BiologyForAll_Y12Final

STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY SUB-STRAND 3.1: DIVERSITY OF LIVING
THINGS/ORGANISMS

ACHIEVEMENT INDICATORS

At the end of this sub-strand, students should be able to:
 Research and present on the history of the different classification systems.
 Study the taxonomic rank of organisms in the three-domain and 6 kingdom system of

taxonomy.
 Describe the three characteristics used to place organisms into domains.

BI 12.3.1.1 TAXONOMY STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY

In Chapter 3 of the Year 11 Course book, you learnt about Taxonomy which categorizes all living
things into one of the Kingdoms based on their similarities. This Year we will briefly study the
history of taxonomy and its applications.

 Classifying organisms into some type of group is known Carolus Linnaeus (1707- 1778)
as taxonomy.

 The taxonomic system was first developed by Carolus
(Carl) Linneaeus.

 He identified and differentiated organisms based on
physical characteristics that were common to each species.

 When Linneaeus first developed this classification system
in year 1735 there were only 2 kingdoms: Animalia and
Plantae.

 Within each kingdom, he then grouped the organisms into
Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.

Source: www.radiolab.org

 As microscopes got developed more different types of
organisms were observed and it was quickly realized that there are organisms which do not fit
the descriptions of either Animalia or Plantae.

 This is when Thomas Whittaker’s (1969) 5 Kingdom system got widely accepted and was
used. The Animalia and Plantae remained the same; the three additional kingdoms added
were: Monera (bacteria), Protista, and Fungi.

 While classifying, Whittaker first specified whether the organisms possessed a true nucleus
(eukaryotic) or not (prokaryotic). The classification method used then was:

 Kingdom Monera- prokaryotic and unicellular organisms.
 Kingdom Protista- eukaryotic unicellular organisms.
 Kingdom Plantae- eukaryotic, autotrophic organisms.
 Kingdom Animalia- eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms.
 Kingdom Fungi- eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms which unlike animals break down

large organic molecules in their environment by secreting enzymes (saprophytes).

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Monera
Protista

5 Kingdoms Plantae Fungi
e

Animalia

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STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY  With more advance technology such as development of DNA sequencing, electron microscopes
etc; the biologists discovered that there were unicellular prokaryotic cells which differed
extremely from the bacteria.

 These organisms had the ability to survive in hot springs, ice lands and other harsh
environments.

 Upon these discoveries, Carl Woese proposed a reorganization of the five kingdom system into
three domains. Since 1980s Woese's domain system got accepted and used.

 Woese split the previous Kingdom Monera into Domain- Eubacteria and Archaea.

 Currently, Woese’s 3 Domain and 6 Kingdom system is widely used for taxonomic
classification.

 Together with that the Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species classification
continues to show how similar or different each organism is from another.

 The widely used classification system today is the 3 Domain and 6 Kingdom classifications.

 The three Domains are: ARCHAEA EUBACTERIA EUKARYOTE
1. Archaea
2. Eubacteria and
3. Eukaryote

 The six Kingdoms are: ARCHAEBACTERIA EUBACTERIA PLANTAE
1. Plantae ANIMALIA
2. Animalia PROTISTA
3. Fungi
4. Protists FUNGI
5. Eubacteria (Monera)
6. Archeaebacteria

Example: Modern Human
Classification

 The hierarchy grouping for each kingdom are: Eukaryote Domain
 Phylum (animals and bacteria)/ Division (plants Animalia Kingdom
Chordata
and fungi) Mammalia Phylum
 Class Primates Class
 Order Order
 Family
 Genus
 Species

Hominidae Family

Homo Genus

Sapiens Species

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Why Use Classification System? STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY
 To study and include each organism along with its identification and habitat.
 To establish the relationship among different organisms and to understand their evolution.

Organisms are classified according to:
1. Cell Type/ Structure

 Whether the cell is prokaryotic or Eukaryotic and then whether it has a cell wall or not.

2. Nutrition
 Whether the organism is autotrophic heterotrophic or saprophytic.

3. Number of cells in their body
 Whether the organism is single celled (unicellular) or multicellular and if multi-cellular
then how the cells are organized into tissues.

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STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY SELF TEST

1. Which 2 kingdoms make up the Prokaryotic cells?
2. Which type of organisms fall in the domain Archaea?
3. What is taxonomy and who was the first person to develop the formal taxonomic system?
4. With development of modern technology, why was the 5 kingdom system quickly changed

to 3-domain 6-kingdom classification system?
5. Identify the Carl’s hierarchy system that is still used in conjunction with the 3-domain 6-

kingdom system?
6. Which three main characteristics of the organisms are used when classifying organisms?
7. What is the difference between Eubacteria and Archeaebacteria?

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STRAND 3 YEAR 12

SUB-STRAND 3.2

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND
ECOSYSTEMS

© MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, FIJI, 2015

STRAND 1: STRUCTURE AND LIFE PROCESSES SUB-STRAND 3.2: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND
ECOSYSTEMS

ACHIEVEMENT INDICATORS

At the end of this sub-strand, students should be able to:
 Explain how the natural greenhouse effect is essential to sustain life on earth.
 Describe activities that lead to the enhanced greenhouse effect and its effects on the

ecosystems.
 Explore the practices that help to mitigate (reduce) the effects of the enhanced Greenhouse

effect.

BI 12.3.2.1 Environmental Issues and Ecosystems________________ STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY
_____________

Source: http://www.shiawisdom.com

Over the past century, human activities have released large amounts of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The majority of greenhouse gases come from burning
fossil fuels to produce energy, although deforestation, industrial processes, and some agricultural
practices also emit gases into the atmosphere.

 Greenhouse gases act like a blanket around Earth, trapping energy in the atmosphere and
causing it to warm.

 This phenomenon is called the greenhouse effect and is natural and necessary to support
life on Earth.

 However, the build-up of greenhouse gases can change Earth's climate and result in
dangerous effects to human health and welfare and to ecosystems.

The choices we make today will affect the amount of greenhouse gases we put in the atmosphere
in the near future and for years to come.

Source: http://img-0.onedio.com/img BIOLOGY FOR ALL 185 | P a g e

YEAR 12

Greenhouse Gases

Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases.
These are some of the common greenhouse gases:

Greenhouse gases How these gases enter the environment/ atmosphere?

STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY Water vapour  Water vapour is known to be Earth’s most abundant greenhouse gas,
but the extent of its contribution to global warming has been
Carbon dioxide debated.
(CO2)
 CO2 is naturally present in the atmosphere.
Methane (CH4)  It is also the primary greenhouse gas emitted through human

activities such as combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and
oil) for energy, transportation, industrial processes, land-use etc.

 Emitted during production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil.
 Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural

practices and by decaying organic waste in solid waste landfills.

Nitrous oxide  Emitted during agricultural and industrial activities
(N2O)  Also emitted during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.

Fluorinated gases  Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC);
(also called ‘super
greenhouse gases’)  Man-made chemicals containing the elements carbon, hydrogen and
fluorine.

 are colourless, odourless and unreactive gases.
 are the largest sources of fluorinated gas emissions.

 fastest growing source of greenhouse gas emissions.

 Sources of HFC gases include refrigerators, air-conditioners and

mobile air conditioners (MAC) in vehicles (used as coolants

which leak out over-time), foams (HFC creates tiny bubbles in

foams) and aerosol sprays (HFC creates mist of liquid particles).
 Perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride are

synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety
of industrial processes.
 Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes for

stratospheric ozone-depleting substances (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons).
 These gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities, but because

they are potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred to as
High Global Warming Potential gases (‘High GWP gases’).
 For a long time now human activities have been creating fluorinated

gas emissions much more rapidly than the Earth can remove them,
thus, increasing global levels.

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Enhanced Greenhouse Effect (EGHE) / Global Warming STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY

An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere results in more heat being
retained and an overall warming of the Earth’s temperature. Although they make up a small
percentage of atmospheric gases, changes in the concentration of greenhouse gases have a huge
effect on the balance of natural processes.

This phenomenon of warming of the earth is also known as Global Warming. Global warming
occurs when a thick blanket of CO2 develops in the atmosphere and traps excess heat which
increases the overall temperature of the Earth.

Another major effect of EGHE is ozone depletion. Ozone is the layer in the atmosphere that
prevents excessive UV radiation from penetrating Earth. The release of CFC gases in the
atmosphere damages the ozone layer causing a hole to appear. This hole then starts allowing the
penetration of UV radiation which leads to catastrophic effects like skin cancer, skin irritation,
cataracts, blindness, damage to DNA and even death.

Source: http://www.environment.gov.au/climate-change/climate-science/greenhouse-effect

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STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY Activities that cause EGHE

1. Excessive burning of fossil fuels

When fossil fuels are burned, they release nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, which
contribute to the formation of smog and acid rain. The most common nitrogen-related
compounds emitted into the air by human activities are collectively referred to as nitrogen
oxides. Ammonia is another nitrogen compound emitted to the air, primarily from agricultural
activities, but also from fossil fuels.

Major sources of nitrogen oxide emissions include:

 Cars and trucks
 Coal-fired power plants
 Large industrial operations
 Ships and airplanes

The presence of excess nitrogen in the atmosphere in the form of nitrogen oxides or ammonia
is deposited back onto land, where it washes into nearby water bodies. These excess nutrients
contribute to pollution, harmful algal blooms and oxygen-deprived aquatic zones. Excess
ammonia and low pH in these areas are toxic to aquatic organisms and affect their survival.

2. Livestock Farming

Source: http://pixgood.com/cartoon-farmyard.html

Animal waste contributes excess nutrients to our waterways when manure is improperly
managed.

3. Use of synthetic fertilisers

Fertilizers, yard and pet waste, and certain soaps and detergents
contain nitrogen and phosphorus, and can contribute to nutrient
pollution if not properly used or disposed of. The amount of hard
surfaces and type of landscaping can also increase the runoff of nitrogen and phosphorus
during wet weather.

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Effects and Impacts of Enhanced Greenhouse Effects STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY

1. Change in weather pattern

 The rising average global temperature is associated with widespread changes in weather
patterns.

 Scientific studies indicate that extreme weather events such as heat waves and large storms
are likely to become more frequent or more intense with human-induced climate change.

 As a result of the changing weather patterns, warmer water in the oceans pumps more energy
into tropical cyclones and storms, making them stronger and potentially more destructive.
Future hurricanes of the same intensities might cause more damage as higher sea levels
exacerbate storm surges, flooding, and erosion.

 Global warming is responsible for the heavy rainfall that has led to major flooding events.
This is because warmer air holds more moisture.

 Extreme precipitation is likely when a storm passes through a warmer atmosphere holding
more water. In warmer months, it takes the form of torrential rainstorms.

2. Coral Bleaching
 Warmer water temperatures can result in coral bleaching.
 When water is too warm, corals will expel the algae (zooxanthellae) living in their tissues causing the

coral to turn completely white. This is called coral bleaching.

 When a coral bleaches, it is not dead.
 Corals can survive a bleaching event, but they are under more stress and are subject to mortality.

What causes coral bleaching? 2. Runoff and pollution

1. Change in Ocean Temperature Storm generated precipitation
Increased ocean temperature caused by can rapidly dilute ocean water
climate change is the leading cause of and runoff can carry
coral bleaching pollutants. These can bleach
near-shore corals.

3. Over-exposure to sunlight 4. Extreme low tides

When temperatures are high, high Exposure to the air during
solar irradiance contributes to extreme low tides can cause
bleaching in shallow-water corals.
bleaching in shallows corals.

Source: http://www.usa.oceana.org

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STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY 3. Ocean Acidification

 As carbon dioxide (CO2) is
absorbed by the atmosphere it
bonds with sea water forming
carbonic acid.

 This acid then releases a
bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen
ion.

 The hydrogen ion bonds with free
carbonate ions in the water
forming another bicarbonate ion.

 This free carbonate ion would
otherwise be available to marine Source: http://montereybay.noaa.gov
animals for making calcium carbonate
shells and skeletons.

 Dissolved CO2 lowers the ocean’s pH and leads to acidification which slows the atmospheric
greenhouse effect and puts marine and human life at risk.

 If the acid concentrations get too high, ecosystems such as coral reefs may begin to crumble
and dissolve.

4. Drought and Flooding

 When the weather gets warmer,
evaporation from both land and sea
increases.

 This can cause drought in areas of the
world where the increased evaporation
is not compensated for by more
precipitation.

 In some regions of the world this will
result in crop failure and famine
especially in areas where temperatures
are already high.

 The extra water vapour in the Source: http://semillanueva.org
atmosphere will fall again as extra rain, which can cause flooding in certain parts of the world.

5. Salt Intrusion

 Salt water intrusion occurs in coastal freshwater aquifers when the different densities of both
the saltwater and freshwater allow the ocean water to intrude into the freshwater aquifer.

 These areas are usually supporting large populations where the demanding groundwater
withdrawals from these aquifers are exceeding the recharge rate.

 The encroaching seawater will encounter an area known as the zone of dispersion, where the
freshwater and saltwater mix and form an interface.

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 This interface moves back and forth naturally because of fluctuations in the recharge rate of
freshwater back into these coastal aquifers.

 Aquifers are naturally replenished by precipitation and surface waters that saturate into the
ground and work their way through the soil and geologic material to the water table.

Source: http://kanat.jsc.vsc.edu STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY

The release of GHGs and their increasing concentration in the atmosphere are already
having an impact on the environment, human health and the economy. These impacts are
expected to become more severe, unless concerted efforts to reduce emissions are
undertaken.

Environmental impacts

 Overall average annual temperatures are expected to increase.
 Snow, sea ice and glacier coverage will decrease because of higher temperatures,

resulting in rising sea levels and increased coastal flooding.
 Rising temperatures will also thaw permafrost in the Arctic.
 Overall precipitation levels are expected to increase across most of the country and

during all seasons.
 The increase in precipitation is expected to be combined with more frequent heavy

precipitation events, resulting in higher risks of flooding.
 Heat waves are likely to increase in frequency and severity, resulting in higher risks of

forest fires.
 Many wildlife species will have difficulty adapting to a warmer climate and will likely

be subject to greater stress from diseases and invasive species.

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STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY Health impacts

 Higher temperatures and more frequent and severe extreme weather events may increase
the risk of deaths from dehydration and heat stroke, and of injuries from intense local
weather changes.

 There may be a greater risk of respiratory and cardiovascular problems and certain types of
cancers, as temperatures rise and exacerbate air pollution.

 The risk of water, food, vector and rodent-borne diseases may increase.

Economic impacts

 Agriculture, forestry, tourism and recreation may be affected by changing weather patterns.
 Human health impacts are expected to place additional economic stress on health and social

support systems.
 Damage to infrastructure (e.g., roads and bridges) caused by extreme weather events,

thawing permafrost and rising sea levels is expected to increase, impacting local
populations and resource development.

Solutions to Enhanced Green House Effect

Ways in which we can reduce the impact of EGHE is by

1. Conserving Energy

Air pollution from energy production leads to acid rain, excess
greenhouse gases, and health risks. One important step you can take to minimize air pollution is by
conserving energy. This can be done by:

 Turning off lights, computers, televisions, video games and other electrical equipment when
you're not using them.

 Buying equipment that uses less electricity, including lights, air conditioners, heaters,
refrigerators and washing machines. Energy Star-certified products and buildings use at least
10 less energy than standard models.

 Limiting the use of air conditioning.
 Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
 Buying products with minimal packaging will help to reduce waste.
 Use Less Heat and Air Conditioning
 Drive Less and Drive Smart. Less driving means fewer emissions. Besides saving fuel, walking

and biking are great forms of exercise.
 Use Less Hot Water
 Encourage Others to Conserve
 Share information about recycling and energy conservation with your friends, neighbours and

co-workers, and take opportunities to encourage public officials to establish programs and
policies that are good for the environment.

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2. Reforestation – planting trees/ mangroves to replace that have been cut STRAND 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY
down. Trees absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. A single tree will
absorb approximately one ton of carbon dioxide during its lifetime.

3. Renewable Energy – using renewable energy such as wind, solar, geothermal,
hydroelectric, and biomass — provides substantial benefits for our climate,
our health, and our economy:

4. Relocation – resident of areas that are under heavy impact of climate change such as the coastal
areas which are threatened by sea level rise should relocate to higher lands.

5. Organic farming – by use of agricultural techniques such as crop rotation
composting, green manure and biological pest control instead of using
chemicals that are harmful to the environment.

6. People should take heed of awareness programs on climate change organized by department of
Environment Fiji as well as other tertiary institutes. Nowadays, several scholarships are also being
offered for further study on issues related to climate change.

SELF TEST

1. Name at least three natural greenhouse gases and justify their presence in the atmosphere.
2. Differentiate between the terms ‘greenhouse effect’ and ‘enhanced greenhouse effect’.
3. What is an ozone hole?
4. Name three sources of human induced greenhouse gases.
5. Give examples of two products that contain chlorofluorocarbon (CFC).
6. List four factors that cause coral bleaching.
7. Explain the phenomenon of ‘ocean acidification’ and ‘salt intrusion’.
8. How does climate change affect the tourism industry?
9. State practices that you can observe at home to reduce the impact of EGHE.
10. How can you as a youth spread awareness in your community on climate change?

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GLOSSARY GLOSSARY Amino acids: organic subunits of proteins.
Ammonia: NH3; product of deamination of
GLOSSARY A amino acids.
Amylase: starch-digesting enzyme found in
ABO blood type: blood type determined by saliva.
proteins on red blood cell surfaces; types A Anaemia: deficiency in the number of red
and B are codominant, 0 is recessive. blood cells which usually results in tiredness.
Acid rain: acidic rain due to dissolved Anaerobic respiration ATP formation from
nitrogen and sulphur oxide pollutants in it. food without the use of oxygen; most of the
Activation energy: the minimum amount of energy in glucose is cannot be released by this
energy with which molecules must bump into reaction.
each other to begin a reaction. Analogous structures: structures similar in
Active transport: movement of substances function but different in evolutionary origin.
into or out of cells against a concentration Anaphase: stage of mitosis when sister
gradient, i.e., from a region of lower chromatids of each chromosome separate and
concentration to a region of higher move to opposite sides of the cell.
concentration; requires energy from the cell. Anaphase I: stage of meiosis when each
Adaptation: any trait that improves an chromosome separates from its homologue.
organism’s chances of survival and/or Anaphase II: stage of meiosis when sister
reproduction. chromatids of each chromosome separate.
Adenine: a nitrogen-containing base found in Angiosperms:flowering plants; they produce
nucleotides. seeds in flowers.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): a molecule Animal: kingdom of multicellular,
which carries energy (in bonds between heterotrophic, usually motile organisms.
phosphates) from one reaction to another. Annelids: animals in the phylum of
Adrenal gland: organ on each kidney that segmented worms.
can increase metabolism by secreting Annuals: plants that live for one year or less.
adrenaline; this helps the body react in Antagonistic pairs: pairs of muscles that
stressful situations. together can produce movement in opposite
Aerobic: uses oxygen. directions.
Aerobic respiration: ATP formation from Anther: swollen end of a stamen in the male
food using oxygen; releases the maximum part of a flower that produces pollen grains.
amount of ATP from glucose. Antibiotics: medicines that kill bacteria.
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency Antibodies: proteins produced by
syndrome): deadly disease caused by a virus lymphocytes to help destroy antigens.
that attacks the human immune system. Anticodon: in a tRNA molecule, three
Algae: aquatic photosynthetic organisms that nucleotide bases which match a mRNA
have a very simple structure, most of which codon.
are in the plant kingdom. Antigen: any foreign substance that causes an
Alimentary canal: the gut; the passageway immune response when it enters the body.
from mouth to anus. Appendage: any moveable extension of the
Allele: form of a gene at a particular location body, such as an arm or leg.
on a chromosome. Arthropods: phylum of animals with
Alveoli: tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exoskeletons and jointed appendages.
exchange with the blood occurs.

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Arteries: thick-walled vessels that carry Bivalves: a class of molluscs which are GLOSSARY
blood away from the heart. enclosed in calcium carbonate shells.
Asexual reproduction: production of Blade: large, normally flat area of a leaf that
offspring from one parent, without the union is adapted for absorbing sunlight.
of two gametes. Blood: tissue made up of white and red blood
Atmosphere: the area of gases enveloping cells, platelets, and plasma.
the earth. Blood pressure: the pressure in the
Atom: the smallest unit of matter that still has circulatory system which forces the blood
the properties of the element. forward.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate): a molecule Blood type: classification of an individual's
which carries energy (in bonds between blood based: on the presence of antigens on
phosphates) from one reaction to another. red blood cells.
Auricles: heart chambers where blood Bone: a hard tissue made of protein, calcium,
entering the heart collects. and phosphorus that supports the body; allows
Autotroph: any organism which can make its movement by providing something for
own food out of inorganic ingredients. muscles to pull on; makes blood cells.
Auxins: plant growth hormones that make Botanist: a person who studies plants.
cells grow longer. Brain: mass of neurons that controls the rest
Axon: long branch of a neuron that carries a of the nervous system.
neural impulse from the cell body to the Bronchi: two branches of the trachea which
synapse. enter each lung.
Budding: a method of asexual reproduction
B in plants and some animals where offspring
develop from an outgrowth of the parent.
Bacteria: simple unicellular organisms
without membrane-bound cell organelles. C
Bark: collective term for all of the plant
tissues outside of the xylem in a woody stem. Calvin cycle: stage of the light-independent
Base pair: a pair of nucleotide bases loosely reaction of photosynthesis; carbon-containing
joined in DNA or RNA, C with G and A with compounds are used to form glucose.
T. Cambium: group of meristematic cells that
Binary fission: the division of a bacteria cell increase the width of stems or roots as they
into two. divide, thus producing secondary growth.
Biennials: plants that live for two years. Camouflage: colour or behaviour adaptation
Bilateral symmetry: symmetry on one plane, that reduces an organism's chance of being
having two similar sides, with a definite front seen.
and back. Cancer: disease of uncontrolled cell division.
Biodiversity: the huge variety of different Canine: sharp tooth adapted for grasping and
kinds of organisms on Earth. tearing food.
Biosphere: areas of the earth's air, water, and Capillaries: tiny, thin-walled blood vessels
soil where organisms can live. that allow material exchange between blood
Bipedalism: normally using two feet for and body cells.
standing and walking.
Birth control: devices, practices, or drugs
which prevent unwanted pregnancy.

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GLOSSARY Carbohydrates: organic compounds that Chromosomes: protein and DNA structures
include sugars, starch and glycogen. which contain an organism's genetic
Carnivore: animal that eats other animals. information.
Carrier: female with a recessive, sex-linked Cilia: tiny hair-like structures that project
gene on one of her X chromosomes. from the surfaces of some cells; normally
Carrying capacity: the maximum number of used in movement.
individuals of a species that an area can Climax community: a generally stable
support. composition of species achieved at the end of
Cartilage: a firm but flexible connective succession in a given ecosystem.
tissue; it pads the ends of bones at joints. Clones: genetically identical individuals.
Catalyst: any chemical which speeds up the Cnidarians: aquatic, radially symmetric
rate of a reaction. animals.
Cell: the structural unit of all living things. Codominance: two alleles for one trait where
Cell membrane: membrane that surrounds all neither allele dominates the other, both show
cells and controls the passage of materials in the organism's phenotype if both are in its
between a cell and its environment. genotype.
Cell wall: rigid outer covering of plant and Codon: three nucleotide bases in an mRNA
fungal cells which provides support; made transcript which code for a particular amino
primarily out of a tough carbohydrate called acid.
cellulose. Cofactor: vitamin, mineral or other chemical
Central nervous system: the brain and spinal which an enzyme requires to function.
cord. Cohesion: sticking together.
Centriole: cell organelle which organizes the Commensalism: relationship where one
spindle fibres during cell division. organism’s benefits and the other is not
Centromere: point where duplicated affected.
Chromosomes: are attached to one another. Community: the populations of all species
Cerebellum: brain centre for reflexes, living in a given area.
coordination, and balance. Companion cell: cell forming part of phloem
Cerebral cortex: cerebrum covers; in that is believed to direct the flow of sap and to
humans, brain centre for "higher" brain provide ATP to sieve cells.
functions such as language and thought. Competition: interaction between organisms
Cerebrum: chief coordination centre of the that need the same resource, affecting both
brain in vertebrates. negatively.
Characteristic trait: distinguishing quality. Competitive exclusion: the concept that
Chemical: bond link between atoms in a populations of two species competing for a
molecule. limited resource cannot coexist for long in the
Chlorophyll: major light-absorbing pigment same habitat; one better adapted for getting
in plants. the resource will survive and eventually
Chloroplasts: plant cell organelles filled with exclude others from the habitat.
chlorophyll that absorb light and convert it to Component: part.
food energy. Concentration gradient: difference in solute
Chordates: animals with a spinal cord. concentration between two areas.
Chromatography paper: a special paper Condensation: liquid forming from a gas.
used to separate plant pigments from one Condensation: reaction chemical reaction
another in order to determine which pigments which, using energy, joins organic molecules
are present in a leaf. together; usually forms water.

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Consumers: heterotrophs; organisms which conditions, losing 10% of agricultural GLOSSARY
eat "ready-made," organic food. productivity or more.
Contractile vacuole: a cell organelle in some Diabetes: a disease resulting from insufficient
protists which takes up excess water and insulin production.
expels it from the cell by contracting. Dicot (dicotyledon): the most recently
Contrast: to compare in order to highlight evolved group of angiosperms with tap roots,
differences. net leaf veins, vascular cambiums, and two
Core: centre. cotyledon leaves in the embryo.
Cortex: the bulk of cell tissue in roots and Diffusion: natural movement of molecules in
stems which supports the plant and stores a fluid from higher to lower concentration.
starch. Digestion: chemical breakdown of food.
Cotyledon: seed leaves of a plant embryo. Dihybrid cross: genetic cross of two
Crepuscular: active near the time of sunset. organisms homozygous for contrasting forms
Cristae: the folded membrane in a of two traits.
mitochondria. Diploid: having two sets of chromosomes, in
Crossing over: in meiosis, a section of homologous pairs.
chromosome switching places with a section Disaccharide: a carbohydrate of two
from the homologue. monosaccharides bonded together.
Cuticle: waxy outer covering on leaves and Dispersal: spreading around.
stems which reduces water loss. Divergence: increasing genetic differences
Cytokinesis: the splitting of a parental cell between two isolated groups of a population.
into two daughter cells; the cytoplasm divides Diversity: many different kinds; variety
between the two. diurnal active during the day.
Cytopharynx: a small section of the cell DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): the double-
membrane of a Paramecium through which stranded nucleic acid that encodes all genetic
food enters food vacuoles. information on how to make proteins in all
Cytoplasm: all the parts of a cell between the organisms.
cell membrane and the nucleus. Dominant: in genetics, an allele that masks
the presence of other alleles for the same trait.

D

Daughter cell: cell formed by cell division. E
Deamination: removal- of the amino group
from amino acids. Echinoderms: phylum of aquatic,
Decomposers: organisms that get nutrients by
breaking down organic compounds in wastes unsegmented animals with spiny skin.
and dead organisms.
Dehydration: drying out. Ecology: the study of interactions between
Denaturation: a protein losing its shape and
ability to function, usually due to overheating organisms and their environment.
or corrosive chemicals.
Density: in population biology, the number of Ecological pyramid: an illustration showing
organisms per unit area.
Desertification: the conversion of grasslands the energy content, number of organisms or
or cropland to increasingly desert-like
biomass at each trophic level.

Ecosystem: a community of organisms and

their physical environment.

Effector organs: glands and muscles.

Egestion: getting rid of indigestible food out

the posterior end of the gut.

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Egg: female gamete, also called an ovum. Erosion: washing away of soil.
Ethanol: the poisonous product of anaerobic
Ejaculation: the ejection of sperm from the respiration in plants and fungi; drinking
alcohol.
penis during sexual intercourse. Eutrophication: the process of a fresh water
body dropping in oxygen content as
Electron (e-): negatively charged particle decomposers feed on the wastes of an
increased plant population.
which circles around the nucleus of an atom. Evaporation: liquid changing to gas.
Evolution: the gradual change of a
Electron transport chain: a flow of population's genetic makeup over time.
Excretion: removal of metabolic wastes from
electrons and/or hydrogen ions across the an organism.
Exocytosis: a way of actively transporting
inner membranes of chloroplasts and large amount of substances out of a cell; a
vesicle forms around the substance, moves to
mitochondria; this releases energy used to the cell membrane, and joins with it to dump
the substance outside the cell.
form ATP. Exoskeleton: a skeleton outside of the body,
as in arthropods.
Elimination: egestion of undigested food Exponential growth: pattern of population
growth in which the number of individuals
from the gut. increases by ever larger amounts per unit of
time (e.g. 2, 4, 8,16, 32, 64, etc.).
Elongate: grow longer. Extinction: all members of a species have
died.
Embryo: an organism at its very early stages Extracellular fluid: watery liquid that
surrounds all body cells.
of development formed from a dividing
F
zygote.
F1: first generation of offspring in a genetic
Endangered species: a species whose cross.
F2: second generation of offspring produced
population has become so small that it might by crossing two F1 individuals.
Family tree: diagram showing the
soon become extinct. relationships between relatives over two or
more generations.
Endocrine system: hormone-secreting Fat: a lipid with one to three fatty acid tails
attached to a glycerol backbone.
glands. Fatty acid: a compound with a long carbon
backbone and a -COOH group at the end.
GLOSSARY Endocytosis: a way of actively transporting Fertilisation: fusion of two haploid gametes
to form a diploid zygote.
large amounts of substances into a cell; the Field of view: the area which can be seen
under a microscope.
cell membrane encloses substances that are

outside the of the cell, forming a vesicle

which transports the materials into the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum: stacks of folded

membranes in a cell that transport proteins.

Endoskeleton: in chordates, the

internal framework of cartilage and/or bone

which supports the organism and aids in

movement.

Endosperm: nutritious part of a seed which

"feeds" the embryo.

Energy: the ability to do work.

Energy pyramid: a pyramid-shaped

representation of the energy in each trophic

level in an ecosystem.

Environmental variation: variation caused

by external factors in an organism's

surroundings, rather than by genes.

Enzyme: an organic catalyst - a protein which

makes a reaction happen much more quickly.

Epidermis: the outermost layer of tissue of a

multicellular plant or animal.

Epiphyte: a plant rooted on the branches of

another plant instead of in the soil.

198 | P a g e BIOLOGY FOR ALL YEAR 12

Flaccid: a cell that has "wilted" or become Gene pool: total sum of all the alleles present
soft due to water loss.
Flagellum: the "tail" of sperm and some in a population.
bacteria and protists which moves the cell
forward. Genetic engineering: scientists altering the
Flex: bend.
Fluid mosaic model: model of cell information content of DNA by changing the
membrane structure in which proteins are
mixed with a lipid bilayer; the lipids form the order -)f its bases.
basic membrane structure and keep most
substances from passing through and the Genetic recombination: a new combination
proteins carry out most membrane functions
such as active transport, cell recognition, of alleles in a DNA molecule due to crossing
enzyme action and hormone reception.
Foetus: human embryo during its last six or over during meiosis.
seven months of development.
Fossil: any preserved part of an organism or Genotype: the genes that an organism has.
imprint of an organism that lived long ago.
Fossil fuels: fuels such as coal and oil which geotropism growth response to gravity.
formed from ancient plants and animals that
were compressed under the earth's surface for germination the sprouting of a seed.
millions of years.
Fossilisation: formation of fossils. Gill: a respiratory organ adapted for gas
Fragmentation: a method of asexual
reproduction where a piece of the parent exchange with water.
breaks off and grows into a new organism.
Fruit: fertilised, mature flower ovary which Gill filaments: ridges of gills which increase
protects seeds and helps to disperse them.
Fungi: the kingdom of sessile, heterotrophic surface area for gas exchange.
organisms with cell walls.
Gill rakers: section of the gill which traps
G
bits of food and sweeps them towards the
Gamete: haploid cell (sperm or egg) that
joins with another gamete to make a new mouth.
individual in sexual reproduction.
Gametophyte: the haploid, multicellular Global warming: an increase in the earth's
gamete-producing phase in the life cycle of
ferns, mosses and sexually-reproducing algae. temperature due to an increased greenhouse
Genes: units of inheritance which each code
for a protein; made of DNA. effect.
Gene pair: in diploid cells, the two alleles on
homologous chromosomes which code for the Glucagon: a hormone secreted by the GLOSSARY
same trait.
pancreas that tells the liver to convert

glycogen to glucose.

Glycerol: a three-carbon molecule with three

hydroxyl (-OH) groups; condenses with fatty

acids to form fat or oil.

Glycogen: a large carbohydrate molecule that

animals build to store glucose molecules.

Golgi body: a cell organelle that modifies and

transports proteins and lipids.

Grana: structures in chloroplasts

formed by stacks of folded thylakoid

membrane; contain chlorophyll and other

light-absorbing pigments; reaction site for

forming ATP in photosynthesis.

Grazer: an animal that feeds on entire

populations of organisms, often eating just

part of them.

Greenhouse effect: the reflection of heat

back to the earth by the layer of gases at the

top of the earth's atmosphere.

Guard cells: cells that open and close plant

stomata.

Gut: the tube from the mouth to the anus.

Gymnosperms: the first seed plants; they

make seeds in cones.

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H I

Haemocoele: open blood cavity in Immune system: vertebrate system for
detecting and destroying disease-causing
arthropods. agents and preventing the same disease from
invading again.
Haemoglobin: the protein in red blood cells Incomplete dominance: one allele of a pair
only partially dominates the other.
that carries oxygen. Independent assortment: genetic principle
that each chromosome pair assorts into
Haploid: cell with only one chromosome of gametes independently of other homologous
pairs.
each homologous pair. Ingest: take in food into the body.
Inheritance: the transmission of genetic
Heart: muscular pump that keeps blood material from parents to offspring.
Inhibitor: a substance which can bind to an
circulating through an animal's body. enzyme to prevent it from functioning.
Instinct: inborn skill or tendency.
Heartwood: dead xylem cells filled with Insulin: hormone made by the pancreas
which tells the liver to convert glucose into
hardened sap at the centre of a woody stem. glycogen.
Interphase: time interval during which a cell
Herbaceous: "soft" stemmed plants. grows, doubles its number of organelles and
duplicates its DNA.
Herbivore: animal that eats plants. Interspecific competition: competition
between organisms of different species.
Heredity: passage of genetic traits from Intertidal zone: the area above the low water
mark and below the high water mark on
parents to offspring. seashore; organisms living there are
alternately underwater and exposed to air.
Heterotrophic: need "ready-made" Intraspecific competition: competition
between organisms of the same species.
food; cannot make food out of inorganic Introduced species: species brought by
humans to an area where it did not live
materials. before.
Invertebrate: any animal without a
Heterozygous: having two different alleles backbone; the vast majority of animals are
invertebrates. ion an atom or compound with
for a trait. a negative or positive charge.

GLOSSARY Hibernate: to pass the winter in a deep sleep. K

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) Karyotype: visual representation of all the
chromosomes in a cell organised into
AIDS: causing virus which infects homologous pairs.

lymphocytes.

Homeostasis: maintenance of stable internal

conditions.

Homologues: a pair of chromosomes which

carry genes for the same traits.

Homologous structures: structures which

have different functions but similar

evolutionary ancestry.

Homozygous: having two of the same alleles

for a trait.

Hormones: chemical messages which tell

body tissues what to do and help to maintain a

balance in body chemistry.

Host: organism in or on which another

organism lives.

Hydrolysis: chemical reaction which breaks

down organic molecules into smaller units,

releasing energy and usually water.

Hydrostatic skeleton: body support system

where internal fluid pressure protects the

body shape against gravity and other forces.

Hydrotropism: plant growth response to

water.

200 | P a g e BIOLOGY FOR ALL YEAR 12

Kidneys: in vertebrates, a pair of organs for fatty acid tails are sandwiched between the GLOSSARY
excretion and osmoregulation which filter the phosphate heads.
blood and excrete mineral salts, nitrogenous Liver: large organ in vertebrates involved in
wastes and water as needed to maintain hormone production, storing and releasing
homeostasis. nutrients, deaminating excess amino acids,
Krebs cycle: stage of aerobic respiration in and many other functions.
which pyruvate is broken down into carbon Lung: internal respiratory surface adapted for
dioxide and water, releasing ATP. gas exchange on land.
Lymph: watery fluid in the lymphatic
L vessels.
Lymphatic system: network of vessels and
Lactic acid: the poisonous product of organs that help fight disease and return
anaerobic respiration in animals. excess extracellular fluid to the blood.
Lamellae: thin projections from gill filaments Lymphocytes: white blood cells that fight a
in fish which increase surface area for gas specific antigen during an immune response.
exchange. Lyse: to burst open.
Lateral: sideways. Lysosome: cell organelle that does
Lenticels: air channels through the bark of intracellular digestion.
woody stems.
Lethal: deadly. M
Lichen: a fungus and green algae living as
one organism in a symbiotic relationship; Malpighian tubules: tube projections from
populates barren habitat such as tree trunks an insect's gut which absorb nitrogenous
and rock faces. wastes from the haemocoele.
Life cycle: genetically-programmed sequence Mandibles: insect mouthparts for grasping
of development and reproduction events in an and cutting food.
organism. Matrix space: the fluid-filled area inside
Light-dependent reactions (the light mitochondria.
reactions): the first stage of photosynthesis in Medulla: part of the brain that controls basic
which sunlight is absorbed and ATP is life-sustaining reflexes such as heart rate and
produced. breathing.
Light-independent reactions (the dark Meiosis: two-stage cell division that occurs in
reactions): the second stage of sexual reproductive organs to produce haploid
photosynthesis in which sugars and other gametes.
compounds are made using the ATP and Melanin: pigment which gives colour to skin,
NADPH produced in the first stage and CO2 hair and eyes.
from the air. Meristematic tissue: plant cell tissue that
Lignin: a carbohydrate in woody stem cell divides rapidly by mitosis.
walls that strengthens the stem. Mesophyll: spongy cell layer in the middle of
Limiting factor: a factor which limits a leaf.
population growth, such as availability of a Metabolism: all of the chemical reactions
particular resource. that occur in an organism, such as respiration,
Lipid: a compound mostly of carbon and digestion, and photosynthesis.
hydrogen which does not dissolve in water. Metaphase: stage of mitosis when spindle
Lipid bilayer: a double layer of phospholipid fibres form and chromosomes line up at the
molecules which compose cell membranes; cell equator.

YEAR 12 BIOLOGY FOR ALL 201 | P a g e

GLOSSARY Metaphase I: stage of meiosis when N
homologous chromosomes pair up at the cell
equator; crossing over occurs. n: number of chromosome pairs an organism
Metaphase II: stage of meiosis when has in its cell nuclei.
chromosomes line up at the cell equator. N: number of individuals in a population.
Microevolution: small changes in gene pool NAD+: a nucleic acid that carries electrons
of a population due to natural selection or and hydrogen ions from one respiration
other forces. reaction to another, forming NADH.
Micrometer (µm): one millionth of a meter. NADP+: a nucleic acid that carries electrons
Migration: a cyclic movement of animals and hydrogen ions from one photosynthesis
between two distant areas at times of seasonal reaction to another, forming NADPH.
change, particularly common in birds. Natural selection: different survival and
Mitochondrion: cell organelle that does the reproduction rates between organisms;
respiration reaction, providing energy for the usually results in an increase in the number of
cell. organisms well adapted for their lifestyles.
Mitosis: cell division that produces two Nephrons: blood-filtering units in the
diploid daughter cells that are identical to one kidneys.
another and to the parent cell that produced Nerve: bundle of neurons and supporting
them. cells.
Molar: tooth adapted for crushing and Nerve impulse: electrical message that
grinding food. moves through neurons.
Molecule: two or more atoms joined together. Nerve net: cnidarian nervous system without
Molluscs: phylum of soft-bodied, any central control.
unsegmented, mainly aquatic animals. Neuron: nerve cell.
Moulting: the shedding of epidermis, Niche: an organism's role in an ecosystem,
exoskeleton, shell, hair or feathers in a including its behaviour, resource needs,
process of growth or periodic renewal. relationships, habitat and reproduction.
Monocot (monocotyledon): a group of Nocturnal: active at night.
angiosperms with fibrous root systems, Nourish: feed, provide for.
parallel veins in their leaves and only one Nucleic acid: organic molecule made up of
cotyledon leaf in the embryo. nucleotides; DNA and RNA are nucleic acids.
Monosaccharide: a single sugar unit, the Nucleolus: in the nucleus of a cell, a group of
simplest carbohydrate. proteins and RNA which helps in making new
Monohybrid cross: genetic cross of two ribosomes.
organisms for contrasting forms of one trait. Nucleotide: an organic compound containing
Motile: able to move. a sugar ring, a phosphate group and a
Mucus: thick fluid secreted by the body. nitrogenous base; the building unit of nucleic
Multicellular: made up of many cells. acids.
Multiple alleles: three or more possible Nucleus: membrane-enclosed cell organelle
alleles for a given trait. that controls a cell's functions and contains its
Mutation: random changes in DNA genetic information.
nucleotide base order.
Mutualism: relationship between two
organisms where both organisms benefit.

202 | P a g e BIOLOGY FOR ALL YEAR 12

0 P

Omnivore: animal that eats both plants and Palisade layer: cell layer just below a
animals.
Oral groove: indent in the cell membrane of leaf's surface that does most of the
a Paramecium which funnels food to the
cytopharynx. photosynthesizing.
Organelle: membrane-bound part of a cell
specialised for a particular function. Pancreas: vertebrate animal organ that makes
Organ: a body part made up of one or more
tissues that performs particular functions. digestive enzymes and hormones.
Organic compound: a high-energy carbon-
based compound. Paralysis: the loss of movement or sensation
Organism: a living thing able to maintain
internal organisation and homeostasis, get and in one or more body parts.
use energy, grow, respond to its environment,
and reproduce. Parasite: organism that gets food by living in
Organ system: a group of functionally
related organs. or on another organism, which is called its
Organic compounds: carbon-based
chemicals with a lot of energy in their bonds. host.
Osmoregulation: maintenance of a stable
internal fluid environment. Passive transport: movement of substances
Osmosis: diffusion of water through a semi-
permeable membrane. in or out of cells down the concentration
Ovary: in female animals, the organ which
makes eggs ;and female sex hormones; in gradient, i.e., from higher to lower
plants, the female flower organ which makes
seeds and becomes a fruit when fertilised. concentration; requires no energy (e.g.
Ovulation: release of an egg from the ovary.
Ovule: in seed plants, the structure containing diffusion and osmosis).
the female gamete; when fertilised it becomes
a seed. Pathogen: disease-causing organism.
Ovum: unfertilised egg; female gamete.
Oxidation: the loss of electrons from an atom Penis: male reproductive organ that serves to
or molecule; in biology, often associated with
breaking down a compound such as food. deposit sperm into a female of the species for
Ozone: a molecule of three oxygen atoms (03)
which, while a pollutant near the ground, sexual reproduction.
forms a protective layer at the top of the
earth's atmosphere that filters out harmful Pepsin: enzyme produced by the GLOSSARY
ultraviolet light from the sun.
stomach that digests proteins.

Peptide: a short chain of amino acids joined

by peptide bonds.

Peptide bond: a bond between amino acids

formed by a condensation reaction.

Perennials: plants that live for more than two

years.

Peripheral nervous system: the nerves

throughout the body controlled by the brain

Ind spinal cord.

Peristalsis: waves of muscle contraction to

produce movement, such as pushing food

through the gut.

Petrify: to change into stone; to harden.

pH: the acidity or alkalinity of a substance m

a scale of 0-14.
Phagocytes: white blood cells which ‘clean
up’ the blood by surrounding and digesting

my foreign or damaged material.

Pharynx: part of the digestive tract between

Phenotype: observable characteristics of an

organism that are an expression of its

genotype.

Phloem: plant vascular tissue that carries

dissolved sugars from the leaves to other parts

of the plant.

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GLOSSARY Phospholipid: the main component of cell Probability: chance of an event occurring.
membranes; a molecule with a phosphate Producer: autotrophic organism.
head and two fatty acid tails. Prophase: first stage in mitosis when
Photolysis: in the light-dependent stage of duplicated chromosomes condense.
photosynthesis, the splitting of a water Prophase I: the first stage in meiosis when
molecule into oxygen, hydrogen and the chromosomes condense and begin to pair
electrons. with their homologues.
Photosynthesis: the conversion of light Prophase II: a brief stage at the start of
energy to food energy by plants: meiosis II before the sister chromatids
(CO2 + H2O + light energy+ C6H1206 + 02). separate.
Phototropism: growth response of a plant to Protein: molecule composed of one or more
light. polypeptide chains.
Phytoplankton: community of tiny aquatic Protein synthesis: the building of proteins on
photosynthetic organisms. the endoplasmic reticulum according to
Pigment: coloured chemical. instructions from DNA.
Pioneer species: various species with short Protist: kingdom of unicellular organisms
life cycles adapted to growing under harsh with cell organelles.
environmental conditions; they set the stage Punnett square method: diagram used to
for their replacement by other plant species by make it easier to predict possible genotypes in
improving the conditions of the habitat. their expected ratios from a genetic cross.
Pituitary gland: the "master gland" which
secretes hormones that affect most of the R
other glands in the endocrine system.
Plant: kingdom of autotrophic, normally Radial symmetry: symmetry on more than
multicellular organisms having cell walls. one plane.
Pollen: male gamete of flowering plants; Range: area where a population lives.
contain sperm. Receptor: in nervous systems, a sensory cell
Pollination: the transfer of pollen from an which can be activated by a specific stimulus.
anther to a stigma. Recessive: an allele that does not show in the
Pollutant: any substance an ecosystem has phenotype if the dominant allele is also in the
not previously experienced in its genotype.
development, whether in kind or in amount. Reflex: very simple, involuntary and fast
Polyp: completely sessile stage in the life of a neural response involving only a sensory
cnidarian. neuron, interneuron and a motor neuron.
Polypeptide: chain of amino acids linked by Resource divisions: community patterns of
peptide bonds formed by condensation sharing the same resource in different ways,
reactions. areas or times.
Population: individuals of the same species Ribosomes: cell organelles that make
living in an area all at the same time. proteins.
Predation: a predator hunting and killing RNA (ribonucleic acid): nucleic acids
Prey: animal which is hunted by a predator. involved in transcribing and translating DNA
Primary growth: growth in plant length due into actual proteins.
to division of primary meristems at the tips of
roots or stems.
Primates: order of mammals most of whom
have opposable thumbs and high intelligence,
including monkeys, apes and humans.

204 | P a g e BIOLOGY FOR ALL YEAR 12

Root hairs: small "hairs" that stick out of root Specimen: sample of something to be GLOSSARY
epidermal cells, thus increasing surface area examined.
for absorption. Sphincter: ring of muscle.
Root pressure: osmotic pressure of water Spindle fibres: cell structure which forms
moving into a root from the soil. during cell division to pull chromosomes
apart.
S Spongy mesophyll: leaf layer with lots of air
spaces which allow faster gas exchange with
Sanitary: free of pathogens. the environment.
Sap: sugary fluid in plant vascular tissue. Spores: haploid reproductive cells of simple
Secondary growth: growth in plant width plants such as mosses and ferns.
produced by division of meristematic cells in Sporophyte: the diploid spore or seed-
the cambiums of dicot plants. producing stage of plant life cycle.
Secretion: release of materials produced by a Stamen: male reproductive organ in a flower,
cell. made up of filament and anther.
Seed: fertilised ovule made up a plant Starch: a large carbohydrate molecule that
embryo, endosperm and seed coat. plants use to store glucose.
Segmentation: a series of separate body units Sterile: unable to have offspring.
in animals. Stigma: sticky structure where pollen lands at
Semi-permeable: some things can pass the top of the female organs in a flower.
through and others cannot. Stimulus: any external change that can
Sessile: moves very little or not at all. organism can sense.
Sex chromosomes: the only chromosome Stomata: small holes on the underside of a
pair that is different in males and females; leaf that allow gas exchange.
contain the genes that cause sex differences. Stroma: the liquid-filled area in chloroplast;
Sex linked traits: traits controlled by genes site of dark reaction.
located on the sex chromosomes, normally the Style: part of the pistil which connects the
X chromosome. stigma to the ovary.
Sexual reproduction: production of Substrate: molecule(s) upon which an
genetically unique offspring by the joining of enzyme acts.
two haploid gametes. Succession: the orderly changes in species
Sieve cells: cells making up the part of composition from the first colonising pioneer
phloem which carries sap. species to a climax community.
Sister chromatids: two identical copies Surface-area-to-volume ratio: the
making up a duplicated chromosome. proportion of an objects surface area to its
Solute: any substance dissolved in water or volume; in cells, a physical limit on increased
other solvent. size; as a cell grows, its surface area does not
Somatic cells: body cells; cells that make up increase as much as volume, decreasing its
most of an organism and divide only by SA: V ratio.
mitosis. Survivorship curve: graph which reflects the
Speciation: divergence resulting in a new age-specific death patterns for a population.
species. Symbiosis: mutualistic relationship between
Species: organisms all of the same kind organisms upon which both organisms are
which can interbreed and produce fertile dependent for survival.
offspring.

YEAR 12 BIOLOGY FOR ALL 205 | P a g e

GLOSSARY T Turgid: full of water.
Turgor pressure: internal pressure in a plant
Tap root system: root system of one main cell caused by the osmosis of water into the
root with many smaller side branches; found cell.
in dicots.
Telophase: final stage of mitosis when U
cytokinesis occurs and chromosomes de-
condense. Ultraviolet light: UV light; these invisible
Telophase I: the last stage of meiosis I when rays from the sun can cause cancer, kill
the parent cell finally splits into two haploid microorganisms and reduce immune function.
cells with chromosomes still duplicated. Unicellular: made up of only one cell.
Telophase II: the last stage of meiosis II Urea: slightly toxic nitrogenous waste formed
when cytokinesis creates four gametes from from ammonia by the liver.
the two cells resulting from telophase I. Uric acid: insoluble nitrogenous waste
Terrestrial: living on land. produced by most terrestrial egg-laying
Thylakoid membrane: the membrane inside animals.
a chloroplast; site of the light reactions. Urine: solution of nitrogenous wastes, water
Thyroid gland: gland in the throat that and salts for excretion.
controls metabolic rate with the hormone Uterus: organ in female mammals inside
thyroxin. which an embryo develops.
Tissue: a group of similar cells that are
specialised for a particular function. V
Toxic: poisonous.
Trachea: in insects and spiders, an air- Vacuole: a storage organelle in cells; in plant
conducting tube the branches through the cells a very large vacuole stores food and
body; in land vertebrates, the windpipe pushes other organelles closer to the
between the throat and bronchi. membrane.
Trait: characteristic. Vagina: female vertebrate's entry for sperm
Transcription: in protein synthesis, the deposit by a male's penis and, in mammals,
assembly of a RNA strand on a DNA strand; the birth canal.
the resulting order of nucleotide bases on the Variation: differences.
mRNA transcript represents the base order of Vascular: relating to transport tubes.
the DNA. Vascular plants: the most modern group of
Translation: in protein synthesis, tRNA plants, distinguished by their vessels for water
brings amino acids to the mRNA transcript, and food transport.
creating a protein according the instructions Veins: blood vessels in animals that carry
of the original DNA strand. blood towards the heart.
Transpiration: evaporation of water from a Ventricle: chamber of the heart that contract
plant. to pump the blood out through the arteries.
Transpirational pull: water evaporation Vertebrates: animals with a backbone.
from the leaves sucking water up from the Vesicle: in a cell, a small membrane-bound
roots of a plant. sac which stores or transports materials.
Trophic level: stage along a feeding Villi: finger-like projections of the small
pathway; an organism’s distance from the sun intestine wall which increase the surface area
as an energy source along a food chain. for nutrient absorption.
Tropism: plant growth response to
environmental stimuli.
True-breeding: homozygous for every trait.

206 | P a g e BIOLOGY FOR ALL YEAR 12

Virtually: almost. X
Virus: very tiny structure made up only of
DNA and a protein coat; most are pathogenic; X chromosome: a sex chromosome; females
they are not truly alive because they need a have two, males have only one.
host cell to reproduce. Xylem: plant vascular tissue that transports
Vestigial structure: structure inherited from water from roots to other plant parts.
evolutionary ancestors which no longer has
any function. Y
Vitamins: any organic compound needed in
small quantities to work as cofactors for Y chromosome: the male sex chromosome;
enzymes. males have one X and one Y chromosome.
Vulnerable: easily hurt. yolk sac a "bag" of nutrients for sustaining a
developing embryo in an egg.
W
Z
Wilting: drooping of plant stems and leaves
due to water loss; the cells are flaccid. Zygote: fertilised egg; diploid cell that results
when a sperm fertilises an egg.

GLOSSARY

YEAR 12 BIOLOGY FOR ALL 207 | P a g e

BIBLIOGRAPHY 11. Capturing Peppered Moths. (2015). An
example of Evolution. Retrieved from:
1. A Darwinian way of Life. (2015). Comparative http://www.csc.villanova.edu/~ysp/Teacher/W
Anatomy. Retrieved from: ebpages/mstp_payne/Web_project/lesson.ht
http://facweb.furman.edu/~wworthen/bio111/ ml
dar1lec.htm
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