish became Nonetheless, Western Gentile
its perversion. Therefore, Paul used very dangerous. Gentile Christians Christians were determined to break
creative terms like upo nomon (under therefore began to systematically dependence on the Jewish lunar calen-
the law) and erga nomou (works of the purge the church of any observance or dar by eventually developing their own
law). Unfortunately, literal translations symbol that might look Jewish. This solar calendrical system to calculate
of these phrases do not really help us intentional differentiation from all alternate dates for Passover (renamed
Gentiles understand the vital distinc- things Jewish was understandable for “Good Friday” 29) and the Feast of
tion Paul was trying to make. Though survival, and surely within the rights Resurrection (renamed “Easter”30).
at first, they appear to belittle the Law, of Gentiles who were free to magnify Throughout the second century, all
many modern scholars believe they Christ within the richness of their own churches of Asia Minor continued
are not actually directed against the culture. However, Gentile exercise of to commemorate Christ’s cruci-
Law itself but against its misuse and freedom soon led them to challenge the fixion (called “Passover” by Jewish
abuse.25 In his Jewish New Testament, Apostolic tradition itself, which in turn Christians) on 14 Nisan. According
Stern therefore renders erga nomou paved the way for unsettling develop- to Irenaeus, Polycarp (69–155) left
(works of the law) as “ legalistic obser- ments in Gentile Christian attitudes Asia in 150 to visit Rome, where
vance of particular Torah commands.” toward Jews, Judaism and the Jewish Pope Anicetus tried unsuccessfully
Similarly, he renders upo nomon (under context of the Gospel. to persuade him to relinquish his
the law) as “in subjection to the system Sometime after 135, a dispute broke Quartodeciman Passover observance.
that results from perverting Torah into out at the church in Jerusalem about Polycarp insisted his observance of
legalism.” Stern is convinced that if whether or not to celebrate Jesus’ Passover on 14 Nisan was learned
Bible translators used these renderings crucifixion on 14 Nisan, the eve of directly from the Apostle John himself
in the twenty verses where erga nomou Jewish Passover when paschal lambs (Eusebius, Church History 5:24).
and upo nomon occur, it would radically were slain. Prior to 135, all fifteen Nevertheless, Pope Victor (c. 189-99)
alter Christian theology of Torah for Jewish bishops of the Jerusalem rashly condemned Asian Christians
the better (1991:130). church celebrated Passover with all as heretics for their unwillingness to
Paul writes that “Christ redeemed us other Jews on 14 Nisan (the date of abandon Quartodeciman observance.
from the curse of the law by becom- Jesus’ crucifixion, which didn’t always Latin propensities to break all ties
ing a curse for us” (Gal 3:13). With a fall on “Friday”26), followed by the with Judaism made little sense to most
confused understanding of Torah, it’s Feast of Resurrection on 16 Nisan Eastern Christians. By the fourth
no surprise later Gentiles understood (which similarly didn’t always fall on century Gentile Christians throughout
this to say that the Law was a curse. “Sunday”27). But after the exodus of Syria and Mesopotamia continued to
However, a moment’s reflection on the Jewish Christians from Jerusalem in observe Passover on 14 Nisan, caus-
covenant curses in the Law (Deut 27: 135, some Gentile Christians no longer ing Constantine no small concern
14–30:19) make it clear Paul is teach- wanted to observe Passover on 14 since Easter was then celebrated in
ing that Christ redeemed us from Nisan (also called the Quartodeciman the important city of Antioch on a
the curse pronounced in the Torah Passover), lest they be accused of being different day than in the West—as it
by becoming cursed for us. In other Jewish. Others insisted they should, is today. Nicene efforts to reconcile
words, Christ himself suffered the based on the example and teaching these differences ultimately failed. But
covenant curses so others would not. of the Apostles, later documented in when Eastern bishops were coerced
If all of these New Testament passages Apostolic Constitutions (an apparent at the Council of Antioch (341) to
are so clear, how then could church compilation of apostolic instruction accept the Western system of reckon-
history have failed so miserably to and tradition), which reads, “you shall ing Easter after the spring equinox,
understand the Law properly? not change the calculation of time, but the break from the Jewish calendar
you shall celebrate it at the same time was complete. Good Friday and
as your brethren who came out from Easter became solar dates for Gentile
the circumcision. With them, observe Christians, whereas Passover has
the Passover”(5:17). Who had author- always been lunar for Jews and Jewish
ity to settle such a dispute? Christians—on the fourteenth day of
the new moon of Nisan. Nonetheless,

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20 Living Like Jesus, a Torah Observant Jew

many Messianic Jews today still do not things Jewish as satanic before they “squashed with the truth” of his refuta-
celebrate Jesus’ resurrection according could follow Christ (Parkes 1974: tion (Williams 1987:119). Who among
to a western or eastern solar-reckon- 397). When the christological first-century Jewish followers of Jesus
ing of “Easter”, but by the lunar Sfirat controversies heated up in the fourth could have imagined the irony that lay
Haomer, the Feast of First Fruits century, a common strategy to mock ahead when “orthodox” Gentile church
(sometimes called Yom HaBikkurim) on one’s opponent was to accuse them of fathers would be unable to accept the
16 Nisan (Kasdan 1993:39–47). using “Jewish ideas”. legitimacy of “Jewish believers”?
Concurrent with paschal reckon- The church had become so thoroughly Christian hatred toward Jewish “Christ
ing debates in the second century, purged of its Jewish heritage by the killers” escalated to unbelievable levels,
a strident anti-Semitism began fourth century that many Gentile then became codified in the anti-
to permeate the Gentile church, church fathers believed Jewish follow- Jewish edicts of Emperor Theodosius
albeit gradually and with significant ers of Jesus were not “true Christians.” in 378. Harnack comments,
regional variation. Gentile church In his exhaustive refutation of eighty
fathers—mostly Western—like heresies, Epiphanius of Salamis (315– Such an injustice as that done by the
Tertullian and Hippolytus wrote 403), a bulwark of Nicene theology, Gentile church to Judaism is almost
lengthy polemics entitled “Against the describes fourth-century Nazarenes unprecedented in the annals of his-
Jews” to show their Roman rulers that whom he credits as being heirs of tory. The Gentile church stripped it of
they were upstanding citizens of the first-century Jewish Christianity, everything; she took away its sacred
empire, while Jews persisted in violent but maligns as “nothing but Jews” in book; herself but a transformation
national aspirations and supersti- Panarion 29:7–9, of Judaism, she cut off all connection
tions. Cyprian, John Chrysostom, with the parent religion. The daugh-
Augustine, and many others contin- The Nazarenes are simply complete ter first robbed her mother, and
ued this adversos Judaeos literary tradi- Jews. They use not only the New then repudiated her! (1962:69)
tion in subsequent centuries. Testament but the Old Testament as Sadly, this repudiation continued
The tension between Gentile and well, as the Jews do. They have no for many centuries.32 Hitler need
Jewish Christians wasn’t goaded only different ideas, but confess every- only quote the writings of German-
by ongoing efforts of Judaizers, but thing exactly as the Law proclaims born Martin Luther, father of
also by strong opposition from non- it and in the Jewish fashion—except Protestantism, to sell his holocaust to
Christian Jewish leaders. After vast for their belief in Christ. They German Christians. “What then shall
numbers of God-fearing Gentiles acknowledge both the resurrection we Christians do,” Luther asked, “with
left the synagogues to join Christian of the dead and the divine creation this damned, rejected race of Jews?”
churches, Jewish leaders opposed of all things. They declare that God Luther’s answer still haunts us today:
Christians in open debates. Hebrew- is one, and that his Son is Jesus First, their synagogues or churches
knowing rabbis would often humiliate Christ. They are trained to a nicety should be set on fire. Secondly, their
Gentile Christians who could only use in Hebrew. They are different from homes should likewise be broken
the Greek Septuagint to advance their Jews, and different from Christians. down. Thirdly, their prayerbooks
arguments. Any non-Arabic-know- They disagree with Jews because and Talmuds should be taken from
ing Christian who has tried to use a they have come to faith in Christ; them. Fourthly, their rabbis must be
translation of the Qur’an to evange- but since they are still fettered by forbidden to teach henceforth on
lize an Arab Muslim will understand the Law—circumcision, Sabbath, pain of loss of life and limb. Fifthly,
when I say that Jews were less than and the rest—they are not in accord you ought not, you cannot, protect
impressed with Gentiles quoting a with Christians. Today, Nazarenes them, unless in the eyes of God you
questionable Greek translation of the are found in Beroea, near Coele- want to share all their abomination.
Old Testament to convince them that Syria, in the Decapolis near Pella, Sixthly, they ought to be stopped
Jesus was Messiah.31 But unlike Paul and in Bashanitis at the place called from usury. Seventhly, we ought to
who was willing to be “cursed and cut off Khokhabe in Hebrew. For that was drive the rascally lazybones out of
from Christ” if it could save his Jewish their place of origin, since the disci- our system. To sum up, dear princes
brethren (Rom 9:3), many Gentile ples had settled in Pella after... Christ and nobles who have Jews in your
Christians did not respond to Jewish told them to abandon Jerusalem domains, if this advice of mine does
hostility by “loving their enemies.” and withdraw from it because of not suit you, then find a better one
Ironically, by the third century anti- its coming siege. People like these so that you and we may all be free of
Semitism led Gentile Christians are refutable at once ... they are this insufferable devilish burden—the
to repeat the same errors of early nothing but Jews. Yet they are very Jews. (Pelikan 1962:268)
Judaizers whom Paul loathed so much the Jews’ enemies. The Jewish Elsewhere, Luther wrote, “Therefore,
much. Instead of Judaizing Gentiles, people have a hatred of them. Three dear Christian, be advised and do not
Christians began Gentilizing Jews. times a day they say, “God curse doubt that next to the devil, you have
By the fourth century, Christians the Nazarenes,” for despite their no more bitter, venomous, and vehe-
demanded that Jews renounce all Jewishness, they preach that Jesus is ment foe than a real Jew who earnestly
the Christ. (Williams 1987:117ff) seeks to be a Jew” (1543). Hitler
Epiphanius concludes his description extolled Luther not only as a great
of Nazarenes by likening them to an reformer, but also as a “one of the great
insect, “though small yet still causes warriors in this world who ... [was] pre-
pain with its poison” which he has

International Journal of Frontier Missions

pared to carry the fight for their ideas 50–51; Walls 1996:7–8). However, Joshua Massey 21
and ideals to their end” (1971:213). because the worldview of Muslims is
Naturally, such events and attitudes ultimately Semitic and extremely simi- Dunn, James D. G.
toward the Jewish people and Judaism lar to Hebraic categories of thought, we 1990 Jesus, Paul and the Law: Studies in
greatly affected the way later Gentile may be wise to exercise our freedom by Mark and Galatians. Louisville:
Christians understood the Jewish con- living more like Jesus and his apostles, John Knox Press.
text of Jesus, his apostles, and the New emulating their deep respect for and 1998 The Theology of Paul the Apostle.
Testament. Furthermore, these misun- observance of the Torah. The Law is Grand Rapids: William B.
derstandings were not only reflected in good if one uses it properly (1 Ti 1:8). Eerdmans Publishing Co.
the theology of post-second-century For incarnational ministry to Muslims, 2001 Paul and the Mosaic Law. Grand
Gentile church fathers, but they also I submit, the Law is crying out to Rapids: William B. Eerdmans
inevitably affected countless Gentile be used properly, and truly is, as the Publishing Co.
Bible translations which fail to help the Psalmist wrote, “a lamp unto our feet and 2003 Christology in the Making: A New
reader distinguish between the proper a light unto our path” (Ps 119:105). IJFM Testament Inquiry into the Origins
use of Torah and its perversion. This To be continued in Volume 21:2 of IJFM. of the Doctrine of the Incarnation.
unfortunate reality prompted David Grand Rapids: William B.
Stern, among others, to retranslate Bibliography Eerdmans Publishing Co.
the entire New Testament to “restore
its Jewishness” (1989). It has also Bacchoiocchi, Samuele Fischer, John
prompted a refreshing and vigorous 1977 From Sabbath to Sunday: A Historical 1990 “Jesus and Early Judaism,” Messianic
scholarly quest today for what has Investigation of the Rise of Sunday Outreach 9:4 (Summer 1990).
been termed “the historical Jesus.”33 Observance in Early Christianity.
According to N. T. Wright, whom Rome: The Pontifical Gregorian Friedman, David
Tim Stafford of Christianity Today University Press. 2001 They Loved the Torah. Baltimore:
profiled in 1999 as one of five “new” 1988 Divine Rest for Human Restlessness: A Lederer Books.
theologians (new in the sense of replac- Theological Study of the Good News
ing scholars in top academic positions) of the Sabbath for Today. Berrian Harnack, Adolf (von)
who have something of importance to Springs: Biblical Perspectives. 1962 The Mission and Expansion of
say to the church, Christianity in the First Three
Bauer, Walter Centuries. New York: Harper and
Many Christians have been, frankly, 1971 Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Brothers.
sloppy in their thinking and talking Christianity. Mifflintown: Sigler
about Jesus, and hence, sadly, in Press. Heschel, Abraham Joshua
their praying and in their practice of 1996 The Sabbath. New York: Noonday
discipleship. We cannot assume that Bivin, David and Blizzard, Roy Press.
by saying the word Jesus, still less the 1994 Understanding the Difficult Words of
word Christ, we are automatically Jesus: New Insights From a Hebraic Hitler, Adolf
in touch with the real Jesus who Perspective. Dayton: Center for 1971 Mein Kampf. Translated by Ralph
walked and talked in first-century Judaic-Christian Studies. Manheim. Boston: Houghton
Palestine.... Nor will it do to suggest Mifflin.
that because we have the Gospels Bosch, David J. Online edition: <http://
in our New Testaments, we know 1991 Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts www.hitler.org/writings/Mein_
all we need to know about Jesus. in Theology of Missions. Maryknoll: Kampf/mkv1 ch08.html>
...Christian traditions have often Orbis Books.
radically misunderstood the picture Kasdan, Barney
of Jesus in those Gospels, and only Brenton, Sir Lancelot C. L. 1993 God’s Appointed Times: A Practical
by hard, historical work can we move 1970 The Septuagint Version: Greek and Guide for Understanding and
toward a fuller comprehension of English. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Celebrating the Biblical Holidays.
what the Gospels themselves were Baltimore: Messianic Jewish
trying to say (1999:10). Brown, Michael L. Publishers.
Delighting in the Law then is not to 1992 Our Hands Are Stained with Blood:
be “under the Law” or to submit to its The Tragic Story of the “Church” and Lamsa, George M.
legalistic observance. Both Messianic the Jewish People. Shippensburg: 1990 Holy Bible: From the Ancient Eastern
Jews and Gentile missionaries to Destiny Image Publishers. Text. San Francisco: Harper
Muslims, must, of course, be careful Collins.
not to pervert the Law into legalism. Carson, D. A.
The liberating Gospel of the Kingdom 1999 From Sabbath to Lord’s Day: A Luedemann, Gerd
is meant to permeate every culture Biblical, Historical and Theological 1989 Opposition to Paul in Jewish
and put its worldview to the service of Investigation. Eugene: Wipf and Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress
the Gospel without need to Judaize, Stock Publishers. Press.
Gentilize, or Westernize (Bosch 1991:
Cohn-Sherbok, Dan Luther, Martin
1997 The Crucified Jew:Twenty Centuries 1543 On the Jews and Their Lies. Translated
of Christian Anti-Semitism. Grand by Martin H. Bertram <http:
Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans //www.fordham.edu/halsall/
Publishing Co. basis/1543-Luther-JewsandLies-
full.html>
Cranfield, C. E. B.
1981 Romans (International Critical Massey, Joshua
Commentary) Vol. 2. Edinburgh: T. 2000 “The Amazing Diversity of God
& T. Clark, Ltd. in Drawing Muslims to Christ,”
International Journal of Frontier
Daniélou, Jean Missions 17(1):5–14.
1964 The Theology of Jewish Christianity.
Philadelphia: Westminister Press. Nanos, Mark D.
2002 The Irony of Galatians: Paul’s
Letter in First-Century Context.
Minneapolis: Fortress Press.

Parkes, James
1974 The Conflict of the Church and the
Synagogue. New York: Atheneum.

Patzia, Arthur G.
1995 The Making of the New Testament:
21:1 Spring 2004

22 Living Like Jesus, a Torah Observant Jew

Origin, Collection and Canon. 5 Jesus evidenced strong disagreement 853), James D. G. Dunn (1990:219ff; 1998:
Downers Grove, Illinois: with this rabbinic theory that the entire 140–43,354-66; 2001), and E. P. Sanders
InterVarsity Press. corpus of tradition termed “Oral Law” was (1977:474ff), whom N. T. Wright credits as
Pelikan, Jaroslav (ed.) of Sinaitic origin (Mt 15:6–8), as have many “probably the most influential NT scholar in
1962 Luther’s Complete Works, vol. 47. other Jews based on Deut 4:2. However, the English-speaking world” (1997b:155).
Minneapolis: Fortress Press. according to Jeremiah, God had previously
Poliakov, Leon given specific commands regarding Sabbath 26 Unlike the Julian calendar opera-
2003 The History of Anti-Semitism, Vols observance, commands which are not found tional at the time, Jewish “weekdays” did not
1–3. Philadelphia: University of in the Pentateuch (Jer 17:21–22). Nehemiah have names but numbers, one through seven.
Pennsylvania Press. reports the same (Neh 10:29–31). There-
Sanders, E. P. fore, it may well be that some Oral Law does 27 See previous note.
1977 Paul and Palestinian Judaism. indeed legitimately originate from God, 28 Namely, the Greek Ortho-
Minneapolis: Fortress Press. which would explain why many early Jewish dox Church and the Holy Apostolic
1987 Jesus and Judaism. Philadelphia: Christians continued to obey much of the Catholic Assyrian Church of the East
Fortress Press. Oral Law, alongside Biblical Law. <www.cired.org>.
Stern, David H. 29 Western Gentile Christians empha-
1989 Jewish New Testament. Clarksville: 6 A collection of “living water” (rain, sized the Julian weekday “Friday” on which
Jewish New Testament spring, or running water from a flowing the crucifixion occurred, not the lunar day
Publications. river) for the purpose of immersion for ritual of the Jewish month reckoned significant by
1991 Messianic Jewish Manifesto. purification (Lev 11:36). Jewish and Eastern Gentile Christians due to
Clarksville: Jewish New Testament its proximity to Passover and its theological
Publications. 7 Modern Jewish scholars are divided relation to Jesus’ crucifixion (Joh 1:29, 1 Cor
Travis, John on the date when Noahic Laws gained 5:7).
2000 “Messianic Muslim Followers of prominence in Jewish missiology. Some 30 Space does permit a fuller discus-
Jesus: A Closer Look at C5,” argue these seven laws were formulated sion on the etymology of Easter from Eostre
International Journal of Frontier during the Hasmonean period (166–37 BCE), (Ostara), the Teutonic goddess of the rising
Missions 17(1):53–59. while others assert they originated in ancient sun, or from aster, the Greek for “star” in Rev-
Walls, Andrew F. Hittite law (Werblowsky 1997:504). elation 22:16. However, the growing anti-
1996 The Missionary Movement in Jewish climate of the day and the potential
Christian History: Studies in the 8 Mt 19:16–17. for “contextual” wordplay surely would have
Transmission of Faith. Maryknoll: 9 Ex 12:48. contributed to its perceived suitability among
Orbis Books. 10 Joh 6:53–56; 1 Cor 5:7, 11:27. Gentile Christians eager to differentiate their
Werblowsky, R. J. Zwi 11 Mt 28:18; Lk 2:21. faith from Judaism.
1997 The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish 12 Ex 4:24–26. 31 Given widespread acknowledgement
Religion. New York: Oxford 13 Ac 16:3. that the quality of translation in the Septua-
University Press. 14 1 Tim 1:8. gint was sorely lacking in many texts, three
Williams, Frank (trans.) 15 Ps 1:1–2. new Greek translations of the Old Testament
1997 The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, 16 cf. Jer 21:10, 44:11. were done in the second century CE—two by
Book 1. New York: Brill Academic 17 e.g., Mt 23:30, 27:6; Rev 19:2. Ebionite Jewish Christians, Symmachus and
Publishers. 18 Dinuguan, for example, is a Filipino Theodotion, and one by a non-Christian Jew
Wright, N. T. delicacy of cow intestines cooked in blood stew. named Aquila (Brenton 1970:v).
1992 The New Testament and the People of 19 Ac 21:20, Jewish New Testament. 32 For the sordid details of Christian
God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. 20 Ex 4:22. anti-Semitism over the centuries, see the
1997a Jesus and the Victory of God. 21 Gen 17:12–13; Ex 12:17, 31:16. work of Dan Cohn-Sherbok (1997), Michael
Minneapolis: Fortress Press. 22 Several excellent studies of the Brown (1992), and the voluminous work of
1997b The Original Jesus. Grand Rapids: Sabbath deserve review (Bacchoiocchi 1977, Leon Poliakov (2003).
Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 1988; Carson 1999; Heschel 1996). 33 In addition to the formidable work
1999 The Challenge of Jesus: Rediscovering 23 See Jean Daniélou’s classic work on of N. T. Wright (1992, 1997a), see E. P.
Who Jesus Was and Is. Downers Ebionites (1964:55–64), as well as Gerd Sanders’ celebrated volume, Jesus and Judaism
Grove: InterVarsity Press. Luedemann’s Opposition to Paul in Jewish (1987), and James D. G. Dunn’s phenomenal
Young, Brad H. Christianity (1989). study, Christology in the Making: A New Testa-
1995 Jesus the Jewish Theologian. Peabody: 24 Some scholars assert that the Gos- ment Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine
Hendrickson Publishers. pels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and Acts were of the Incarnation (2003), about which
1997 Paul the Jewish Theologian. Peabody: in fact originally written in Hebrew, then Christianity Today said, “This book needs to
Hendrickson Publishers. immediately translated into Greek (Bivin be read. Dunn combines immense erudition
1994:1–65). Still others have insisted for with deep Christian commitment. Those
Footnotes centuries that the entire New Testament was who would correct Dunn have their work cut
1 “Pro-C4” and “pro-C5” refer to originally written in Aramaic, the language out for them.”
missionaries who favor the use of biblically spoken by Jesus and his apostles, and that
permissible Islamic forms by “C4” Muslim many discrepancies in Greek manuscripts are
background believers and “C5” Muslim a consequence of their being translations of
followers of Jesus (cf. Massey 2000; Travis the Aramaic originals, preserved today in the
2000). ancient Peshitta text (Lamsa 1990:ii,vi).
25 See the stimulating work of David
2 1 Tim 1:8 NIV. Stern (1991:129ff), C. E. B. Cranfield (1981:
3 All biblical citations are from the
RSV, unless otherwise noted.
4 The tittle of the yod is the small point
projecting from its upper edge.
International Journal of Frontier Missions