Lexicon Volume 9 Number 2, 2022

L E X I C O Np-ISSN: 2302-2558; e-ISSN: 2746-2668

Journal of English Language and Literature
Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

Verbal Irony in a TV Series The Office (US) Season 2
Nabila N. Hasyim, Sharifah Hanidar
63-71

A Corpus-Based Study of Writer Identities in Biology Research Articles:
Clusivity and Authorial Self

Luthfia Rozanatunnisa, Tofan D. Hardjanto
72-82

A Transitivity Analysis of the Character's Actions in Joseph Jacobs's Fairy Tales
Ahmad Faizin, Hafidzatul Azizah, Putu Z. A. A. Jwalita
83-94

The Patterns of Blends Found in Food and Beverage Names in Instagram
Ummi A. Khoirunnisa, Rio R. D. Moehkardi
95-106

The Heroine’s Journey towards Wholeness as Seen in Margaret Atwood’s Surfacing
Hendarti A. Ayuningtyas, Rahmawan Jatmiko
107-119

L E X I C O Np-ISSN: 2302-2558; e-ISSN: 2746-2668

Journal of English Language and Literature
Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

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Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
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Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
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Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
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https://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/lexicon Volume 9, Number 2 (October 2022)
Pages 63-71

https://doi.org/10.22146/lexicon.v9i2.68005

Humor in Verbal Irony in the TV Series The Office (US)

Nabila Nurul Hasyim, Sharifah Hanidar*
English Department, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Verbal irony as a figurative language has been conceived in everyday life as its use is common when
people communicate with each other. It enables the speaker to express negative intentions towards
the hearer and produce humorous elements. This study aims to analyze verbal irony in the sitcom The
Office (US) from a pragmatic perspective, which focuses on identifying its types and their
manifestations in arousing humor. The data of this study were collected from The Office (US) Season
2, which consists of 22 episodes. They were observed, transcribed, analyzed, and classified into the
categories proposed by Gibbs (2000). The utterances that contain verbal irony were marked and
analyzed by applying the theory proposed by Garmendia (2007). The results show that from 97
occurrences that were identified, all five types of verbal irony (sarcasm, jocularity, rhetorical question,
hyperbole, and understatement) were found, with sarcasm as the most frequently used type. The
analysis also revealed that the disparity that emerges from verbal irony leads to humor creation.

Keywords: disparity, humor, situational comedy, verbal irony.

INTRODUCTION refers to the contradiction in the speaker’s
utterances, while situational irony is a situation that
The way people communicate will determine how seems contradictory. Because this study examines
the receiver understands the message and how the irony that is found in the speaker’s utterances
message is understood by the receiver. Occasionally, together with their context, the identification of
people might speak using figurative language that verbal irony is made through a pragmatic study.
allows them to deliver a message whose actual
meaning goes beyond what is said. Dews et al. (2007) The fact that the concept of irony has been
state that irony is commonly used to express non- manifested in everyday life motivates people to
literal meaning, such as when a speaker uses a understand it since the phenomenon cannot be
compliment to convey a negative statement (e.g., conceived simply as a substitution of literal language,
“This is very delicious” after tasting a flavorless dish) but there should be a motivation for someone to use
or when a speaker says something negative to it (Dews et al., 1995). When people employ irony in
actually convey a positive meaning (e.g., “You really their speech, their remarks could function as a
got a bad grade.” to someone who actually got an A). satirical expression depending on the situation and
Colston and Gibbs (2007) mention the notions of the speaker’s intention. Furthermore, the
verbal irony and situational irony. Verbal irony phenomenon of irony that creates a disparity
between what is said and what is intended may lead

Nabila N. Hasyim, Sharifah Hanidar | Humor in Verbal Irony | 63

64 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022 aims to investigate not only the verbal irony but also
the humor aroused from the use of verbal irony
to an unexpected condition and surprise from which found in the sitcom, The Office (US) season 2.
humor might arise.
This research addresses the following research
Humor is believed to be an important aspect of questions:
communication. Raskin (1985) argues that humor is
not a rare phenomenon. In most cases, people laugh 1. Which types of verbal irony are used inThe
when they find something funny, although different Office (US) Season 2?
people may not perceive the same thing as equally
funny. Raskin also mentions the notions of verbal 2. How does verbal irony used by the characters
and non-verbal humor. Verbal humor refers to texts in the sitcom arouse humor?
that can create humor, while non-verbal humor
refers to humorous situations. A further explanation LITERATURE REVIEW
of verbal humor is provided by Attardo (2010). He
suggests that humor covers the areas of linguistics, The study of irony has always been a field of interest
including textual linguistics, theory of narrativity, for many scholars who have conducted significant
and pragmatics. academic research that range from the functions of
irony, the forms of irony to the humorous goal of
The phenomenon of humor can be found in irony. Dews et al. (1995) provide comprehensive
situational comedy, which is intentionally produced research to examine the use of irony in ironic
to generate humor. A situation comedy, or sitcom, is remarks, ironic criticism, and ironic compliments.
defined by Merriam-Webster online dictionary as a The study reveals that the participants rated ironic
“radio or television comedy series that involves a remarks as funnier than the literal version and rated
continuing cast of characters in a succession of ironic criticism as less offensive and more amusing
episodes” (Situation comedy, n.d.). Compared with than the literal ones. However, the ironic
sketch comedy with new characters in the following compliments were judged more offensive than the
sketch, the sitcom has fixed characters from the literal compliments. From the analysis, it was
beginning to the end. obtained that the speakers tend to use irony to spark
humor, make an insult sound softer, show that they
A sitcom is one of the sources available for are in control of their emotions, and avoid damaging
researchers to conduct research on irony, focusing on the relationship. A further study on the use of irony
creating humor. The Office (US) is an American conducted by Colston (1997) shows a result that
mockumentary sitcom adapted from the original contradicts that of the previous research. He asserts
BBC series of the same name. Aired on NBC from that irony could enhance the level of the speaker’s
March 24, 2005, to May 16, 2013, the sitcom shows negative intention and that there are many instances
the fictitious everyday life of office employees in the of ironic remarks that could result in either less
Dunder Mifflin Paper Company in the form of a condemning or more condemning than the literal
documentary. The sitcom reached more than 11 remarks.
million viewers when it debuted (Timms, 2005) and
has won and been nominated for many notable Relating to the study of irony that discusses its
awards, making it a successful sitcom. The researcher types, Whalen, J. M, et al. (2013) conducted research
conducted a study on verbal irony found in The in computer-mediated communication (CMC) and
Office (US) because it is accessible and provides a analyzed five types of irony in 349 blog entries
convenient data source of verbal irony. Among the selected with specific criteria. Hyperbole is used the
nine seasons, season 2, which consists of 22 episodes, most often in blog posts among the five types of irony
was picked by The Office Fandom as the most (jocularity, sarcasm, rhetorical question, hyperbole,
favorite season, considering that it is in season 2 that and understatement). The researchers also found that
the characters have been greatly developed, and entries discussing hobbies and social outings are the
conflicts start to appear. topics in which most ironic languages occur, and the

The study of irony has attracted many scholars’
attention who have conducted scientific research
focusing on verbal irony. In this study, the researcher

Nabila N. Hasyim, Sharifah Hanidar | Humor in Verbal Irony | 65

use of irony is intended to convey both positive and The concepts of verbal irony have been
negative meanings. discussed in pragmatics (Garmendia, 2007). Attardo
(2000, p. 797) defines irony as “saying something
The study on irony and humor was also while meaning something else.” He then divides
conducted by Roberts and Kreuz (1994), who irony approaches into two categories: the rewording
identified the use of eight types of figurative of the traditional theory of irony as a trope (figure of
languages, among which irony is included. Although speech) and the language/metalanguage distinction.
this study did not specifically focus on irony, the The theory of irony as a figure of speech comes from
result of the study indicates that the aim of using Brown and Levinson (1987), who explain that irony
irony is to be humorous. has the opposite meaning of what the speakers are
saying, and Haverkate (1990), who similarly proposes
Izaias (2011) carried out a study on humor in irony as negation. On the other hand, Grice (1989)
irony found in the sitcom, The Big Bang Theory by argues that irony is an example of implicature, in
using Grice’s Cooperative Principle and Sperber and which the maxim of quality is flouted. Brown (1980;
Wilson’s Relevance Theory. The study reveals that as cited in Attardo, 2010) assumes that irony is not
humor arises from the use of irony. It is also used to only applied to assertions, which means that non-
create humorous characters and scenes in the sitcom. assertive speech acts can also be ironical.
Verbal irony is the most frequently used among the Subsequently, Amante (1981) suggests that ironic
many types of irony used in the sitcom. speech acts are not performative; they are necessarily
indirect and insincere, and the insincerity is
The preceding studies provide a variety of intentionally expressed (Haverkate, 1990). The
examples of research on irony. The data sources insincerity itself is when the speaker violates one
range from experiments and written texts to sitcoms. felicity condition, usually the sincerity condition
They provide a broader view of how irony is (Glucksberg, 1995). While the previous theories root
investigated in various forms, including situational in the traditional account of irony, Sperber and
comedy, which becomes the data source of this Wilson (1981), the founders of Relevance Theory,
study. Unlike the previous studies, this study focuses were the first who presented the mention (echoic
on and investigates the types of verbal irony and how mention) theory, noting that irony is an echoic
their manifestations arouse humor. mention. It is also said that the speaker who uses
irony has a rejecting or disapproving attitude towards
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK the echoed utterance. The revised mention theory
called ‘echoic reminder theory’ is later proposed by
Irony has been described and explained by many Kreuz and Glucksberg (1989), claiming that ironical
scholars from different perspectives. The word irony utterance hints at the previous event, including
derives from the Greek word, eirōnia, from eirōn expectations and implicit norms.
meaning “dissembler” (Irony, n.d.). In the traditional
view, irony is the expected event that contradicts the The recent theory of verbal irony, the asif-
actual situation or a statement contradictory to the theory, is proposed by Garmendia (2007), who claims
speaker’s attitude (Gibbs, 1994). The traditional that irony is when the speaker makes an utterance.
account of irony is also defined as a “figurative The hearer realizes that the speaker overtly shows
meaning opposite to the literal meaning of the that the locutionary content of her utterance does
utterance” (Jorgensen et al., 1984, p. 112). Along with not match with the referential content of her
the definitions of irony, Kreuz and Roberts (1993) motivating belief, from which the speaker intends to
classify irony into four types: Socratic irony, communicate the ironic content. Garmendia (2007)
dramatic irony, situational irony, and verbal irony. also states that the characteristics of irony are always
Since this study employs a sitcom with its character’s critical and are usually humorous. Although
utterances, the researcher will take a more in-depth contradiction and echo are not always necessary in
look at the notion of verbal irony. irony, she adds that they become a pathway for the
hearer to understand the content the speaker intends
to communicate.

66 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022 Television series provides many stories from a
various genre that people around the world can
There are various types of irony, and each type enjoy. Sitcom, a television series and a comedy genre,
may function differently. Gibbs (2000) proposes five is used in this study because it has interesting, comic,
types of irony: and relatable characters. It also provides an
abundance of data, humorous utterances that contain
3. Jocularity: used when the speaker humorously irony.
teases one another.
METHODS
4. Sarcasm: a language to convey the more
negative intent. The data of this study were collected from the sitcom
The Office (US) Season 2, which consists of 22
5. Rhetorical question: used when the speaker episodes, available on the online streaming platform
asks a question that implies a humorous or Amazon Prime. Since the series is streamed on
critical assertion. Amazon Prime, the researcher purchased a monthly
subscription in order to watch the series. In
6. Hyperbole: a language to express non-literal obtaining the data, the researcher first watched the
meaning by exaggerating the reality of the videos and observed the utterances which contained
situation. verbal irony. Whenever the characters made ironical
utterances, the researcher paused the video and
7. Understatement: used when the speaker speaks wrote down the transcription of the utterances or the
ironically by stating far less than the actual dialogues with the aid of the English subtitle,
case. followed by writing down the context. Subsequently,
ironical utterances which were considered humorous
Gibbs (2000) states that all five types of irony were marked. Since there is no canned laughter to
were judged as humorous, with jocular utterances as indicate the funny utterances, the researcher in this
the most humorous. The association between irony study determines the humorous utterances as she
and humor has been mentioned many times by perceives them. Each episode was watched and
scholars. It is explained that humor appears as a observed repeatedly to avoid any errors.
discourse goal of irony (Kreuz & Roberts, 1993) and
becomes the social function of irony (Dews et al., Utterances or dialogues collected were then
1995). There are many examples of irony that are listed chronologically based on the episodes and were
considered humorous, as well as cases of humor that written with a coding system together with the time
are not ironical and cases of irony that are not stamp and the context. After the data had been
humorous (Attardo, 2010). coded, they were classified using the theory of
ironical communication pathway proposed by
There is an abundance of terminology of humor, Garmendia (2007) and were classified into their
such as humor, laughter, the comic, the ludicrous, categories based on Gibbs’ (2000) taxonomy. The
the funny, joke, and wit, and there is no terminology ironical utterances that were considered funny were
consensus amongst the researchers since the words analyzed by applying Garmendia’s (2007) theory.
often substitute each other (Raskin, 1985). However,
the term humor is often used in academic studies to RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
define similar phenomena (Attardo, 2002). The
phenomena of humor and irony that are In The Office (US) Season 2, all five types of verbal
interconnected are explained by Attardo (2010), who irony were found with a different frequency of
argues that a clash between register in text and occurrences. The irony was found in almost all
register associated with the subject matter creates episodes, excluding episodes 7 and 18, which have no
opposition that is important in humor production. ironic utterances identified. The result revealed 97
Dews et al. (1995) suggest that humor derives from
the surprise in irony. Humor occurs because of the
disparity between what is said and what is meant.
Garmendia (2007) also states that humor arises when
the hearer resolves the incongruity in irony and
becomes the product of irony.

Nabila N. Hasyim, Sharifah Hanidar | Humor in Verbal Irony | 67

occurrences of verbal irony, in which 35 occurrences like a detective. It triggered Jim, with whom his
were classified as sarcasm, 24 occurrences as relationship was already tense, to tease him.
jocularity, 18 occurrences as a rhetorical question, 16
occurrences as hyperbole, and four occurrences as Dwight: Kevin Malone, you’re next. Spit that out.
understatement. Spit... okay, come on. Let’s go.

Table 1. Frequency of forms of verbal irony in Jim: You look cute today, Dwight.
The Office (US) Season 2
Dwight: Thanks, girl.
No. Types of Verbal Irony Token %
Jim and Dwight have a tense relationship as
1. Jocularity 24 25 office colleagues. Pulling pranks on his fellow
salesman is a regular habit for Jim as a form of
2. Sarcasm 35 36 revenge for the adverse criticism he often receives
from Dwight. In investigating his colleagues, related
3. Rhetorical question 18 19 to the findings of a drug in the parking lot, Dwight
puts on a sheriff’s deputy uniform, which makes him
4. Hyperbole 16 16 look very conspicuous. Jim, who sees Dwight dressed
in the uniform, then ridicules him in a jocular way
5. Understatement 44 by complimenting that Dwight “looks cute today.”
However, Dwight, who wanted to look gallant in the
Total 97 100 uniform, does not see it as a compliment. Being
conscious that he is being ridiculed, Dwight replies
Among the occurrences of verbal irony found to the compliment with an insincere “thank you” and
in the sitcom, sarcasm was used the most often, with addresses Jim with “girl” to make it overt. Both Jim
a percentage of 36% of the occurrences. 25% were and Dwight use jocularity to tease each other. Jim
occurrences of jocularity, 19% were the rhetorical intends to point out that Dwight is overdoing it, and
question, 16% were hyperbole, and 4% were an Dwight’s reply does not comply with the sincerity
understatement. Besides being the most used type, condition of thanking. The lack of commitment to
sarcasm appeared in 15 episodes out of 22 episodes the contents of their utterances that do not match
and became the type with the most frequent their actual beliefs of deriding each other creates a
occurrences within the episodes of season 2. discrepancy in which humor is produced.

The five types of verbal irony, jocularity,
sarcasm, rhetorical question, hyperbole, and
understatement found in The Office (US) Season 2
are discussed below.

Jocularity Sarcasm

Jocularity is used for teasing, joking, or making fun Sarcasm is used to communicate the speaker’s
of others. In the sitcom, most of the jocularity was negative intent. Garmendia (2007) describes sarcasm
uttered by Jim Halpert together with Pam Beesly. Jim as aggressive irony in which the intention is clear and
is a great salesman, a mild-mannered man, and an is always hurtful. The occurrences of sarcasm in this
easy-going coworker whom everyone grew fond of sitcom are intended to express hostility towards the
easily. He and Pam share the same jokes, and they victim. The following is an example of sarcasm:
enjoy teasing their office fellow, Dwight Schrute. Jim
has a sense of humor that, unfortunately, was not (2) Episode 8 (00:04:14,153 → 00:04:46,051)
understood by others. An example of jocularity is
found in the following dialogue. Context: Dunder Mifflin’s employees had a
performance review. It was known that Dwight and
(1) Episode 20 (00:00:00,967 → 00:00:15,514) Jim were rivals, and they antagonized each other.
Dwight often criticized Jim’s work performances and
Context: Dwight voluntarily conducted an interview stated that he was the worst person to share a desk
investigating the employees after finding half a joint with.
of drug in the parking lot. Strikingly, he wore the
uniform of a sheriff’s deputy and acted exaggeratedly Dwight: Oh, hey. Listen, Jim. Here’s a little tip for
your performance review.

68 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

Jim: Okay. following dialogue is an example of the use of a
rhetorical question.
Dwight: Tell Michael that we should be stocking
more of the double tabbed manilla file folders. (3) Episode 12 (00:03:49,830 → 00:04:02,774)

Jim: We don’t have double tabbed manilla files Context: Michael burned his foot on his Foreman
folders. Grill in the morning and wrapped it up in bubble
wrap. He behaved annoyingly. When he arrived at
Dwight: Oh yes we do. the office, he announced that he had just had a
terrible injury while, in fact, he only got a little burn.
Jim: No, we don’t. Jim saw his bubble-wrapped foot and started playing
with the bubble wrap.
Dwight: Yeah, it’s a new product. So you should just
suggest that to him, and then he’ll be sure to Michael: (To Jim) Please stop popping my cast.
give you a raise. Thank you.

Jim: Well, I’m not asking for a raise. I’m gonna Jim: So where are you shipping your foot?
actually be asking for a pay decrease.
Michael: Ha ha ha. So where are you shipping...
Dwight: Uh, that is so stupid. What if he gives it to
you?

Jim: I win. Ugh. Dwight: Your foot.

The dialogue is between Jim and Dwight, who In the example, Michael acts exaggeratedly as
are in the same division. Dwight feels confident he always does. He has a minor burn on his foot, but
about the result of his performance review since he he acts annoyingly, just as though it is a severe burn.
always does a good job and is always good at He acts in an aggravating manner by using crutches,
managing his time. Because of his good work which de does not need, and wrapping his foot in
performance, he gives Jim a tip on getting a raise. Jim bubble wrap. Jim, who sees how annoying Michael
feels irritated and intends to mock Dwight by is, cannot help himself teasing him, especially when
jokingly saying that he is going to “ask for a pay he notices the bubble-wrapped foot. It is reflected in
decrease” instead. After realizing that Jim is actually Jim’s utterance, “Where are you shipping your foot?”
making fun of him, Dwight asks him what if it The question posed does not require a reply because
becomes a reality. Unpredictably, Jim answers, “I Jim is just ridiculing Michael’s bubble-wrapped foot.
win,” to emphasize his annoyance. Based on the The way the foot is wrapped makes it look like a
context provided, it can be assured that Jim is not package that is ready to be shipped. Michael’s weird
going to ask for a pay decrease because it is a attitude and the discrepancy between Jim literally
ridiculous and uncommon thing to do in a asking the question and his intention to ridicule
performance review. His real intention is to reject evokes laughter. Michael, who realizes that Jim is
Dwight’s tip and express his annoyance and making fun of his foot, does not make a reply but
disapproval over Dwight’s unrequested tip by saying instead responds with fake laughter, “Ha ha ha” and
the contrary. It can be seen that there is a disparity repeats Jim’s rhetorical question.
between Jim’s utterance and intention. The disparity
evokes laughter. Furthermore, humor is also derived Hyperbole
from the unexpected intention of asking for a pay
decrease, creating a surprise for the audience, and Hyperbole is a figurative language to express non-
eliciting laughter. literal meaning by exaggerating or minimizing the
reality of the situation. The use of hyperbole can be
Rhetorical Question observed in the following example:

A rhetorical question is used when a speaker asks a (4) Episode 21 (00:02:17,037 → 00:02:27,913)
question that does not require an answer. It can be
used to imply humorous or critical assertions. The Context: Oscar was complaining to Toby about
Angela’s poster, which portrayed two babies dressed

Nabila N. Hasyim, Sharifah Hanidar | Humor in Verbal Irony | 69

up as adults. It was very disconcerting for him, so he Toby: Fine, I’ll take your name off. So no one will

insisted that it should be taken down. know.

Oscar: It’s like child abuse! I say if Jesus saw that, Everyone in Dunder Mufflin Scranton is
he’d freak out! He’d freak out, Toby, I mean, allowed to write a complaint letter about other
on so many levels. And I’m supposed to work employees and send it to Toby. The letters are kept
there! I’m supposed... safely in Toby’s desk until Michael one day takes
them forcefully and reads them out loud to everyone.
Angela has a poster portraying two babies Kelly, who wrote one of the letters, claims that she
dressed in adult costumes that she got from the secret was only grumbling back then and wants the letter
Santa game at the Christmas party. She likes the to be withdrawn. Toby agrees and says, “So no one
poster and displays it on her desk, while her desk will know” that understates the actual fact that
mate, Oscar, feels perplexed because he thinks that it everyone has just listened to her complaint, making
is creepy and offensive. He then vents his rage on it no longer a secret. The contradiction between
Toby, the HR representative, saying that “If Jesus saw what Toby says and what actually happens creates a
that, he’d freak out!”. It is perspicuous that Oscar discrepancy leading to the creation of humor.
intends to convey how disgusting the poster is, using
hyperbole stating that even Jesus would freak out if The result of this study reveals that sarcasm
he saw it. By repeating “He’d freak out…” Oscar becomes the most used type, which is contradictory
wants to emphasize the repulsiveness of the poster. to the previous research conducted by Whalen, J. M,
In the dialogue, Oscar uses hyperbole to express his et al. (2013) that shows hyperbole as the most used
strong feelings against the poster. The use of the type. The researcher assumes that the contradictory
hyperbole of “even Jesus would freak out” results in results of the two studies derive from different data
incongruity that provokes laughter. sources. The previous study used blog posts in
written texts that encourage the writers to create
Understatement certain forms of expression since blogs that are
asynchronous and asymmetrical are used to deliver
Understatement is a language that is used to personal expressions. On the other hand, this study
ironically state less than the actual case is. The uses the utterances that contain verbal irony in a
following dialogue shows how understatement is sitcom. The characters in the sitcom have diverse
used to arouse humor. behaviors and characteristics that make the working
days become very dynamic. There are also
(5) Episode 21 (00:10:07,774 → 00:10:27,425) competitions and disputes which occasionally end up
creating conflicts that develop tensions. Some
Context: As an HR representative, Toby frequently workers also like to tease each other in a jocular way
received complaint letters, which were letters the by using verbal irony that allows them to create
employees wrote to make complaints about other funny remarks that enable them to lighten the
employees. Toby would make a recap of the letters atmosphere at work. In expressing their negative
and send them to headquarters. On one occasion, feelings, the characters must not show direct
Michael took a complaint letter forcefully from Toby aggressive manner because the office is where the
and openly read them in front of the employees, employees must act professionally. The characters
thinking by doing that, he could solve the problems. use verbal irony instead to bring humor to the
situation and to soften verbal acts.
Michael: Here is a Kelly complaint. “Ryan never
returns my calls.” Ah. Join the club.

Ryan: My voice mail’s real spotty... sometimes. CONCLUSION
Kelly: I didn’t file a complaint. I was just talking.

Toby: To your HR representative. The result of this study reveals that all five types of
verbal irony were found in 22 episodes of The Office
Kelly: To my friend, I thought. I want that (US) Season 2, with sarcasm identified as the most
withdrawn.

70 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

frequently used type. The use of sarcasm, as well as Dews, S., Kaplan, J., & Winner, E. (1995). Why not
the other types of verbal irony, enables the say it directly? The social functions of irony.
characters to carry out a communicative strategy that Discourse Processes, 19(3), 347-367.
is able to express criticism without being blatant. https://doi.org/10.1080/01638539509544922
Besides denoting criticism, the use of verbal irony
also allows the characters to produce humor. All five Garmendia, J. (2007). A critical pragmatic theory for
forms of verbal irony found in the sitcom are irony: what an ironic utterance means, and
considered humorous, although the humor is gradual how it does so. Unpublished doctoral
depending on the speaker’s level of criticism. dissertation, University of the Basque
Sarcasm as a verbal irony with strong criticism would Country.
likely be less humorous than jocularity that is used to
tease and make fun of others without purposely Gibbs, R. W. (1994). The poetics of mind: Figurative
causing harm. Based on the analysis, the humor thought, language, and understanding.
element that is aroused from verbal irony derives Cambridge University Press.
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https://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/lexicon Volume 9, Number 2 (October 2022)
Pages 72-82

https://doi.org/10.22146/lexicon.v9i2.65914

A Corpus-Based Study of Writer Identities in Biology Research Articles:
Clusivity and Authorial Selves

Luthfia Rozanatunnisa, Tofan Dwi Hardjanto*
English Department, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia

Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Personal attribution plays a significant role in displaying the interaction between the authors and the
readers. In this study, we examine how authors construct their identities through the use of personal
pronouns. The data for the research were taken 20 research articles published in two reputable
international journals: 10 research articles published in Genome Biology, and another 10 in Molecular
Systems Biology. The data were analyzed with the help of WordSmith Tools 5.0 (Scott, 2008), a
concordance software that can help retrieve instances of authorial references used in research articles.
A qualitative analysis was also conducted to examine the clusivity and the authorial selves expressed
by first-person pronouns. The results show that a total of 2,267 instances of first-person plural
pronouns or 126 instances per 10,000 words were found in the corpus. Most of these personal
pronouns were used exclusively to refer to the authors of the research articles and to express the
identity of the authors as the recounters of the research processes and originators of research claims.
The results suggest that there seems to be a tendency for research article authors, especially in biology,
to show their presence in their academic writing through the use of first-person pronouns.

Keywords: academic writing, authorial self, clusivity, concordances, writer identities.

INTRODUCTION Extensive studies dealing with writer identities
in scientific texts have been conducted. There have
The objectivity of scientific writing, especially a been studies of writer identities focusing on different
research article, is one of the most note-worthy genres of scientific texts, such as research articles
aspects of the traditional conventions of scientific (Fløttum et al., 2006; Harwood, 2005c, 2005b;
writings. It is commonly believed that impersonal Hyland, 2001, 2002b; Işik-Taş, 2018; Kuo, 1999;
writings indicate the collective responsibility of Vassileva, 1998), research article abstracts (Kim,
academic endeavor as well as the writers’ open- 2015; Martín Martín, 2003), research article methods
mindedness towards other findings (Lachowicz, sections (Harwood, 2005a; Martinez, 2005), and
1981). However, debates over this feature have been theses (Hyland, 2002; Isler, 2018; Karoly, 2009).
raised in recent years, arguing that the attribution of There have also been a number of studies comparing
writer identities is significant in scientific prose to academic writing in English with that in Bulgarian,
build interactions and social relations (Hyland, 2004, French, German and Russian (Vassileva, 1998),
2005, 2008). Croatian (Basic & Veselica-Majhut, 2016), French

72 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

Luthfia Rozanatunnisa, Tofan D. Hardjanto | Writer Identities in Biology Research Articles | 73

(Hartwell & Jacques, 2014), French, German, and compares articles written in English and those in
Italian (Rentel, 2012), Spanish (Chávez Muňoz, 2013; Spanish, but this study focuses only on the abstracts
Lores Sanz, 2006; Molino, 2010), and so forth. A of research articles. To ensure the credibility of the
number of studies have also focused on how writers research and the validity of the comparison between
in different disciplines construct their identities, two languages, Martín Martín (2003) used the same
such as in applied linguistics (Dontcheva- number of articles written in each language. A
Navrátilová, 2013; Hryniuk, 2018) and computer taxonomy of discourse functions of author-reference
science, electronic engineering, and physics (Kuo, pronouns was created. Based on this exploration,
1999). Martin Martin (2003) categorized them into a) the
author as the describer of the research, b) the author
However, little has been done to explore how as the experiment-conductor, c) the author as the
writer identities are constructed in scientific texts in opinion-holder, d) the author as the cautious claim
biology. A number of previous researchers have dealt maker, and e) the author as the fully committed
with texts in biology in their research; yet, they claim maker.
treated these texts only as part of a larger corpus from
various disciplines (Hyland, 2002, 2002b; Hyland & Another taxonomy that categorizes how
Jiang, 2016, 2017). There has also been a study certain linguistic forms are used to reveal writer
comparing biology with another discipline, i.e., identity was also proposed by Tang & John (1999).
medicine (Hartwell & Jacques, 2014). However, this This research classifies authorial identities into six
study focuses on the syntactically linked verbs which categories: a) I as the representative, b) I as the guide
follow personal pronouns. through the essay, c) I as the architect of the essay, d)
I as the recounter of the research process, e) I as the
Therefore, in the present research, we focus on opinion holder, and f) I as the originator.
investigating writer identities through the use of
authorial references to fill this gap. Specifically, this This exploration was not only done with
research has two objectives: (a) describing linguistic research articles. Other genres of scientific texts have
forms used to express writer identities in research also been investigated recently in terms of their use
articles and (b) describing authorial selves expressed of personal pronouns in master’s theses (Işler, 2018)
by authorial references. We hope that this study as well as in essays written by undergraduate
contributes to our understanding of how writers of students (Tang & John, 1999; Hyland,2002;
research articles, especially in biology, construct Károly;2009), lectures (Fortanet, 2004) and project
their identities in their scientific writing, especially reports (Hyland, 2005)
through the use of first-person pronouns.
Işler (2018), in his research that investigates
LITERATURE REVIEW writer identities in master’s theses, also examined
how writers differ in expressing their identities in
The presence of authors in scientific texts, especially academic texts in terms of the writer, focusing on
research articles, has been investigated by a number theses written in English by Turkish writers and
of researchers (Hyland, 2002; 2002b; 2003; non-Turkish writers from twelve different
Dontcheva-Navratilova, 2013; Martin Martin, 2003; universities. Işler (2018) argues that Turkish writers
Hryniuk, 2018; Kuo, 1999; Krapivkina, 2015; Isler, used personal pronouns rather rarely compared to
2018). In general, they examine the forms, or the non-Turkish writers in their theses.
grammatical aspects, as well as the functions of first-
person pronouns used in selected texts based on the The investigation which concerns with how
criteria upon which each researcher decided. writers vary in constructing their identity in
academic discourse was not only explored in Turkish
A study that explored the grammatical aspect writers. Similar studies were also applied to
as well as how certain linguistic forms reveal writer investigate Polish writers in comparison to native
identity, like what the present study examines, was authors (Hryniuk, 2018),
conducted by Martín Martín (2003). This research
There have been other studies that examine
the inclusivity and exclusivity in the use of personal
pronouns in research articles as well. One of the

74 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022 and self as author, or authorial self, is the attribution
of the authors to establish their presence and
prominent studies related to this topic is carried out authority.
by Harwood (2005c). This corpus-based research
examines research articles from various fields of In constructing their identities, authors may
study: business and management, economics, employ a number of linguistic markers such as verbs,
science, and physics. This research focuses on how adverbials, pronouns, adjectives, and so forth.
and for what purposes I and the inclusive and Among them, personal pronouns are arguably the
exclusive we are used. In this study, Harwood ones that express identities in the text most overtly
(2005c) argues that the use of I and either inclusive (Biber et al., 1999), especially with the use of first-
or exclusive we in recent academic writings enables person pronouns.
the authors to create newsworthiness and novelty.
As an inclusive language, English first-person
Despite the fact that first personal pronouns plurals do not differ in their forms when they refer
were broadly investigated to examine writer to the writers and the addressee or the writers only
identities, an exploration of other pronouns was also (Filimonova, 2005). An exploration of this aspect is
done by Kuo (1999). In this study, Kuo focuses on the also done in the present research, where the clusivity
semantic references and the discourse functions of of the pronouns is on the basis of whether a
we, our, and us as the most frequently found particular pronoun includes the addressee or
pronouns. He classifies the semantic references of we excludes the addressee from the referents.
into we1, we2, we3, we4, and we5, where we1 refers
merely to the writers, we2 means writers and Other than first-person plural pronouns, there
readers, we3 means writers and the researchers, we4 is also a possibility that the authors employ third-
refers to the discipline as a whole, and we5 is person pronouns, i.e., the writer/s, the author/s, and
ambiguous. A similar classification is also applied to the researcher/s. However, it is blatant that we
the objective pronoun us and the possessive pronoun cannot investigate these linguistic forms in terms of
our. To investigate the discourse functions of the their clusivity since they obviously exclude the
personal pronouns, Kuo (1999) has divided them into reader or the addressee.
twelve categories: explaining what was done,
proposing a theory/approach, Stating a goal or The categorization of authorial selves
purpose, Showing results or findings, Justifying a expressed through the use of authorial references in
proposition, hedging a proposition, assuming shared this research is based on Tang and John’s (1999)
knowledge/goals/beliefs, seeking agreement or taxonomy. They classify authorial selves into six
cooperation, showing commitment or contribution categories.
to research, comparing approaches/ viewpoints,
giving a reason or indicating necessity, and Author as representative
expressing wish or expectation.
This authorial self is understood as “a proxy for a
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK larger group” (Tang & John, 1999), where the
pronouns may represent the discourse community or
even people in general.

Ivanic (1998) argues that writer identities are Author as the guide through the essay
constructed by a number of aspects: autobiographical
self, discoursal self, self as author, and possibilities for Personal pronouns which express the writers’ selves
self-hood. This concept indicates how complex the as guides are possibly those which position the
construction of writer identities is. The readers and the writers at the same time and place.
autobiographical self is constructed from life history
in society and discourses. The discoursal self Author as the architect of the essay
represents the identity of the writer associated with
a particular text, yet maintained in the writer’s Guiding means locating the readers in the same place
identities outside the text. Possibilities for self-hood and time in the text. However, the author, as the
are open to socio-cultural and institutional context,

Luthfia Rozanatunnisa, Tofan D. Hardjanto | Writer Identities in Biology Research Articles | 75

architect of the essay, assumes responsibility as the 2018 or, more recently, written by multiple authors,
one who outlines, structures and highlights the text. the first of whom must be a native English speaker.
The time period was made in order to anticipate
Author as the recounter of the research process rapid changes in the writing style development of
academic texts due to the fact that textual evolution
Authorial references are also employed by the has influenced writing style, including the ways
authors to retell the process they had gone through authors attribute themselves in their writings. The
in conducting the research. choice of native English writers here was because
this study does not address variation among native
Author as the opinion holder and non-native writers. Meanwhile, the exclusion of
single-authored articles here was due to the fact that
Authors may also deliver their opinion on other the underlying basis of using first-person plurals by
researchers’ findings and opinions by agreeing and/or an individual writer might possibly be very complex
disagreeing with established statements. This is done and even considered one of the authors’ strategies to
by the role of the authors as opinion holders. detach themselves from their writings (Hyland,
2002b). Table 1 below shows the total number of
Author as the originator words in the corpus.

As the most powerful personal attribution, pronouns Table 1. Total number of words in the corpus
that front this identity indicate claims of ownership
to the content of the articles No. Journal Mean Total
1. Genome Biology 9,839 98,391
METHODS 2. Molecular Systems Biology 8,094 80,946
Total 8,967 179,337
This research was designed to investigate how
academic writers construct their identities and build The articles were numbered from 1-20, and the
interactions in research articles with other journals from which the articles were taken were
researchers in the same field of study and with coded GB for Genome Biology and MSB for
readers in general. This construction of identities was Molecular Systems Biology. These codes, together
observed from the use of personal pronouns as they with the article numbers, were used in file naming.
create explicit attribution of stance (Biber et al., Thus, the code GB01, for instance, indicates the file
1999). As a corpus-based study, this research was name for the first article number taken from Genome
done with the help of a concordance software Biology. Furthermore, only running texts were
WordSmith Tools 5.0 (Scott, 2008). The corpus included in the corpus. Unnecessary information
consists of 20 articles: 10 articles were taken from such as tables, figures, charts, formulas, notes, and
Genome Biology and 10 articles from Molecular references, was removed from the texts.
Systems Biology. The selection of these two journals
was based on their high publication rankings in the To address the linguistic forms of writer
field of agricultural and biological sciences. In 2021, identities and the authorial selves that they express,
Genome Biology was ranked third by Scimago the data, at least in the form of sentences, were
Journal and Country Rank (https://www.scimagojr. examined together with the context from which they
com/journalrank.php?area=1100), with an impact were taken. This was done through a manual analysis
factor of 17.91 in 2021, while Molecular Systems despite the ease of being computer-aided with the
Biology was ranked fifth with an impact factor of concordance software. Before the occurrences of
13.1 in 2021. authorial references were quantified, data sifting
(Ädel, 2006) was carried out to remove unwanted
The selection of the research articles was made instances, for example, the sentences which
conveniently, where selected articles must meet the contained the expression the authors that did not
following criterion: the articles must be published in refer to the authors of the article.

An exploration of the clusivity of first-person
pronouns was also done to check whether they were

76 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022 207.772, p < 0.001). This significant difference might
be affected by their syntactic roles, which will be
used inclusively or exclusively. The frequency of discussed below.
occurrences of first-person pronouns was calculated
and normalized per 10,000 words (p10kw). This was Table 2. Frequency of linguistic forms of writer identities
to help the following analysis, which involved chi- in the corpus
square testing, in order to see if there was a
significant difference in the use of first-person No. Pronouns Raw p10kw
pronouns. 24.81
1. Our 445 0.11
All authorial references were also categorized 1.73
based on the authorial selves expressed through the 2. Ours 2 99.76
use of first-person pronouns. This categorization
followed the categorization formulated by Tang & 3. Us 31 126.41
John (1999) with slight modifications: (1) authors as
representatives, (2) authors as guides through the 4. We 1,789
article, (3) authors as architects of the article, (4)
authors as recounters of the research process, (5) Total 2,267
authors as opinion-holders, and (6) authors as
originators, ordered from the least authoritative to In terms of their clusivity, as Table 3 below
the most authoritative writer identities respectively. shows, this study supports Martín Martín (2003),
Chi-square testing was also applied to the use of indicating that most first-person plurals found in the
different pronouns to see how significant the research articles are exclusive. Only 25 instances (1
difference in the expression of authorial selves was. p10kw) of inclusive pronouns were found. This lack
of inclusive pronouns suggests that the authors of the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION biology research articles in this study rarely employ
personal pronouns merely for involvement
Linguistic Forms of Writer Identities and their strategies. The subsections below discuss in more
Clusivity detail each of the first-person pronouns used to
express authorial identities.
In the corpus, a total of 2,267 instances of first-person
pronouns or 126 instances per 10,000 words were Table 3. Frequency of inclusive and exclusive first-person
found. The first-person pronouns our, ours, us, and pronouns in the corpus
we were found, with the pronoun we being used
most frequently (100 p100kw). Table 2 shows the No. Pronouns Inclusive Exclusive
overall frequency of first-person pronouns and their
clusivity used in the corpus. Raw p10kw Raw p10kw

The findings of this study indicate the use of 1. Our 5 0.28 440 24.53
first-person pronouns as the main linguistic forms to
express writer identities. These findings seem to go 2. Ours 0 0 2 0.11
in line with initial studies investigating co-authored
journal articles from various disciplines (Hyland, 3. Us 1 0.06 30 1.67
2001; Kuo, 1999; Martín Martín, 2003). For instance,
only we, us, and our were found in research articles 4. We 19 1.06 1,770 98.70
from hard sciences (Hyland, 2001). A chi-square test
was run to check whether there is any significant Total 25 1.39 2,242 126.41
difference in the use of first-person pronouns in the
corpus. The results show that there is indeed a very Our
significant difference in the use of authorial
references in research articles in biology (df = 3, χ2= This possessive determiner is the second-most
frequently used linguistic form in the corpus, with a
total of 445 instances, or 25 p10kw. In terms of their
clusivity, the exclusive pronoun our is likewise found
more frequently (25 p10kw), and the inclusive form
occurred five times (0.28 p10kw). As mentioned
previously, this finding seems to go in line with the
overall finding of this research, which is the lack of
inclusivity of first-person plural pronouns.

This finding is quite similar to other studies to
date (Hryniuk, 2018; Dontcheva-Navratilova, 2013;

Luthfia Rozanatunnisa, Tofan D. Hardjanto | Writer Identities in Biology Research Articles | 77

Martin Martin, 2003; Hyland, 2001; 2002; Kuo, Nevertheless, this finding is not surprising since a
1999). For example, Kuo (1999) reported that our was number of previous studies did not find any instances
the second most frequent pronoun used in journal of this form in scientific texts (Hryniuk, 2018; Kuo,
articles in computer science, electronic engineering, 1999; Martín Martín, 2003).
and physics. With respect to its syntactic role, this
possessive pronoun was used less frequently than the Examples (4) and (5) below show that this
nominative pronoun we since our belongs to a group pronoun is always used after a previously mentioned
of possessive determiners (Biber et al., 1999). Below noun phrase to which they refer. In example (4), the
are two examples illustrating the use of the exclusive word ours refers to the authors’ observations, and
our in the corpus. ours in example (5) refers to their results.

(1) Our work is consistent with previous studies (4) These observations and ours have important
(Geiler-Samerotte et al, 2011; Escusa-Toret et consequences regarding the buffering effects
al, 2013; Tomala et al, 2014) and provides of paralogs and their evolution (MSB09D).
quantitative insights as well as a framework to
decouple the fitness cost and benefit of (5) Reassuringly, their results are largely
protein phase separation, and the associated consistent with ours, including the higher
loss/gain of protein function in different mutation rate in female breast tissue (vs male)
environments (MSB02D). and in the sun-exposed skin (vs the non-sun-
exposed skin) of Caucasians but not African-
(2) Inhibition of SFKs by dasatinib led to a Americans, as well as the excess of nonsense
marked reduction of tyrosine phosphorylation mutations in NOTCH1 (GB06D).
sites that were upregulated by palmitate in
our cell-based assay (MSB08D). Us

Example (1) shows one of the uses of exclusive Compared to its nominative form, the accusative
our which is to exclusively elaborate the authors’ form us was used less frequently, with only two
findings in comparison with other findings. The use instances per 10,000 words. This is quite common
of the exclusive our is also to stress their ownership since no occurrence was reported in a number of
of methodology, as demonstrated by example (2). other studies (Carciu, 2009; Işik-Taş, 2018; Mur-
Dueñas, 2007). In addition, Biber et al. (1999) also
(3) A better understanding of whether and how argue that accusative pronouns are commonly
paralogs can compensate for each other’s employed in conversations instead of academic
deleterious mutations therefore requires a prose.
better understanding of the mechanisms
involved. This would improve our The use of exclusive us here is not much
understanding of evolution and also accelerate different from the use of the nominative form we, in
the development of medical interventions which the authors declare and claim that it is the
because redundancy is often a major obstacle work and finding of their own that they are talking
in this context (Lavi, 2015) (MSB09I). about in the text, as shown in example (6) and retell
the activities that they undertook in conducting the
Meanwhile, the use of the inclusive our, as research as shown in example (7).
illustrated in example (3), includes the readers as if
they shared similar understanding on the topic under (6) Our data lead us to propose a model for MadR
discussion. This pronominal use might be a strategy regulation of desA1 and desA2 transcription
of audience positioning where the authors employ as summarized in Fig 6 (MSB03D).
“shared knowledge” and “hearer pronouns” in their
writings (Baumgarten, 2008). (7) This methodology involves a very short, 20-
min immunoprecipitation to limit non-
Ours specific binding of mRNA to beads. This
allowed us to isolate endogenous mRNA
This possessive pronoun occurs least frequently in protein complexes. HEK293 cells were
the corpus, with only two (all exclusive) instances. harvested and lysed in lysis buffer (20mM Tris

78 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022 Authorial Selves in Biology Research Articles

pH7.5, 200mM NaCl, 5mM MgCl2, 0.5% All categories of authorial selves were expressed by
Triton-X100, 1× protease inhibitors (Roche), the authorial references in the corpus, and most
1% BSA, 0.5mM DTT, 5mM NaF, 40U/ml authorial references in this study are employed to
RiboLock (Thermo)). Lysates were spun down express the identity of the authors as the recounters
at 5000 rpm for 10min, and supernatants used of the articles, supporting Hyland (2002), who
in subsequent steps (GB07M). reported a high frequency of pronouns used to
explain procedures. However, this finding
We contradicts the finding reported by Dontcheva-
Navratilova (2013), in which authorial presence in
This nominative form occurs most frequently, where research articles published in the journals Applied
the exclusive form was used 99 times, whereas the Linguistics and Discourse and Interaction mostly
inclusive form was used only one time per 10,000 indicates the authors’ involvement with the readers.
words in the corpus. This dominance is not surprising Table 4 below shows the overall frequency of
since syntactically, nominative pronouns fill the authorial selves in the corpus.
subject position (Biber et al., 1999). This finding also
supports other studies (Hyland, 2001, 2002; Martín Table 4. Frequency of authorial selves in the corpus
Martín, 2003) where the exclusive we is reported to
be the most common first-person pronoun employed No. Authorial Identities raw p10kw
to express authorial identities.
1. Architects of the article 151 8.42
The exclusive we mostly indicate that it is the
authors themselves who carried out the study, as 2. Guides through the article 3 0.17
illustrated in example (8), or it is the authors’ original
works and ideas that are being demonstrated inside 3. Opinion holders 100 5.58
the text, as shown in example (9).
4. Originators 452 25.20
(8) To do so, we collected approximately 10
worms, washed their cuticles to remove the 5. Recounters of the research 1539 85.82
external bacteria, grounded the sample processes
population using a motorized pestle, and
finally estimated the content of their 6. Representatives 22 1.32
intestines by colony counting (Fig 3A)
(MSB05R). Total 2,267 126.41

(9) For both gene classes, we find significantly Chi-square testing shows that authorial selves
more MPRA activity in promoter regions than expressed through the use of plural first-person
in gene bodies (GB03A). pronouns in the corpus also indicate a significant
difference (df = 5, χ2= 260.762, p < 0.001). Much
On the contrary, the inclusive pronouns are more instances of authorial references were used to
used to presume the readers were familiar with the express the authors’ identity in a relatively
related scientific discussion, as illustrated in example authoritative way, meaning that there is a possibility
(10). It may indicate one of these possibilities: one of raised encouragement to writers in expressing
possibility is that the readers were included as an their identities. Each of the authorial selves is
involvement strategy (pluralis auctoris) (Du Bois, discussed in more detail below.
2012), and another possibility is that it was to
represent their targeted readers, who are probably Authors as the Architects of the Article
academic community.
First-person plural pronouns used to express this
(10) For both gene classes, we find significantly identity occur 8.42 times p10kw. This identity is
more MPRA activity in promoter regions than mostly expressed by the pronoun we (6.8 p10kw).
in gene bodies (GB03A). This finding supports the argument that in stating a
goal or a purpose, which belongs to an architect’s
task, authors commonly employ the pronoun we
(Kuo, 1999). Below are two examples illustrating the
use of we to express the authors as the architects of
the article.

Luthfia Rozanatunnisa, Tofan D. Hardjanto | Writer Identities in Biology Research Articles | 79

(11) We demonstrate that depletion of the rG4- Authors as Opinion-Holders
unwinding helicases DHX36 and DHX9
promotes translation of rG4-associated uORFs First-person pronouns which show this identity are
while reducing the translation of coding commonly followed by verbs of thinking and
regions for transcripts that comprise proto- emotions (Vassileva, 1998). Two examples are shown
oncogenes, transcription factors and below.
epigenetic regulators (GB01A).
(15) The present study provides initial discoveries
(12) In this study, we have demonstrated that of genetic influence on 3D chromatin
integrating quantitative analysis of survival conformation and an analytical framework
curves with mathematical modeling allows that we believe will facilitate future efforts to
one to determine how the dynamics unravel the molecular basis of genetic disease
governing pathogen invasion of the host lead risk (GB08D).
to the different time scales associated with
host mortality (MSB05D). (16) However, we suspect that no single
mechanism or causal hierarchy applies to all
Example (11) indicates that the authors are the regions of the genome with variation in one
ones who organize the article by demonstrating the or more of these molecular phenotypes
aforementioned facts inside the text. In example (12), (GB08D).
the authors remind the readers of the information
they discussed previously in their article. Example (15) displays how the writers
attribute their personal viewpoints to their own
Authors as the Guides through the Article findings and, at the same time, trigger the readers to
believe what the authors believe. The authors may
First-person plural pronouns which express this also state their prediction, as shown in example (16).
authorial self were used in only three instances or
only 0.17 p10kw, all belonging to inclusive Authors as Originators
pronouns. This finding supports the argument that
the role as a guide is commonly expressed through The most authoritative writer identity in the corpus
the use of inclusive pronouns (Harwood, 2005c). as originators was expressed through the use of first-
Below are two examples. person pronouns, occurring 25.20 times p10kw. This
considerable number seems to suggest that attempts
(13) However, the trend showed some dependence have been made to write more personal academic
on molecular features such as mRNA writing instead of keeping them too far away from
expression levels, as we discuss below subjectivity. The following three examples illustrate
(MSB09R). how this identity is expressed in biology research
articles.
(14) These tumor types have been thoroughly
analyzed using eight machine-learning (17) Similarly, one of the strongest features from
methods, which provide extensive our models that predicted protection was Pol-
performance results that we can compare to specific antibodies binding C1q (MSB03D).
(Yuan et al, 2014a) (MSB01R).
(18) Our data lead us to propose a model for MadR
In example (13), the authors announce what regulation of desA1 and desA2 transcription
they will discuss next inside the text, meanwhile, as summarized in Fig 6 (MSB06D).
example (14) does not explicitly place the readers in
another place inside the text. Instead, the readers are (19) We find that when Ura3p activity is essential
led to refer to information outside the text which or toxic, on average, cells with a higher
supports the text. fraction of phase-separated protein are
selected against (i.e., higher free protein is
selected for) or for (i.e., less free protein is
selected for), respectively (Fig 5D) (MSB02R).

80 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

In example (17), we can see how the authors One of the usages of this role in the instances
claim their unique findings and promote them by was to seek reader involvement when claiming ideas.
exploring the strongest feature of their model. This supports Dontcheva-Navratilova (2013), who
Example (18) shows that the person behind the argues that the pronouns “position the author as a
accusative form us is the one who owns the data and member of a larger community” (p.321). This role is
originally proposes a new model. The authors also well-illustrated by example (22), where the pronoun
employ personal pronouns to elaborate their findings we here represents researchers in their academic
in example (19). community so that the authors may gain acceptance
of their findings among other researchers in their
Authors as Recounters of the Research Process discipline.

First-person pronouns in the corpus are also used to (22) Thus, using a single oligonucleotide we are
express the self as the recounters of the research able to detect a substantial fraction of copies
process, meaning that the authors show themselves (24.2%) from an abundant and relatively
by retelling the procedural steps they took in ancient TE family with a high rate of
conducting their research. This identity was specificity (95%) (GB02R).
expressed 85.82 times p10kw, by far the most
frequently found authorial identity in the corpus. (23) The presence of clear enhancer activity in
The following are two examples. these loci has important implications for our
current understanding and interpretation of
(20) We selected a subset of the mRNA features lincRNA knockout models, which have been
that best describe the variability in mRNA the focus of intense debate [5, 22] (GB03D).
features in our dataset by assessing their
variances in terms of eigen values (GB01M). (24) Taken together with the observation that
eIF4A2-bound messages have increased
(21) We then assessed the correlations (using a ribosome occupancy in the 5′UTR compared
threshold of |correlation| ≤ 0.85) and linear to all mRNAs (Fig. 2f), as was seen for 5′UTRs
dependencies (using QR decomposition) in of mRNAs sensitive to inhibition of eIF4A1 by
between the selected predictors and found RocA by Iwasaki et al. [37], this suggested to
that all selected predictors were independent us that uninhibited eIF4A2 might be
(GB01M). displaying similar activity to RocA-inhibited
eIF4A1 (GB07R).
Examples (20) and (21) clearly show how the
authors position themselves as the conductor of the In examples (23) and (24), we can easily predict
experiment, step by step. These two instances are that our discussion will not be much different from
found in the same section of the research article. the previous one on inclusive pronouns. This is
They explain two different phases in the experiment. probably why Martin Martin (2003) merged this role
Example (20) attempts to recount the process of data with inclusive pronouns, where this notion is
collection where the researchers selected the mRNA referred to as “Inclusive A” and “Inclusive B” which
features. Meanwhile, example (21) indicates that the represent people in general and a smaller group of
authors undertook an assessment in the phase of data people, respectively. In example (23), the authors
analysis. position themselves among people in their academic
community who share the same understanding of the
Authors as Representatives object under discussion. This is not too distinct from
example (24), in which the authors position
22 instances of first-person pronouns (1.32 p10kw) themselves as merely part of the readers, to which
expressed this authorial role. This finding supports their findings suggest an argument. In this sentence,
Krapivkina (2015), who reported that we is mostly they positioned their findings at a higher level than
used to mark the stance of a representative in they positioned themselves as the contributor to the
research articles. findings. This is probably why this notion is also
mentioned as a “low-risk function of first-person
pronouns” (Isik Tas, 2018, p. 447).

Luthfia Rozanatunnisa, Tofan D. Hardjanto | Writer Identities in Biology Research Articles | 81

CONCLUSION Chávez Muňoz, M. (2013). The I in interaction:
Authorial presence in academic writing.
In the present research, we have explored the use of Reviste de Linguistica y Lenguas Aplicades, 8.
first-person plural pronouns we, us, our, and ours to https://doi.org/10.4995/rlyla.2013.1162
express authorial selves. A total of 2,267 instances of
first-person plural pronouns or 126 instances per Dontcheva-Navrátilová, O. (2013). Authorial
10,000 words were found in the corpus. Most of these presence in academic discourse: functions of
personal pronouns were used exclusively to refer to author-reference pronouns. Linguistica
the authors of the research articles. The high Pragensia, 3(1), 9–30.
incidence of pronominal use in biology research
articles seems to show that academic writing is now Du Bois, I. (2012). Grammatical, pragmatic, and
not purely seen as an impersonal piece writing. There sociolinguistic aspects of first person plural
seems to be a tendency for research article authors, pronouns. In N. Baumgarten, I. Du Bois, and J.
especially in biology, to show their presence in their House (eds.), Subjectivity in Language and in
academic writing through the use of first-person Discourse (pp. 319-338). Brill.
pronouns. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004261921_015.

In terms of the authorial selves expressed by Filimonova, E. (Ed.). (2005). Clusivity: Typology
first-person plural pronouns, we found that most and case studies of inclusive-exclusive
pronouns were employed in order to express the distinction. John Benjamins Publishing
identity of the authors as the recounters of the Company.
research processes and originators of research claims.
This finding suggests that research article authors Fløttum, K., Dahl, T., & Kinn, T. (2006). Academic
tend to employ first-person plural pronouns to Voices. John Benjamins Publishing.
express even more powerfully their presence in their
research articles. Hartwell, L. M., & Jacques, M. (2014). Authorial
presence in French and English: “Pronoun +
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https://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/lexicon Volume 9, Number 2 (October 2022)
Pages 83-94

https://doi.org/10.22146/lexicon.v9i2.66653

A Transitivity Analysis of The Characters’ Actions
in Joseph Jacobs's Fairy Tales

Ahmad Faizin*, Hafidzatul Azizah, Putu Zahra Amalia Atiyoti Jwalita
UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim, Malang, Indonesia

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This study aims at examining the transitivity processes that occurred in the characters’ actions in
Joseph Jacobs’s Fairy Tales. The language style of children's literature is distinct from that of other
fiction. The purpose of this study is not only to provide worthwhile information, particularly on the
language style of children’s literature, in this case of Joseph Jacobs’s fairy tales but also to remedy the
neglected focus on the earlier studies. This study used a descriptive qualitative research methodology.
This study applied Halliday’s transitivity theory which examines the processes of a sentence. Based on
the data analysis, the results found a total of 56 data of several processes as follows 30 material
processes, five mental processes, five behavioral processes, four verbalization, three relational
processes, and an existential process.

Keywords: Children's Literature; Halliday; Joseph Jacobs’s Fairy Tales; Transitivity Process; Short
Story.

INTRODUCTION 2015). Another study also declared that each
transitivity process has functions to build
There have been a number of scholars investigating characterization, such as the mental process
short stories in terms of transitivity processes and the indicating the characters’ cognition (Nugraha &
level of language that results in the main characters’ Mahdi, 2020). In contrast, a few studies have
characterization (Nurhayati, 2018), the themes of the analyzed Jacob’s Fairy Tales by applying the
short story (Halima, 2019), the use of simple and transitivity process. The researchers only discovered
clear language (Hodrmentová, 2008). Through the the studies investigating the level of language
six types of transitivity process, it can discover the (Hodrmentová, 2008). For this reason, this study
typical actions of various characters in English Fairy aims to examine the transitivity process in selected
Tales (Ahmad, 2019). Song (2013) stated that the short stories from Jacobs’ Fairy Tales.
technique of process performed well in identifying
the themes of a short story. Concerning the objective Literature for children is a different topic and
of this research, the prior study demonstrated that study from other genres. At its core, it means that the
such processes could be used to analyze the way this kind of literary work is presented
personality traits of the main character (Hassan et al., acknowledges its distinction, particularly with the
focus on several areas such as style, content, theme,

Ahmad Faizin et al. | A Transitivity Analysis | 83

84 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

and characters (Stephen, 2002). In accordance with the reasons for their decisions.” The previous
that, this research attempts to examine the style of statement underlying the circumstances of children’s
literature for children in more accurate and deeper psychology, which tend to learn, mimic or imitate
areas in Joseph Jacobs’s Fairy Tales that is through the the emotional and moral development of a character
style of language featured in character actions using or a figure they watched (Norton & Norton, 2010).
Halliday’s transitivity process analysis (1994). This Thus, this research gap is interesting to study further
topic is arguably important due to the fact that not only to provide a comprehensive understanding
researchers found a more crucial focus compared to of the more accurate form of style of literature for
previous studies. In addition, the fact that the object children but also to provide adequate preliminary
of the study is one of the most popular works – the information for prospective writers, emphasizing the
English fairy tales with the most readers, style of literature for children in case of writing a
significantly strengthens the importance of this fairy tale.
study.
As shown above, the prior works have
The previous studies related to the objective of provided the transitivity process as the major
this study concentrate on the perspective of criticism technique in the short stories. The researchers do not
and the intrinsic aspect purposes of a short story; for yet find any study applying the method in Jacobs’
example, Halima (2019), who analyzed “He” by fairy tales. In other words, this study intends
Katherine Anne Porter, Song (2013) in his study “A to analyze the style of children’s literature. This
Rose for Emily” by William Faulkner, which uses study is important inasmuch as it remedies the
transitivity in presenting the theme of short stories previous study as there were a neglected yet crucial
chosen, and Ahmad (2019) that used the systemic area to be rectified and presents a more crucial focus
functional linguistics theory to describe the most resulting in the scope of language style of literature
processed applied in “The Happy Prince” by Oscar for children by conducting stylistic analysis,
Wilde. Hodrmentová (2008) employs the same particularly at the transitivity process in character’s
object, which is “English Fairy Tales” by Joseph action used by Jacobs in his book. On top of that,
Jacobs, yet a concern in a different field with this despite the intense focus on the style of children's
study. Hodrmentová examines the stylistic features literature, few researchers have examined the
in the book, such as the layout, language, lexis or object’s language style in the scope of linguistic
vocabulary, dialogues, and genres, thus aiming to branches. This research thus attempts to illuminate
describe the most appropriate words to enrich the transitivity processes employed in characters'
children’s knowledge. Unlike the former studies, this acts in Joseph Jacobs’ Fairy Tales. By doing so, it
research’s goal is to investigate the style of language, could expand a wider academic knowledge, certainly
particularly the transitivity process in character’s in the language style of children's literature.
action used by Jacobs in his book.

This study benefited from preceding works LITERATURE REVIEW
that employed certain stylistic features at both lexical
and syntactical elements (Hodrmentová, 2008). Also, There are numerous studies that employed a similar
the work of transitivity processes analysis (Halima, research scope compared to this study, that is,
2019) and similar frameworks emphasize the stylistic transitivity analysis on characters (Ahmad, 2019;
analysis of characterization as Nurhayati (2018) and Hassan et al., 2015; Nugraha & Mahdi, 2020;
so does in other research (Hassan et al., 2015; Nurhayati, 2018). Initially, in 2015, research was
Nugraha & Mahdi, 2020; Song, 2013). Nevertheless, done by Hassan et al. (2015) to examine the
it draws the novelty by filling the gap in correcting characterization of the protagonist of the short story
the neglected subject in reference to the closest form Clay by J. Joyce. It resulted that through transitivity
of style of literature for children. This gap is analysis, the main character’s personality is able to be
important to be remedied for the reason that examined. Then, in 2018, Nurhayati carried out
literature for children, as Norton (2010) stated, research with the same theoretical framework and
“contains numerous moments of crisis, when scope in another object analysis, I Stand Here
characters make moral decisions and contemplate

Ironing, by T. L. Olsen. It was found that most of the Ahmad Faizin et al. | A Transitivity Analysis | 85
characterization of the protagonist is shown in the
dominant use of material processes. Moreover, in data source as the present study. Applying linguistic-
2019, Ahmad held precise research on different based theory, Hodrmentová divided her analysis into
objects as well, that is, transitivity analysis on the the type of stylistic features in literature for children,
main character of The Happy Prince by O. Wilde. It especially in particular English Fairy Tales, the
resulted that the author employed the material impact of children's development in England, and
processes frequently. Finally, in 2020, Nugraha & how Jacobs's fairy tales became good examples of the
Mahdi held indifferent research that is transitivity literature style for children. She applied Kabele and
analysis on building the character in The Lottery by Becka's stylistics theory which pointed to the layout,
S. Jackson. It resulted that among other processes, the syntactic structures, and lexical selections used in
verbal processes have the highest usage percentages literature for children. By concerning the three
to describe the character. All the studies above used divisions, Hodrmentová examines that Jacob’s fairy
one of the theories in System Functional Linguistics tale's layout appears in color and monochrome and
(SFL) which is transitivity analysis. Therefore, these unmixed up with the text. Additionally, she
studies are practically beneficial to this study in discovers that the stories are written clearly and
terms of the utilization of the theory. Although using simply so the readers are not confused. Furthermore,
the same theory, this study focuses on a different the words utilized in literature for children are
area, that is, the style of language of literature for common, and the structure was entertaining, such as
children used by the author in the character of his the rhymes, funny names of characters, sayings, or
stories. similes. Notwithstanding the used object is the same,
this study explores a more relevant field - transitivity
Other stylistics research, Transitivity Analysis analysis, in accordance with the topic of the study,
of A Rose for Emily, written by Zijiao Song, and The that is language style of children’s literature.
Transitivity Process in the Short Story He by
Katherine Anne Porter, written by Sayyida Amira As a further matter, all the mentioned previous
Halima, focuses on the transitivity of clauses related studies above have their relevancy respectively
to the clauses that express the themes as the topic. towards this study. This study applied the same
Song used William Faulkner's short story entitled A theoretical framework, that is, Halliday’s transitivity
Rose for Emily. In the study, Song argued that the theory, particularly in examining the character
transitivity process worked well to demonstrate the (Ahmad, 2019; Hassan et al., 2015; Nugraha & Mahdi,
theme. Thereafter, Song discovered the theme of the 2020; Nurhayati, 2018) and the themes (Halima,
tragic memory of an aristocrat's life with the solution 2019; Song, 2013). Likewise, relevant to the object
against tradition (Song, 2013). Resembling this paper, analysis, this study also correlated with previous
Song (2013) also applied the processes to uncover a research, which analyzed the stylistic features in
character's action. On the other hand, Halima used a Joseph Jacobs’ Fairy Tales focusing on the style of
short story by Katherine Anne Porter entitled He. language of literature for children in terms of lexical
Similar to Song’s assertion, she declared that the six and syntactical sentences (Hodrmentová, 2008).
processes of transitivity could describe the themes. Nonetheless, this study argues that the previous
As regards the themes, she found illusive love, child research by Hodrmentová (2008) is found to have a
neglect, the importance of appearance and guilt, and deficient urgency in terms of focus analysis. It
hardship in life (Halima, 2019). Compared to this resulted that the study by Hodrmentová, at some
paper, her study indicated only the theme without point, was intended to identify the style of language
involving the characters’ actions specifically. In sum, of the author – not for the language style of children’s
the previous studies mentioned above associated the literature. Therefore, this research delivers the
identical purpose, which reveals the transitivity novelty of the arguably crucial scope analysis of the
process in the short story. language style of children’s literature, particularly in
selected short stories of Joseph Jacobs’s Fairy Tales.
Apart from the research cited, the following This argument is strengthened as Norton stated that
article, Stylistics Analysis in Joseph Jacobs’s Fairy when learning from a literary work, Children tend to
Tales by Lenka Hodrmentová, employed the same imitate the character's actions (Norton & Norton,
2010). All things considered, this study, therefore, is

86 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

conducted to provide sufficient knowledge Unlike material processes, this type prefers using
specifically of the language style of children’s simple past or present tense to the progressive one
literature from the selected short stories of Joseph (Halliday, 2004). For example, Hermione (Sensor)
Jacobs’s Fairy Tales. notices (Process) Harry’s dirty glasses
(Phenomenon).

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Behavioral processes

This study applies Halliday’s theory of transitivity in The behavioral process merges two kinds of processes
Systemic Functional Language (SFL). Furthermore, which include the material and mental processes
transitivity is basically a system that constructs the (Simpson, 2004). On account of the combination of
world of the terms ‘experience’ into a manageable set psychological and physical action, Halliday (2004)
of process types (Halliday, 1994, p. 106). embraces coughing as one of the instances (p. 248).
Nevertheless, this theory is found to be relevant to Also, the conscious states, like crying and laughing,
align with the focus of the study as it examines and the conscious form, including worrying, could be
character actions and behaviors as transitivity refers part of the examples. In this behavioral process, he
to a particular grammatical feature for detaining mentioned the role which participated, comprising
experience, event, or even impression in a language ‘Behaver’ (p. 250). Since this process consists partially
(Simpson, 2004). Moreover, transitivity processes of material processes, the role of ‘Behaver’ tends to
consist of six types of processes that are; material be mental-like, which mirrors Sensor (Simpson,
processes, mental processes, behavioral processes, 2004). In addition, Halliday (2004) indicated that the
verbalization, relational processes, and existential behavioral process is one that is inclined to be
processes. material-like which reflects “the doing-process”.
One of the adequate pieces of evidence is That girl
Material processes (Behaver) cried (Process) in her room
(Circumstance).
This process can be mentioned as the “process of
doing” (Simpson, 2004). It obliged two participants, Verbalization
including ‘Actor’ and ‘Goal’. In addition, this process
is classified into action-intention, passive voice Verbalization, as it is concerned with the articulation
action-intention, and action-supervention (Burke, of thought, Gerot & Wignell (1994) claimed that this
2014). In regards to the former kind, the clause process is done through the action of saying and
“Daniel (Actor) threw (Process) the ripped paper signaling precisely as Halliday (1994) stated that it is
(Goal)” would imitate the key participants as though the process of ‘saying’. This process is arrayed with
it altered into passive voice action-intention. Equally the ‘Sayer’ as the role of the participants (the
important, the latter type uncovers the passive shift producer of speech), the ‘Receiver’ as the entity to
and the extracted goal and demonstrates the results. which speech is aimed, and the ‘Verbiage’ as that
For instance, “The ripped paper (Actor) fell off which is said (Simpson, 2004). For instance, the
(Process)”. Hence, this clause is considered the after- teacher (Sayer) announced (Processes) the vacation
effect of the following processes. plan (Verbiage) to the students (Receiver).

Mental processes Relational processes

On the other hand, Simpson (2004) stated that a Among other types, the most complex category of
mental process could be defined as the “process of transitivity processes is the relational process. These
sensing” (p. 23). This process encoded ‘Sensor’ and are processes of ‘being’ or ‘becoming’, which, in
‘Phenomenon’ as the key participants encompasses specific matters, establish relationships between two
“cognition, reaction, perception” (p. 23). As for the entities (Simpson, 2004). Yet, this process could be
examples, cognition includes thinking, reaction simply seen as a process of identifying or assigning
covers hating, and perception contains listening. (Gerot & Wignell, 1994). Halliday (1994) himself

Ahmad Faizin et al. | A Transitivity Analysis | 87

stated that these processes come in two distinct result, it might depict the view of how he
models; attributive and identifying. However, understands reality. Accordingly, the data sources
according to Simpson (2004), there is general were “The Cat and the Mouse”, “Teeny-Tiny”, and
agreement that relational processes come in three “The Lazy Jack” from the short story of English Fairy
main types; intensive, possessive, and Tales written by Joseph Jacobs, published by A PENN
circumstantial. STATE ELECTRONIC CLASSICS SERIES
PUBLICATION in 2005. The writer chose this
An intensive relational process points to the publisher as the original version of the stories
relationship of equivalence. An ‘x is y’ collected by the author. Furthermore, the data was
connection. For example, John’s performance (x) collected in the form of documents by close reading
was (is) emotional (y). A possessive relational process and taking notes.
draws an ‘x has y’ connection. For example, John (x)
has (has) a Lamborghini car (y). A circumstantial Enhance, this paper has analyzed the data by
relational process is where the circumstantial using the transitivity approach as a branch of
element is being upgraded, thus fulfilling the role of Systemic-Functional Linguistics (SFL) theory. SFL
a full participant in the process. It draws a ‘x is at/is concepts are rooted in language as functional and
in/ is on/ is with/ y’ connection. For example, the language as meaning-making (Halliday, 1994). While
festival (x) is on (is on) all day (y). transitivity means the way meanings are made in the
clause and how different types of its processes are
In the attributive model, the entity is described illustrated in the language (Simpson, 2004). The
as the carrier. It showed what the carrier is and is theory includes material processes, mental processes,
like, where the carrier is, what it owns, and so on. behavioral processes, verbalization processes,
Whereas, in identifying a model, the role is relational processes, and existential processes. Lastly,
reversible for them to be referred to one another. For the analysis would apply all of the processes in the
instance, John (identified) is (process) the best progress of this research. Subsequently, the result
American actor (identifier). would enlighten the researcher's aims of this
research.
Existential processes
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
At its base, existential processes are simply asserting
that something exists or happens (Halliday, 1994, p. Based on the analysis, the researchers found six types
142). It typically uses the word ‘there’ as a dummy of processes in general. There are material processes,
subject - for the reason that it refers to the existence mental processes, behavioral processes,
of an unclear subject and normally only contains one verbalization, relational processes, and existential
participant role, the ‘existent’ (Simpson, 2004). For processes. Further, the numbers of data found were
example, Was there an assault, or has there been a up to 56 in total. However, the researchers would
phone call? only present several representatives due to the
identical description and analysis.
METHODS

This study employs a descriptive-qualitative method Material Processes
since the findings have not been through statistical
procedures or calculations (Rahardjo, 2020). In all of the selected short stories, material processes
Rahardjo (2020) stated that the study focuses on are occupied respectively. Specifically, in Teeny-
ethnomethodology, which is the study used to Tiny, there are four material processes, nine in Lazy
examine how individuals create and understand their Jack, and seventeen in The Cat and The Mouse. The
daily lives, such as how they solve problems. In this findings were identified using the transitivity system
paper, the researcher tends to dig up how the author by examining the actor, the process, and the goal.
describes the characters in the short story. As a The result of the material processes analysis can be
seen below:

88 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022 (7) “Jack took the jar and put it into the large
pocket of his jacket.”
Material Processes in Teeny-Tiny
(8) “... in a short time pussy scratched him so
(1) “This teeny-tiny woman put on her teeny- much ….”
tiny bonnet, ….”
(9) “... he did it, and began walking slowly home
(2) “... the teeny-tiny woman opened the teeny- with his prize.”
tiny gate, ….”
(10) “They lived in a large house, …”
(3) “... the teeny-tiny woman put the teeny-tiny
bone.” As can be seen above, a number of material
processes are found in the short story Lazy Jack.
(4) “... she hid her teeny-tiny head ….” Following the transitivity system, the sentences in
(5) consist of the verb “get” as the main process, the
As can be seen above, four data of material subject “his mother…” as the actor, and the phrase
processes were found in the short story Teeny-Tiny. “do anything” as the goal. Furthermore, the
In (1), based on the transitivity system, the phrase syntactical system in (6) is simply formed.
“This teeny-tiny woman” is the actor of the Specifically, it consists of two main lexical verbs as
processes, the verb “put on” is the process that is done the main processes, which are “went out,” and
by the actor, and the goal of the processes is “her “hired”, the subject “He” as the actor, and the
teeny-tiny bonnet, ...”. Similarly, the remaining pronoun “himself” as the goal. A similar tenses
examples are practically present in the same system structure also occurred in (7). Similar to (1), both
with the center of the processes being the verbs such examples (8) and (10) are ordered in a basic system of
as opened, put, and hid. Likewise, the actor and the transitivity processes. Moreover, example (9)
goal were the same in terms of the systematics of the presented a different structure of material processes
tenses. as it is identified as a complex sentence. It can be seen
in the data above that it consists of two main verbs,
In the data above, it can be seen that the author “did” and “walking” as the processes. Since it is a
tends to use a simple tense form for the transitivity complex sentence, the subject “he” is applied as the
processes. According to Huddleston and Pullum actor of both verbs. Still, the two objects, “it” and
(2007), there are three primary forms of verb “home,” are classified as the goal of the processes.
paradigm: preterite or past tense, 3rd person singular
present, and plain participle or the lexical base of the Looking at the sentences, all the examples are
verb. Likewise, it could be seen in (2) and (4) that the categorized past tense for the reason that such verbs,
author uses the preterite form as the verb "open" and “went, hired, took, put, scratched, did, began, and
"hide" were presented in their past tense form, lived” are written in the past form. However, for
"opened" and "hid". The tenses used in (2) and (4), example 9, the dependent clause is classified as a
thus, are categorized as past tense. Meanwhile, in (1), progressive aspect by means of the auxiliary be, or in
the author used a prepositional phrase, a this sentence is “began”, followed by a gerund-
combination of the verb “put” and the preposition participle of “walking” (Huddleston & Pullum, 2007).
“on”. Still, the verb used is in the form of plain Furthermore, Huddleston and Pullum (2007) stated
present. Similar to (1), the same design of the verb that one type of verb is auxiliary verbs. It refers to
paradigm is found in (3) as the used verb is the plain several distinguished verbs which have the special
form of “put”. Therefore, both tenses in (1) and (3) subclass known as modal auxiliaries. Similarly, even
are designed in the form of simple present tense. As though in example 5 the word “could” is indicated as
a result, while (1) and (3) utilize simple present tense, a verb, still, it grammatically functions as the modal
(2) and (4) use simple past tense. auxiliaries of the sentence (Huddleston and Pullum,
2007). Therefore, the pronoun “him” is presented as
Material Processes in Lazy Jack the recipient of the processes. In addition, according
to Huddleston and Pullum (2007), the verb in the
(5) “His mother could not get him to do anything dependent clause in example 9 is categorized as a
for her….” non-finite verb as the sentence consists of two

(6) “He went out and hired himself ….”

Ahmad Faizin et al. | A Transitivity Analysis | 89

clauses. It, therefore, makes the next gerund been identified utilizing the process of transitivity by
participle as the main verb. In conclusion, this identifying the sensor, the process, and the
process’ examples in Lazy Jack include past tense in phenomenon. The result of the analysis could be seen
each example, while some involve auxiliary verb; below.
gerund-participle and modal auxiliary, and non-
finite clauses. Mental Processes in Teeny-Tiny

Material Processes in The Cat and The Mouse (16) “... she saw a teeny-tiny bone.”

(11) “The Cat bit the mouse’s tail off.” (17) “... she was awakened by a teeny-tiny voice
….”
(12) “First She leapt, …”
As written above, the first sentence comprises
(13) “And then she ran, …” two participant roles, including sensor and
phenomenon. “She” is the sensor, while “a teeny-tiny
(14) “Till she came to the cow.” bone'' is the phenomenon. “saw” is the transitivity
process itself. Among the three of consciousness, this
(15) “Then the baker gave mouse bread.” sentence is considered to be a perception. Hence, the
subject or the sensor would like to see the object or
In the last short story, there are five examples the phenomenon. It constitutes the mental process
that are presented above. The data appears to be inasmuch as the process is formed in the simple past
simply examinable. It can be seen in examples (11), of “see”. Through the word “see,” it is unnecessary to
the main process is the verb “bit”, an action which is re-examine the verb, whether it’s material or mental
done by the actor “The cat”, with the goal “the past because it is a sense-verb in which the verb
mouse’s tail off”. Likewise, the sentences in example could not be used in the progressive form. As a result,
14 and 15 are structured with the identical syntactic the sample above accounts for the mental process.
order as in example (11). Nonetheless, sentences in
examples (12) and (13) present a concise form of Following the initial sample, the second
transitivity system of material processes. It can be sentence also consists of two participant roles, sensor,
seen in the data above under Halliday's transitivity and phenomenon, involving the process. “She”
(1994), these types of tenses only consist of the actor becomes the sensor, “a teeny-tiny voice” as the
and the process without the element of the goal. phenomenon, and “was awakened by” is the process.
More specifically, it is simply the pronoun “She” as What makes it different from the inception resides in
the actor of both examples and the verb “leapt” the sentence form, which uses the passive voice.
(example (12)) and “ran” (example (13)) as the Unlike the material process, this process did not
processes. undergo a participant role change even if the form is
shifted. For this reason, the sensor, the one who
In general, the data found above are all sensed it, is “she”. The phenomenon, which is not
categorized as past tenses. As Huddleston and Pullum affected by the process directly, is “a teeny-tiny
(2007) stated, the past tense, or they might call it the voice”. Furthermore, this process is included in the
preterite, has the central use of indicating past time reaction because of the phenomenon.
or action done in the past. Similarly, all the verbs
used in the sentences above are shaped in the form of The findings above cover the statement of
preterite. Particularly, the verb past tense of the verb Simpson (2004) which demonstrates that mental
“bit” is identically “bit”, the past form of leap is process is established through “the process of
“leapt”, the past form of run is “ran”, and so on. sensing”. Regarding Huddleston and Pullum’s (2007)
Therefore, in this case, they used past tenses in every assertion, example (16) embraces active clauses and
example. example (17) encompasses passive clauses. In the
former example, it can be detected that the clause is
Mental Process utilized as action due to the subject “she” indicating
“the performer of the action”. On the other hand, the
Following the material process, mental processes are latter example declares the passive form through “the
employed. In Teeny-Tiny, there are two mental
processes and three in Lazy Jack. The findings had

90 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

undergoer of the action” of the subject. Besides, the the non-finite clauses, which is constructed in to-
verb of each example had shown both forms, active infinitival. The “to-infinitival” is functioned as an
and passive. Moreover, taking Huddleston and adjunct, involving “extraposed object”. Following the
Pullum’s (2007) idea, example (17) can be considered prior example, example 20 covers the sentence form
more complex than example (16) since there were of a combination of past tense and a prepositional
“was” and “by” included in the clause, which leads to phrase. It can be seen that the main sentence, “he lost
being “non-canonical”. As a result, this section it,...” used the verb “lose” in preterite form. The
discovered active and passive clauses, which showed prepositional phrase “...in passing over a brook” is
that the passive one tended to be more complex than marked by the word “in”. Moreover, example 19
the active one. considers “her speech and hearing” as the predicative
complement due to the verb being a dependent verb
Mental Processes in Lazy Jack that needs another word to make it grammatically
correct (Huddleston & Pullum, 2007). In sum, while
(18) “Jack found it hard to hoist the donkey on his example 18 embraced the non-finite clause type for
shoulders…” the complement, the remaining found prepositional
phrase and predicative complement.
(19) “(She) immediately recovered her speech and
hearing.” Behavioral Process

(20) “… he lost it in passing over a brook.” Besides the two types of processes above, behavioral
processes are identified. This type involved two
Three samples in Lazy Jack above, which were processes in Teeny-Tiny and four processes in Lazy
taken from Lazy Jack belong to the mental process. Jack. These findings have been analyzed in the
Similar to the former evidence, the sentences are transitivity process and discovered the identification
involved in the mental process with different types of the behaver, the process, and the circumstances.
of consciousness. “Jack, she, and he” are the sensors, Below are the results of behavioral processes.
while “... it hard to hoist…, her speech and hearing,
and it in passing over a book” are the phenomenon. Behavioral Processes in Teeny-Tiny
Initially, the first sentence is included in perception.
Due to the “found” verb, it means the sense to (21) “... she hid her teeny-tiny head ….”
discover something with one or more fifth senses.
Moreover, the last second sentences participate in (22) “... the teeny-tiny voice again cried out from
cognition since the verbs, recovered and lost, the teeny-tiny cupboard.”
represent the action who have done cognitively.
Above, it can be perceived that both of the
As stated by Simpson (2004), transitivity examples are included in the behavioral process.
processes were “attributed to characters and Examples (21) embraces “she” as the behaver and
narrators”. The statement emphasized the mental “her teeny-tiny head” as the circumstance. As well as
process to portray the ‘world of consciousness’ the preceding sample which delivers two participant
(Simpson, 2004). As in examples (16) and (18), which roles, example (22) uncovers “the teeny-tiny voice”
reveals cognition, it could be identified with one of as the behaver and “from the teeny-tiny voice” as the
the five senses humans have. Example (17) considers circumstance. In addition, two of them have the verb
reaction which uncovers the action encountered “hid” and “cried out”. The former is descended from
after interacting with the process of sensing. the verb “hide”. According to the Oxford dictionary,
Meanwhile, examples (19) and (20) indicates a sense “hid” means “keep out of sight”. In this case, “hide”
of thinking cognitively since they disclosed the type became the process of behavior since the context is
of cognition. to be scared of something. Thus, it associates
physiological actions, ‘she hid it because she is
The results of the mental process, which were scared’. On the other hand, “cried out” also means to
written in the examples of Lazy Jack have scream or to yell, so that it releases a sound. For this
encompassed Halliday’s (1994) theory. As declared in reason, the phrase is involved in the state of
Huddleston and Pullum (2007), in example (18), “to
hoist the donkey on his shoulders” indicates one of

Ahmad Faizin et al. | A Transitivity Analysis | 91

consciousness. As a result, the data above that it used the past form of the verb “laughed”
demonstrates a behavioral process. followed by the auxiliary verb “had”. Therefore, it
constructs a sample of a perfect past tense. As a result,
In the data shown above, it can be seen that two of the examples involved simple present tense
example (21) indicates a simple past tense form of the and the remainder used perfect past tense.
sentence. As has been mentioned before, this
example used the past tense form of the lexical “hide” Verbalization
that is “hid” which means it is an action done in the
past (Huddleston & Pullum, 2007). On the other Turning to the next process, verbalization is used in
hand, example (22) grammatically produced a past a small number in Jacob’s short story. In detail,
tense either indicated by the verb “cried” which is Teeny-Tiny provides one verbalization, and Lazy
the past form of “cry”. However, this example Jack has several verbalizations in the story. This
presents a verb phrase that “cried out” which process includes the speaker as the actor who
produced a different meaning compared to its lexical produces the speech associated with verbalization,
definition. By contrast, the verb phrase “cried out” is the process, verbiage, or the words get said, also the
more likely to be defined as the synonym of “shout”. receiver. Therefore, the data and findings are
All in all, every example in this section used past described below.
tense.

Behavioral Processes in Lazy Jack Verbalization in Teeny-Tiny

(23) “... (he) … bask in the sun....” (26) “... the teeny-tiny woman said to her teeny-
tiny self.”
(24) “Now she had never laughed in her life….”
In Teeny-Tiny, we can see the one and only
(25) “…she burst out into a great fit of laughter.” verbalization is using the ‘said’ process. ‘the teeny-
tiny woman’ is functioning as the speaker who did
Similar to the former one, the examples above the process of ‘said’ to the receiver, which is ‘her
are also identified as behavioral processes, teeny-tiny self’. Besides ‘said’, other processes
participated by the behaver and the circumstance. In commonly used for verbalizations are ‘say,’ ‘talk,’
example (23), “he” took the roles of the behaver, ‘announce,’ ‘reply,’ ‘call,’ ‘claim,’ etc.
while “in the sun” as the circumstance. Thereafter,
example (24) adopts “she” as the behaver and “in her Huddleston and Pullum (2007) stated that a
life” as the circumstance. Finally, “she” in example sentence always has its clause type. They distinguish
(25) can be regarded as the behaver and “into a great the types into several classes, such as declarative,
fit of laughter” as the circumstance. Moreover, close and open interrogative, exclaiming, and
example (23) is included in the state of consciousness directing or imperative. A declarative clause is a form
since the action is to lie and relax. Examples (24) and of giving a statement. Besides, exclamatives are used
(25) show the physiological actions, which are to utter an expression, and imperatives are for giving
‘laughed’ and ‘burst out’. Both indicate the same direction or command. Taking the data in Teeny-
actions of physical and biological behavior. Tiny, there is no spoken word. The “said to her
teeny-tiny self” is proof that the author did not
Unlikely different from the data in Teeny- provide any verbiage. Hence, Jacobs writes the
Tiny, the data in Lazy Jack used the simple present verbalization of the story in the type of declarative
tense of the sentences. It can be seen in examples (23) clause.
and (25) that the plain form of the verbs “bask” and
“burst out” is used. In the data above, there is a Verbalization in Lazy Jack
sample of a perfect tense. Further, Huddleston and
Pullum (2007) stated that a perfect tense, or the (27) “So they called him Lazy Jack.”
perfect, is a past tense that is marked by means of an
auxiliary verb rather than by inflection. (28) “You stupid boy,” said his mother.”
Correspondingly, the sentence in example (24) is
categorized as the perfect past tense for the reasons (29) “I’ll do so another time,” replied Jack.”

92 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

In the data above, verbalization processes are becoming the tool of this process. Accordingly, this
found in a bigger number than in the previous story. process explained the intensive relation between
Example (27) showed ‘they’ as the speaker, followed both participants. More specifically, Simpson (2004)
by ‘called’ as the process and ‘him’ for the receiver, stated in his book that the origin mark of intensive
and also ‘Lazy Jack’ as the verbiage. In Example (28) relational processes is the to be “is”. Nevertheless,
the structure is changed into verbiage-process- grammatically, in the example above the to be “is”
speaker. “You stupid boy” takes the role of verbiage, was presented in the form of past participle which
‘said’ is the process, and ‘his mother’ becomes the later produced as “was”.
speaker. Besides, the fourth example also uses the
same structure, such as “I’ll do so another time” as the Contrasting the relational transitivity,
verbiage, the process is ‘replied’, and the speaker Huddleston and Pullum’s (2007) relative and
mentioned is ‘Jack’. subordination concept established a relational
process in the form of compound and complex
Furthermore, Huddleston and Pullum’s (2007) sentences. Thus, the relational transitivity is closer to
clause types could be shed in the light of this story the nominal sentences, when the verb is placed with
too. The uniqueness of this process is the structure an auxiliary verb such as is am are. Relating to the
could be in the form of active and passive declaration. only example, the relational process “was” occupies
The process is always in the form of a verb, so it the predicate role in nominal sentences. Therefore,
creates a picture of how the speaker delivers the this case includes compound and complex sentences.
speech. Additionally, the predicate is always in
between the speaker and the verbiage or receiver. Relational Processes in Lazy Jack
Also, Jacobs uses declarative types in Lazy Jack as he
wrote the statement the character spoke. (31) “Jack was so lazy (line 4)”

Besides, taking Schunk (2004), the (32) “… and the sight was so comical and strange.”
verbalization process is one of the methods that
successfully improve children’s self-efficacy and Furthermore, the objects explained the
brain storage. Reminding the aim of this journal intensive relation as well. In example (31), “Jack”
which is finding the best processes, Jacob used takes the position as the actor and “so lazy” as the
verbalization to enhance the attention of children. object. They are linked by the process of the verb
As a result, the children may easily understand the “was”. Besides, example (32) gives the actor roles to
story and apply the moral message in reality. “the sight” and “comical and strange” as the object.
Again, “was” becomes the process that associates
Relational Process both parties to explain the situation of the actor in
the form of the object. Additionally, as in the earlier
Besides those processes, Relational is the most session, the discussion of the verb “was” is quite
complex transitivity process. As well as the name, identical.
relational processes consist of the relation between
two entities. The process consists of the actor as X In specific, the relationship establishes the
and the object as Y, also the process (in variety of process of ‘being’. Furthermore, there are three
form discussed further). Herewith, relational processes. The first process is in the form of intensive,
processes that are found only in Teeny-Tiny and in ‘x is y’ or in a grammatical named nominal sentence.
Lazy Jack will be explained. This process is used for equal objects that are related
to each other. Then, the possessive process, ‘x has y’
Relational Processes in Teeny-Tiny shows the ownership of an object. Thirdly,
‘circumstance’ relational processes in the form ‘x is
(30) “... she was a teeny-tiny bit tired.” in/on/at/with/ y’ that aim to fulfill the role of a full
participant in the process. However, the researcher
In the data shown above, “she” becomes the only discovers intensive relational processes in the
actor, and “a teeny-tiny bit tired” is the object. These chosen short story.
two relations are connected with the word “was”.
Taking transitivity processes, the verb here is Completely the same with Teeny-Tiny, the
concept of relation is found to be different between

Ahmad Faizin et al. | A Transitivity Analysis | 93

Huddleston and Pullum (2007) and Halliday (1994). All and all, the data above showed the type of
It is because Huddleston and Pullum (2007) focus on sentences of past tense and the use of the genitive
the relational concept between clauses, while pronouns of who. More specifically, as the past tense
Halliday (1994) aims to settle the verb as the process has been explained before (Huddleston & Pullum,
of relation to connect the ‘x’ and ‘y’. As shown, ‘Jack 2007), it can be seen that in example (34), the lexical
was so lazy’ the connection ‘was’ is linking the actor verb “happen” is presented in the form of past
’Jack’ and the adjective ‘so lazy’. Consequently, the participle “happened”. Thus, the sentence is included
relational process in transitivity aims to tie the words as the past tense. Besides existential processes,
rather than connect the clauses, which resided in example (33) was also related to the relational
Huddleston and Pullum’s (2007) concept. concept by Huddleston and Pullum (2007)
mentioned above. The use of “whose” signs
Existential Process subordinate clauses called relative clauses as the
word “whose” connects the genitive possession of the
Finally, the transitivity model named existential name Jack with the mentioned subject “boy”. Thus,
processes is found in a mere one of the stories. Similar this section revealed the phenomena of past tense
to relational processes, the existential process has the and relational concepts.
goal of asserting that something happens or exists.
Yet, this process usually uses ‘there’ as the marker, CONCLUSION
and only one subject called ‘existent’ is filled by a
noun from a verbal process. Thus, the use of this Based on the data analysis, the researchers conclude
process is uncommon in the chosen story, yet the that the transitivity processes were occupied in the
writer found some of them in the Lazy Jack. short stories with the number 56 in total.
Specifically, 30 material processes, 5 mental
Existential Process in Lazy Jack processes, 5 behavioral processes, 4 verbalizational
processes, 3 relational processes, and 1 existential
(33) “…there was a boy whose name was Jack (line process. In addition, the researchers notice the
1).” grammatical types in each process as follows: (1)
relational concepts in relational and existential
(34) “Now it happened that in the course of his processes, (2) compound and complex sentence in
journey…” relational process, (3) simple present tense in
material process, (4) simple past tense in material,
Clearly mentioned in the first example of the behavioral, existential processes, (5) perfect past
existential process, “there” is the marker, and “was a tense in behavioral process, (6) non-finite clauses in
boy” is the existent. This might be questionable due material and mental processes, (7) declarative clauses
to the unclear reasonable background of the use of in verbalizational process, (8) active and passive
“was,” is not categorized as a relational process. Still, clauses in mental process, and (9) auxiliary verbs in
the answer is simple because example 1 aimed to material process. Concerning the results, the
describe the existence of “a boy name was Jack” by researchers, therefore, declare that the most
presenting the existential mark “there”. Further, this frequently used type of process is material processes.
discussion corresponds with the existential process, On the other hand, notwithstanding the most
which is elaborated by Simpson (2004). Resembling processes found is material process, verbalization
the previous discussion, example (34) also process is the most advisable process to support the
demonstrated the existence of something frequent process in writing literature for children
“happening”. “It happened” functions as the marker, because it helps children to follow the instruction
and “in the course of his journey” becomes the and understand the moral message. Moreover, since
existent. Hence, this example is found to be a unique the topic of this research is to understand the
form of transitivity since the reader is expected to be language style of children literature, and by
questioning ‘what happened?’ due to the semantic considering the finding of transitivity processes, the
matters which are conveyed within the syntactical
order.

94 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022 Huddleston, R., & Pullum, G. K. (2007). A Student’s
Introduction to English Grammar. Cambridge
researchers thus argue that the most suitable and University Press.
appropriate language style for children literature are
material and verbalization processes. Norton, D., & Norton, S. (2010). Through The Eyes
of A Child: An Introduction to Children’s
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https://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/lexicon Volume 9, Number 2 (October 2022)
Pages 95-106

https://doi.org/10.22146/lexicon.v9i2.76061

The Patterns of Blends Found in Food and Beverage Names
on Instagram

Ummi Adha Khoirunnisa, Rio Rini Diah Moehkardi*
English Department, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The present study examines the patterns of blends found in food and beverage names found on
Instagram and describes the possible new meaning of the blends. Mattiello's classification (2013) of
blends was adopted as the approach to analyze the data. From the findings, 53 data can be considered
blends. The data are classified into three groups: the first is morphotactic, the second morphonological
(and graphic), and the third morphosemantic. The results show that morphotactically the most
productive pattern of the blends is total blend, more specifically blends in which the beginning of the
first source word is followed by the end of the second source word with 19 data or 34.5 percent.
Second, Morphonologically and orthographically, the most productive blend is non-overlapping
blends with 31 data or 58.5 percent. Last, morphosemantically, the coordinate blend is more frequent
than attributive blends with 30 data or 56.6 percent.

Keywords: beverage, blends, food, patterns.

INTRODUCTION as in social, political, technological, and economic
aspects, and many more.
Language is part of human culture and has become
an essential and inseparable component of daily life. One of the language functions in economics is
Language has existed since individuals tried to advertisements. Oxford dictionary defines
interact with each other. In language, it must contain advertisement as "a notice or announcement in a
at least two individuals to communicate, the speaker public medium promoting a product, service, or
(sending information) and the listener (receiving event or publicizing a job vacancy." In business
information). Both speaker and listener must share strategy, advertisements attract customers to buy
the same knowledge to understand the language so their product or service. Sometimes, the advertiser
that the information can be properly delivered creates new words for their product to make the
without causing misunderstanding or miscom- customer curious and interested in their product.
munication. The new words are usually unique and catchy.

The prime function of language is to deliver In the linguistic study, the word-formation
information and connect people. Thus, language is process is investigated in morphology. Morphology
applicable in almost everything in human life, such studies the rule of word forming and explains how
words are formed. Since people are creative, they can

Ummi A. Khoirunnisa, Rio R. D. Moehkardi | The Patterns of Blends | 95

96 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022 in the context of Indonesia as our research also
focuses on the blending formation taking place in
create, borrow, or re-form existing words to become Indonesia and being created by Indonesians.
new words with new meanings. There are many
ways and processes for a new word to enter the Setyowati (2015) mainly discusses and analyses
language. The common word-formation process blends used as snacks and beverage brands. This
types are Compounding, Blend, study aims to identify and classify blended words
Clipping/Truncation, Backformation, Conversion, into four types of patterns using the Prosodic
Acronyms, and Abbreviations (Plag, 2003). morphological approach. She found that coining
each beginning of two words is the structural
This paper focuses on one of the word- formation of blends mostly used in the data collected.
formation processes, which is blends. Mattiello states The structural formations that are most relevant to
that blends are new words coined by merging parts the size of blends based on the number of syllables of
of existing words, as in camcorder from cam(era) and the second source words are coining the beginning
(rec)order, or brunch, from br(eakfast) and (l)unch, and ending elements of the words (83.33%).
or one complete word and part of another word, as
in chatire (← chat + (sa)tire) (2013). The present A similar study was done by Maulana (2016).
study explores the patterns of blends in food and This study analyzes blends using the prosodic
beverage names found on Instagram and describes morphology approach by Plag (2003). The data used
the meaning of the words. are 50 blends of application names found in the
Google Play Store. The result shows there are 19
One of the products advertised is food. Since most-possible combinations of syllabic constituents.
food is one of the main needs of human beings, This research finds that the combination of syllable +
people produce and process agricultural products syllable was the most frequently used (16 apps
into various kinds of food. In the culinary business names) combination. Then, it is followed in a row by
world, one of the reasons why people want to buy the combinations of syllables + syllable (10 names),
food and beverages is because they find the name of syllable + syllables (6 names), and syllable and
food or beverage is so unique that they are attracted ultimate onset + syllable (3 names). In addition, the
to try them. New kinds of food are invented every size of the syllable of the blends mostly followed the
day. People are competing to create interesting new size of the syllable of the second source word (16 apps
creations of dishes. Some of the inventors take the names) which agreed with Plag's restriction.
opportunity to open their culinary businesses. They
also invented new and unique words to name after Another study is Sangthita (2017). The data of
their food creation using a unique word-formation this research are names of events held in Yogyakarta
process too. Seeing the high number of this from the year 2014 until 2017. The study focuses on
phenomenon attracts the writer to do the research. analyzing the data using Hosseinzadeh's
Many sellers use internet-based media as their classification to determine the types of blends,
advertisement media. Most food stalls and reconstruct the blends morphologically, and quantify
restaurants nowadays put their product menu on each type which results in finding out that
internet-based media such as Instagram as a way to overlapping is the most frequently used type of
make the customers know their product, especially blend.
for those who aim for food enthusiasts and young
people as their potential market target. Hence, the A study by Widyastiarni (2013) examines the
researchers attempt to collect the data from the types of English blends used in the headlines of The
menus found on Instagram. Jakarta Post in 2012. The result shows that she
discovered ten blends which are categorized into
LITERATURE REVIEW three types according to Plag's formulation (2003).

Although there have been a number of research on The studies represent the work on English
blending formation processes, the current blends in Indonesia. We believe that there is still
researchers conduct the literature review of research room for originality. Although the present research
also deals with blending, it has its own objectives and
different data source. We focus on how food and

Ummi A. Khoirunnisa, Rio R. D. Moehkardi | The Patterns of Blends | 97

beverage names found on Instagram were created in iii. The full word is intercalated within a
the form of blends. Furthermore, this research also discontinuous splinter (e.g. adorkable (←
uses Mattiello's formula (2013), the most recent adorable + dork)
formula for blending.

Morphonology and Orthographic blends

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Morphonologically and orthographically, blends are
classified based on whether or not there are shared
As mentioned above, this study adopts Mattiello's sounds or letters between their source words. In this
classification of blends (2013). She classifies blends classification, blends are divided into two categories:
into three: the first is morphotactic, the second is overlapping and non- overlapping blends.
morphonological (and graphic), and the last is
morphosemantic (p.116-126). Overlapping

Morphotactic blends An overlapping blend is a phonological overlap of
vowels, consonants, or syllables between the
Morphotactically, blends are divided based on the constituents, with or without a proper shortening.
source words' retained part(s). Blends in this The sub-patterns are:
classification are divided into two categories: total
and partial blends. i. The constituents may overlap both
orthographically and phonologically, with no
Total blend other shortening. (e.g. cattitude ← cat +
attitude)
A blend can be categorized as a total blend if all the
source words (or SW for short) are reduced into ii. The constituents overlap orthographically
splinters. Based on the position, there is a number of and phonologically, with the shortening of (at
sub-patterns: least) one. (e.g. criticular ← critical +
particular)
i. The beginning of one word is followed by the
end of another (e.g. geep ← goat + sheep). iii. The constituents overlap phonologically but
not orthographically. (e.g. cellebrity ← cell +
ii. Both splinters are the beginning of the SWs celebrity)
(e.g. Alcan ← Alaska + Canada).
Non-overlapping
iii. Both splinters are the end of the SWs
(e.g. Kittylicious ← Hello Kitty + delicious). Non-overlapping blends or substitution blends
exhibit neither phonological nor orthographic
iv. Either the beginning or the end of a splinter is overlap between the constituents.
embedded in a discontinuous splinter (e.g.
bamfuzzle ← bamboozle + fuzzy).

Partial blend Morphosemantic blends

A blend in which only one source word is reduced This type is classified based on the semantic
and the other source word remains in its full form. relationship between the SWs. In this classification,
Based on the position of the full word, there are a blends are divided into two categories: attributive
number of sub-patterns: and coordinate blends.

i. The full word is followed by a splinter e.g. Attributive blends

carbecue ← car+ barbecue) Mattiello (2013) states that attributive blends exhibit

ii. The full word is preceded by a splinter (e.g. a relationship in which the second member functions
Blasian ← Black + Asian)
as a semantic head and the first one as a modifier (e.g.

dogbella is 'an umbrella for a dog') (p.123). Based on

98 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

the position of the semantic head, an endocentric RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
attributive blend can be categorized into right-
headed and left-headed. Furthermore, if the A total of 53 data were collected from Instagram, of
semantic head in attributive blends is out of the which 36 data were food names while the remaining
members' context, then it exhibits an exocentric 17 data were beverage names. These data were
relationship. For instance, in Frutopia (← fruit + analyzed and classified by using Mattiello's (2013)
utopia), the head 'a beverage' is outside. formula for blends.

Coordinate blends In the following discussion, source words are
abbreviated as SWs. The italic parts of the SW
Mattiello states that coordinate blends happen when indicate the blends, the bold parts of the SW indicate
"the two members are therefore related both the splinters used to form the blends, while parts in
syntactically and semantically" (p. 125). For instance, bracket ( ) indicate the reduced parts in the SW, and
windowall ← window + wall is both 'a window' and the underlined parts indicate the overlapping part in
'a wall' (Mattiello, 2013 p. 124). the SWs. The phonetic transcription of the source
words is based on the Oxford English Dictionary.
METHODS Last, the data in the table are presented
alphabetically.
The data of this research were obtained from the
menu of several restaurants, cafés, food stalls, and Morphotactic blends
coffee shops found on Instagram. First, the data were
collected by searching and reading the food and Morphotactically, blends are divided based on the
beverage menu closely on Instagram, more retained part(s) of the source words. Within this
specifically to the accounts that discuss and review analysis, blends can be divided into total blends and
food and beverages (e.g. jogjafoodhunter, tastemade, partial blends.
etc), accounts that specifically share the list of menus
(hargamenujogja, pricelist_kuliner, etc), and Total blends
accounts that officially belong to the brand of the
food menu (e.g. salad.nyoo, the crabbys, kebunroti, Total blends are blends in which all source words are
etc). The next step was identifying the blends in the reduced to splinters. This means that there is no
menu. Data taken are blends in which source words source word that contributes all its parts to the blend
are English words and/or English combined with a in this type. There are four sub-patterns of this.
foreign word that has been registered in the English
lexicon. This was done by checking the source words i. The beginning of one word is followed by the
on the Oxford dictionary online and/or offline first, end of another. There are 19 data belonging to
for example, matcha, sushi, durian, and pizza. Lastly, this sub-pattern.
a picture of the menu is taken (screenshot), and data
are collected and written down on a table. Blends Source words

After all the data had been collected, data were Avocatto (n) avoc(ado) (n) + (macchi)atto (n)
analyzed by using the classification of blends
proposed by Matiello (2013) corresponding to the Avonis (n) avo(cado) (n) + (brow)nies (n)
research questions.
Avopresso (n) avo(cado) (n) + (es)presso (n)

Banaberry (n) bana(na) (n) + (straw)berry (n)

Banaggets (n) bana(na) (n) + (nu)ggets (n)

Burgushi (n) burg(er) (n) + (s)ushi (n)

Chinger (n) chi(cken) (n) + (f)inger (n)

Chizza (n) chi(cken) (n)+ (p)izza (n)

Choconut (n) choco(late) (n) + (pea)nut (n)

Cocopresso (n) coco(nut) (n) + (es)presso(n)

Ummi A. Khoirunnisa, Rio R. D. Moehkardi | The Patterns of Blends | 99

Cronut (n) cro(issant) (n)+ (dough)nut(n) Blends Source words
Cruffin (n) cr(oissant) (n) + (m)uffin (n) Bananu (n) Bana(na) + Nu(gget)
Frugurt (n) fru(it) (n) + (yo)gurt (n) Donug (n) Do(ughnut) + Nug(get)
Fruishi (n) frui(t) (n) + (su)shi (n)
Montato (n) mon(strous) (adj.) + (po)tato (n) In this sub-pattern, blends are formed from the
Mozarellow mozarell(a) (n) + (marshma)llow beginning part of the source words or initial splinter.
(n) (n) From the finding, both data are food names. Even
Piwi (n) pea(ch) (n)+ (k)iwi (n) though they use the same source word, which is
S'mookies (n) s’mo(re) (n) + (c)ookies (n) nugget, they utterly use a different part of that word
Strawcado (n) straw(berry) (n) + (avo)cado (n) in the respective blends. Blend bananu combines
bana(na) with nu(gget), while blend donug combines
This pattern was found to be the most do(ughnut) with nug(get). Should the pronunciation
productive type of blends found in the data in of nug in donug is similar to that in the SW, this
morphotactic analysis with 19 data. From the table combination gives a better picture of the original
above, we can identify the structure of blends formed source words of the blend.
from the beginning of the first SW and the end of the
second SW. However, the part taken from the source iii. Both splinters are the final parts of the source
words used by the creator to form a blend is words. There are no data can be classified into
unpredictable. The splinter can be only two letters this sub-pattern. This case confirms the
from the beginning of the source word as in cr from statement by Mattiello (2013, p.119) and Lehrer
croissant (cruffin), it can be left out one letter like (1996, 2007 in Mattiello, 2013) which this sub-
frui from fruit (fruishi), mozarell from mozarella pattern is rather infrequent or maybe impossible
(mozarellow), ookies from cookies (s'mookies), or it in English.
can be a full syllable as in straw from strawberry
(strawcado). Therefore, there are no particular iv. Either the beginning or the end of a splinter is
criteria to create and form blends since the part used embedded in a discontinuous splinter; there are
is based on the creator's creativity. three data belonging to this sub-pattern.

All data in the table above are nouns. Avocatto, Blends Source words
Avopresso, Banaberry, Cocopresso, Piwi, and Avochocolado avo(cado) + chocola(te) +
Strawcado are beverages names, while the rest are Marmelo (ge)la(to)
food names. From the data above, only one blend Micrisu mar(sh)mallo(w) + lo(ver)
combines adjective and noun, i.e. montato from
mon(strous) + (po)tato., while the rest of the blends (tira)misu + cri(spy)
in this sub-pattern are a combination between noun
and noun. In this sub-pattern, either the beginning or the
end of splinter is embedded in a discontinuous
In this sub-pattern, not all blends are formed splinter with some reduction in one of the splinter.
from English word sources. There are 2 food names There are three data that can be classified into this
which are not originally from English-speaking sub-pattern. In the first datum, there are three
country. For example, croissant (pastry from France) splinters from three different SWs. In this special
in cronut, cruffin and sushi (Japanese vinegared rice case, the structure of avochocolado is formed when
with various ingredients mostly seafood) in fruishi the constituent (ca) in avocado is replaced by splinter
are combined with English words to form blends. chocola from chocolate and la from gelato. The
Even though both of these words have entered the second datum, the structure of marmelo is formed
English lexicon, this shows that blends do not limit when the discontinuous splinter of mar(sh)mallo(w)
their source words to have the same language. is embedded and overlapped with the splinter lo-
from lover. The last datum, micrisu is formed when
ii. Both splinters are the beginning of words; there the splinter cri from crispy is entered in between the
are only two data in this sub-pattern. discontinuous splinter (tira)mi-su.

100 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

There are three data that do not belong to any SW, from the data above all blends only use the end
sub-pattern of total blends above. The structure of of the SWs.
the three blends does not fit any criteria of
Mattiello's total blend sub-patterns. First, in the data In dragontos, the blend is formed from dragon
Chibs ← Chi(cken) + B(ite)s and Choro ← + (pota)toes. However, the graph of toes is changed
Cho(colate) + Or(e)o, the initial splinters from the with the elimination of the letter 'e'.
first SWs are followed by discontinuous splinters
from the second SWs. Last, the datum Stereo ← From the structure, moreo and pinkiss can be
Strawberry + Oreo shows that the discontinuous categorized into two patterns. It can be full word
splinter from the first SW is followed by the final followed by a splinter, as in more + (ore)o and pink +
splinter from the second SW. This process could (k)iss and it also can be splinter followed by a full
possibly be influenced by the Indonesian acronym word, as in m(ore) + oreo and pin(k) + kiss. Therefore,
process in which there is no diligent rule in retaining the two structures are possible for the data. This type
the splinters from the source words. of blend will be further explained in the overlapping
blends category.
Although these data cannot be included in the
sub-patterns of total blends, the three data can still Multiple processes are also possible in this sub-
be classified under the total blend category because pattern. In pizzaderman, the full word pizza is
all of their SWs undergo some reduction. In followed by splinter derman from Spiderman.
conclusion, the sub-pattern can be added more to the Spiderman itself is a compound word from spider +
total blend classification. man which means a man that has the ability to
produce web like a spider.
Partial blends
In this sub-pattern, there are two source words
The structure of the partial blend consists of only one that are not originally from English-speaking
source word being reduced to a splinter, and the countries. For instance, SW durian in durianpresso
other source word remains in its full form. There are and SW matcha in matchatte. 'Durian' is originally
three sub-patterns of this. from Malay-speaking communities, including
Indonesia, and 'matcha' is originally from Japanese.
i. The full word is followed by a splinter. There are Since both words are widely known around the
10 data with this sub-pattern. world, these words are acceptable in the English
lexicon.

Blends Source words ii. The full word is preceded by a splinter; there are
Bananaberry (n) banana (n)+ (straw)berry (n) 15 data considered as this sub-pattern.
Coffeenade (n) coffee (n) + (lemo)nade (n)
Crabster (n) crab (n) + (lo)bster (n) Blends Source words
Dragontos (n) dragon (n) + (pota)toes (n) Banamocha (n) Bana(na) (n) + mocha (n)
Durianpresso (n) durian (n)+ (es)presso (n) Bancheese (n) Ban(ana) (n) + cheese (n)
Matchatte (n) matcha (n) + (l)atte (n) Banroll (n) Ban(ana) (n) + roll (v)
Moreo (n) more (det.) + (O)reo (n) Blueoreo (n) Blue(berry) (n) + Oreo (n)
Pinkiss (n) pink (adj.) + (k)iss (v) Chocoffee (n) Choco(late) (n) + coffee (n)
Pizzaderman (n) pizza (n )+ (spi)derman (n) Chocoreo (n) Choco(late) (n) + Oreo (n)
Redberry (n) red (adj.) + (straw)berry (n) Froreo (n) Fro(zen) (adj.) + Oreo (n)
Frunicorn (n) Fru(it) (n) + unicorn (n)
In this sub-pattern of partial blends, the Mamochi (n) Ma(tcha) (n) + mochi (n)
structure of the blend is formed by the full form of Moreo (n) More (det.) + Oreo (n)
the first SW and followed by the retained part of the Mozzareggy (n) Mozzare(lla) (n) + eggy (adj.)
second SW. Although there is no rule that the Pinkiss (n) Pin(k) (adj.) + kiss (v)
splinter must be from the beginning or the end of the Smoochi (n) Smoo(th) (adj.) + mochi (n)

Ummi A. Khoirunnisa, Rio R. D. Moehkardi | The Patterns of Blends | 101

Spaghecheese(n) Spaghe(tti) (n) + cheese (n) syllables between the constituents, with or without a
proper shortening. There are four sub-categories as
Vaniblue (n) Vani(lla) (n) + blue (adj.) below.

In this sub-pattern of partial blends, the i. The constituents may overlap both
structure of blends is the splinter followed by a full orthographically and phonologically, with no
word. Banana and Oreo become two popular words shortening
to be created as blends. It shows that banana and
Oreo are two popular ingredients among the food In this type of sub-pattern, the source words of
inventors. Interestingly, Oreo is used as the full word blends are easily predicted since there is no
in all four blends (blueoreo, chocoreo, froreo, shortening in both the SWs. The SWs only
moreo), while banana always becomes the splinter overlapped in their similar parts. Usually, the
part, and the word is clipped differently in data (1) overlapped parts happen between the end part of the
bana and (2,3) ban. first SW with the beginning part of the second SW.
From the findings, only one datum fits this sub-
Then, as mentioned in the sub-pattern before, pattern. Pinkiss comes from the words pink and kiss
the blends moreo and pinkiss also belong to this sub- (/pɪŋk/ + /kɪs/). The letter /k/ is overlapped
pattern. phonologically and orthographically. Moreover,
pinkiss can also depart from the word 'pink-ish',
iii. The full word is intercalated within a which means it is close to pink, which is the drink's
discontinuous splinter; there are only 2 data colour. The name maker might do this to make the
considered as this sub-pattern name pinkiss look and sound more attractive.

Blends Source words ii. The constituents overlap both orthographically
and phonologically, with the shortening of (at
Impizzable (n) Im(possi)ble (adj.) + pizza (n) least) one of them

Pizburgerza (n) Piz-za (n) + burger (n)

In this sub-pattern, the second source words In this sub-pattern, the two SWs are overlapped in
are entered as the first source words with or without some parts phonologically and orthographically. The
cutting. In impizzable, the second SW, pizza, difference with the previous sub-pattern is that
replaces (possi) in the word 'impossible'. In blends in this sub-pattern undergo shortening in at
pizburgerza, burger enters the first source word least one of its SWs. From the findings, there are 7
pizza, which is divided into two splinters piz and za. data that can be categorized in this sub-pattern.

Morphonology and Orthographic blends Blends Phonetic transcription
Avocatto /ˌavəˈkɑːdəʊ/ + /ˌmakɪˈɑːtəʊ/
Morphonologically and orthographically blends are Bananu /bəˈnɑːnə/ + /ˈnʌɡɪt/
classified based on whether or not they share the Chinger /ˈtʃɪkɪn/ + /ˈfɪŋɡə/
same sounds or letters between their source words. Crabster /krab/ + /ˈlɒbstə/
In this perspective, blends can be divided into two Impizzable /ɪmˈpɒsɪb(ə)l/ + /ˈpiːtsə/
categories, overlapping and non-overlapping. In this Micrisu /ˌtɪrəmɪˈsuː/ + /ˈkrɪspi/
perspective, phonological transcription is needed to Mozareggy /ˌmɒtsəˈrɛlə/+ /ɛɡ/+ /i/
support the analysis of the blending process. The
phonological transcriptions of the source words are From the table above, four out of seven data
adopted from the Oxford English dictionary. In this combine both clipped parts from the SWs. As in
category, blends can be divided into two avocatto, the blend comes from avoca(do) +
classifications, overlapping and non-overlapping. (macchi)atto (/ˌavəˈkɑːdəʊ/ + /ˌmakɪˈɑːtəʊ/). The
underlined letter /ɑ/ is the overlapped part from an
Overlapping blends initial splinter of the first SW and the final splinter
of the second SW. Blends bananu, chinger, and
The structure of overlapping blends contains micrisu also combine splinters from its SWs.
phonological overlap of vowels, consonants, or

102 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

Meanwhile, in data crabster, impizzable, and Froreo /ˈfrəʊzn/ + /ˈɔːrɪəʊ/
mozareggy, the structure used combines full word Frunicorn /fruːt/ + /ˈjuːnɪkɔːn/
and splinter. Marmelo /mɑːʃˈmaləʊ/+ /ˈlʌvə/
Matchatte /ˈmatʃə/ + /ˈlateɪ/
iii. The constituents overlap phonologically but Moreo /mɔ:/ + /ˈɔːrɪəʊ/
not orthographically Smoochi /smuːð/ + /ˈmoʊtʃi/
Smookies /smɔː/ + /ˈkʊki/
In this sub-pattern, the two SWs are overlapped in
some parts phonologically but not orthographically. In chizza, chocoffee, frunicorn, and marmelo,
From the findings, there are only 2 data that can be the overlapped sound pronounced in the new blend
categorized in this sub-pattern. is from the first splinter. As in chocoffee, the
overlapped syllable co is likely pronounced /k(ə)/
Blends Phonetic transcription from chocolate rather than /kɒ/ from coffee. This
Mozarellow /ˌmɒtsəˈrɛlə/ + /mɑːʃˈmaləʊ/ structure is also applied in chizza and frunicorn,
Piwi /piːtʃ/ + /ˈkiːwiː/ where the final sounds in the new blends follow the
sound i (/ɪ/) from chicken and u (u:) from fruit.
In mozarellow, the blend comes from Without exception is the blend word marmelo. The
mozzarella and marshmallow (/ˌmɒtsəˈrɛlə/ + blend comes from the word marshmallow and lover
/mɑːʃˈmaləʊ/), which overlapped in the sound /lə/. (/mɑːʃˈmaləʊ/+ /ˈlʌvə/). However, since the
Even though the overlapped graph lla from overlapped part is located at the end of the new
mozzarella and llo from marshmallow are different, blend, the sound of the syllable /lo/ is likely
the phones of both constituents are rather similar. becoming /ləʊ/ rather than /lʌ/.
This structure also applies in the second datum, piwi.
Piwi is formed from the words' peach' and 'kiwi'. The On the other hand, the overlapped sound
overlapped part between these SWs is the sound /iː/ pronounced in the new blend can also come from the
from /piːtʃ/ + /ˈkiːwiː/. final SW. For example, in matchatte, the overlapped
constituent is a single that is pronounced more like
iv. The constituents overlap orthographically /a/ from the second SW 'latte' rather than /ə/ from
but not phonologically the first SW 'matcha'. Interestingly, the second SW
Oreo in choro, froreo, and moreo dominates the final
It might look similar, but the same English letters in sound of the overlapped part in those new blends.
two different words can also have different voices. In
this type of blend, the letter(s) that are considered Non-overlapping blends
equal between the two SWs make them overlap by
not considering the sound of both. Hence, the choice The structure of non-overlapping blends contains
of which overlapped part would be pronounced neither phonological nor orthographic overlap of
sometimes unpredictably. The chosen sound of the vowels, consonants, or syllables between the
new blend is likely from the easier pronunciation of constituents could be the easiest strategy for the
the splinters based on our interpretation referring to name coiners. This type becomes the most
the International Phonetic Alphabet. There are 12 productive process of blending in morphonological
data that can be categorized in this sub-pattern. The and orthographic analysis. There are 31 data that can
following table presents the structure, SWs, and be classified as non-overlapping blends.
phonetic transcription.

Blends Phonetic transcription Blends Phonetical Transcrpton
/ˌavəˈkɑːdəʊ/ + /ˈtʃɒk(ə)lət/ + Avonis /ˌavəˈkɑːdəʊ/ + /ˈbraʊni/
Avochocolado /dʒəˈlɑːtəʊ/ Avopresso /ˌavəˈkɑːdəʊ/ + /ɛˈsprɛsəʊ/
/ˈtʃɪkɪn/ + /ˈpiːtsə/ Banaberry /bəˈnɑːnə/ + /ˈstrɔːb(ə)ri/
Chizza /ˈtʃɒk(ə)lət/ + /ˈkɒfi/ Banaggets /bəˈnɑːnə/ + /ˈnʌɡɪt/
Chocoffee /ˈtʃɒk(ə)lət/ + /ˈɔːrɪəʊ/ Banamocha /bəˈnɑːnə/ + /ˈmɒkə/
Chocoreo /ˈtʃɒk(ə)lət/ +/ˈɔːrɪəʊ/
Choro

Ummi A. Khoirunnisa, Rio R. D. Moehkardi | The Patterns of Blends | 103

Bananaberry /bəˈnɑːnə/ + /ˈstrɔːb(ə)ri/ the attributive blend is divided into endocentric and
Bancheese /bəˈnɑːnə/ + /tʃiːz/ exocentric.
Banroll /bəˈnɑːnə/ + /rəʊl/
Blueoreo /ˈbluːb(ə)ri/ + /ˈɔːrɪəʊ/ i. Endocentric blends
Burgushi /ˈhambəːɡə/ + /ˈsuːʃi/
Chibs /ˈtʃɪkɪn/ + /bʌɪts/ The semantic head cannot be separated from the
Choconut /ˈtʃɒk(ə)lət/ + /ˈpiːnʌt/ blends' original context because the semantic
Cocopresso /ˈkəʊkənʌt/ + /ɛˈsprɛsəʊ/ head brings the main meaning of the blends.
Coffeenade /ˈkɒfi/ + /lɛməˈneɪd/ When the semantic head is one of the SWs, it is
Cronut /ˈkrwasɒ̃/ + /ˈdəʊnʌt/ called an endocentric blend. The endocentric
Cruffin /ˈkrwasɒ̃/ + /ˈmʌfɪn/ blend is divided into right-headed and left-
Donug /ˈdəʊnʌt/ + /ˈnʌɡɪt/ headed.
Dragontos /ˈdraɡ(ə)n/ + /pəˈteɪtəʊ/
Durianpresso /ˈdʊərɪən/ + /ɛˈsprɛsəʊ/ i.a. Right-headed
Frugurt /fruːt/ + /ˈjəʊɡət/
Fruishi /fruːt/ + /ˈsuːʃi/ A blend can be called right-headed when the
Fruttcoff /fruːt/ + /ˈkɒfi/ second SW acts as the semantic head and the first
Mamochi /ˈmatʃə/ + /ˈmoʊtʃi/ SW as the modifier. There are 15 data belonging
Montato /ˈmɒnstrəs/ + /pəˈteɪtəʊ/ to the right-headed blends.
Pizburgerza /ˈpiːtsə/ + /ˈhambəːɡə/
Pizzaderman /ˈpiːtsə/ + /ˈspʌɪdəman/ Blends Source words
Redberry /rɛd/ + /ˈstrɔːb(ə)ri/ Avochocolado
Spaghecheese /spəˈɡɛti/ + /tʃiːz/ (n) Avocado (n) + Gelato (n)
Stereo /ˈstrɔːb(ə)ri/ + /ˈɔːrɪəʊ/ Banaggets (n)
Strawcado /ˈstrɔːb(ə)ri/ + /ˌavəˈkɑːdəʊ/ Bananu (n) Chocolate (n)
Vaniblue /vəˈnɪlə/ + /bluː/ Banroll (n)
Donug (n) Banana (n) Nugget (n)
Dragontos (n)
Froreo (n) Banana (n) Nugget (n)
Fruishi (n)
Fruttcoff (n) Banana (n) Roll (v)
Matchatte (n)
(Mission) Doughnut (n) Nugget (n)
Impizzable (n)
Montato (n) Dragon (n) Potatoes (n)

Moreo (n) Frozen (adj.) Oreo (n)
Redberry (n)
Smoochi (n) Fruit (n) Sushi (n)

Fruit (n) Coffee (n)

Matcha (n) Latte (n)

Impossible Pizza (n)

Blends in this type are not overlapped (adj.)
phonologically nor orthographically. For example,
vaniblue is formed from the splinter vani from Monstrous Potato (n)
'vanila' and full word, blue (/vəˈnɪ/ + /bluː/).
(adj.)

More (det.) Oreo (n)

Red (adj.) Strawberry (n)

Morphosemantic blends Smooth (adj.) Mochi (n)

In the last perspective, blends are classified based on All blends in this data can be considered as
the semantic relationship between their SWs. nouns since those are names of food and beverage. In
Morphosemantically blends can be divided into two the table above there are eight noun blends formed
categories; attributive blends and coordinate blends. from the combination of noun + noun. The first SW
modifies the semantic head in the second SW. For
Attributive blends example, in Donug, the head is on the word 'nugget',
a chicken nugget in the shape of doughnut. However,
In this category, the blend exhibits a semantic not all noun blends are formed from noun SWs.
relationship between its SWs in which one source There are other combinations such as, in smoochi
word is a semantic head, and the other one is a which is formed from an adjective and noun, moreo
modifier. Based on the position of the semantic head,

104 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

which is formed from determiner 'more' and noun, horn topped with fruits', and marmelo is not literally
and banroll which is formed from noun and verb. a person who loves marshmallows but 'a cube shaped
ice cream covered with torched marshmallow. Made
In banaggets and bananu, the blends consist of for the marshmallow lover to experience the new
the same SWs, 'banana' and 'nugget'. These blends creation, taste, and way to eat marshmallows', and a
have the same head, which is 'nugget' since these pinkiss is not a kind of pink-colored kiss, but it is 'a
blends have the same context. In short, it is possible drink made from strawberry fruit and milk as the
to create different blends from the same SWs since main ingredients. Pinkiss can also depart from the
blending does not limit the coiner from being word pink-ish, which means it has the color close to
creative. pink which is the color of the drink'. Although these
blends are exocentric, while the first and second data
i.b. Left-headed show a slight hint of the first SW, the third blend
shows the opaqueness from both SWs.
If the first SW acts as the semantic head and the
second SW as the modifier, then the blend could Coordinate blends
be considered a left-headed blend. There are five
data belonging to the left-headed blends.

Blends Source words When the source words of the blend have the same
Chibs semantic and syntactic status, then it can be classified
Chinger Chicken (n) Bites (n) as a coordinate blend. In this type of blend, both
Chizza source words act as the semantic head and equally
Pizzaderman Chicken (n) Finger (n) contribute to the meaning of the blend. There are 30
data belonging to the coordinate blends.
Vaniblue Chicken (n) Pizza (n)

Pizza (n) Spiderman

(n) Blends Source words

Vanilla (n) Blue (adj.) Avocatto Avocado (n) Macchiatto
(n)
In the table above, there are four noun blends
formed from the combination of noun + noun and a Avopresso Avocado (n) Espresso (n)
noun blend formed from the combination of noun
and adjective. In this type, the semantic head is from Banaberry Banana (n) Strawberry (n)
the first SW, and the second SW acts as the modifier.
For example, if in chibs, chinger, and chizza the Bananaberry Banana (n) Strawberry (n)
semantic head of these blends is chicken, then the
second SW from these blends is the one that makes Burgushi Burger (n) Sushi (n)
the difference between these data.
Chocoffee Chocolate (n) Coffee (n)
ii. Exocentric blends
Chocoreo Chocolate (n) Oreo (n)
When the semantic head of the blend is on the
outside, then it is classified as an exocentric blend. Choro Chocolate (n) Oreo (n)
There are three data belonging to the exocentric
blends. Cocopresso Coconut (n) Espresso (n)

Coffeenade Coffee (n) Lemonade (n)

Cronut Croissant (n) Doughnut (n)

Cruffin Croissant (n) Muffin (n)

Durianpresso Durian (n) Espresso (n)
Piwi
Blends Source words Pizburgerza Peach (n) Kiwi (n)
Frunicorn S'mookies
Marmelo Fruit (n) Unicorn (n) Spaghecheese Pizza (n) Burger (n)
Pinkiss Strawcado
Marshmallow (n) Lover (n)

Pink (adj.) Kiss (v) Smores (n) Cookies (n)

There are three blends that bear the exocentric Spaghetti (n) Cheese (n)
meaning. For example, frunicorn (←fruit + unicorn)
refers to 'frozen yogurt which shaped like unicorn's Strawberry (n) Avocado (n)

Ummi A. Khoirunnisa, Rio R. D. Moehkardi | The Patterns of Blends | 105

Avonis Avocado (n) Brownie (n) CONCLUSION
Banamocha
Blueoreo Banana (n) Mocha (n) This study has explored the blending processes of
Crabster food and beverage names found on Instagram. The
Frugurt Blueberry (n) Oreo (n) blends are analyzed using Mattiello's formula (2013),
Mamochi of which all sub-types are found in the data.
Mozareggy Crab (n) Lobster (n)
Mozarellow In the morphotactic type, the total blending
Stereo Fruit (n) Yogurt (n) sub-type is the most used strategy to create the food
Bancheese and beverage names. This could be the easiest
Choconut Matcha (n) Mochi (n) strategy for the name makers, as this strategy is
similar to the Indonesian process of acronyms by
Mozarella (n) Egg (n) clipping all the SW. The retained parts of the source
words could be the initial or the final parts of the
Mozarella (n) Marshmallow (n source words to form the blends. However, this
research also found the retained part of the middle
Strawberry (n) Oreo (n) splinters of the SW1. This could be promoted as the
third sub-type of the morphotactic type. In contrast,
Banana (n) Cheese (n) overlapping blending morphonologically and
orthographically is also significant; despite the lack
Chocolate (n) Peanut (n) of such processes in Indonesian morphology;
however, the non-overlapping is still slightly higher
In the table above, all blends are noun blends at 58.5%. The last type is the morphosemantic
formed from the combination of noun + noun except analysis in which the blends are classified based on
for micrisu, a noun blend formed from the the semantic relationship between their SWs.
combination of noun and adjective. In this type of
blend, both source words have the same position in The most productive type of blends is the
blends, there is no head and modifier. coordinative blend, with 30 data or 56.6 percent.
Coordinate blends become more popular than
Most of the data above are the names for a attributive blends because the names are mostly
combination of two kinds of food or beverages. For formed from the combination of the names of the
example, cruffin is a food made from the ingredients; therefore, the SWs have the same
combination of croissant and muffin and chocoffee is semantic and syntactic status, and both SWs equally
a drink made from espresso and chocolate. Then, contribute to the meaning of the blend. From the
there are blends which are the types of food or morphosemantic analysis, it can be concluded that
beverages whose source words are both sustention or the main sources of the blends are the food or
fillings. For instance, avonis is a dessert in a box beverage's ingredients, size, sensation, color, shape,
consisting of avocado vla and brownies on the inside. and even from the flavor.
However, the difference between the avocado and
the brownies can still be seen clearly because they
are arranged in layers. There are also blends that
name food based on its toppings, as in micricu which
refers to tiramisu powder, and crispy chocolate
toppings for banana nuggets. Bancheese and
chococut also apply the same structure.

Lastly, the source of the names the food or REFERENCES
beverage inventors use to name their creations
varies. It can be based on the food or beverage's Advertisement [Def. 1]. (n.d.). Oxford English
ingredient (e.g. Banaberry, Piwi, Chocoffee), size Dictionary. In Lexico. Retrieved May 5, 2019,
(e.g. Chibs, Dragontos), sensation (e.g. Froreo, from https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/
Pizzaderman), color (e.g. Pinkiss, Redberry), shape advertisement.
(e.g. Donug, Frunicorn), and even from the flavor
(e.g. Chocoffee, Vaniblue). Mattiello, E. (2013). Extra-grammatical morphology
in English. De Gruyter Mouton.

106 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

Maulana, B. (2016). Blending strategies used in Setyowati, R. (2015). Prosodic morphological
branding mobile applications: Prosodic analysis of blends used as brand of snacks and
morphology analysis [Unpublished beverages [Unpublished undergraduate
undergraduate thesis]. Universitas Gadjah thesis]. Universitas Gadjah Mada.
Mada.
Widyastiarni, W. (2013). An analysis of English
Plag, I. (2003). Word formation in English. blends in the headline of the Jakarta Post
Cambridge University Press. Newspaper 2012 edition [Unpublished
undergraduate thesis]. Sanata Dharma
Sangthita, S. B. (2017). Blending in advertisements University.
for events: A morphological study
[Unpublished undergraduate thesis].
Universitas Gadjah Mada.

https://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/lexicon Volume 9, Number 2 (October 2022)
Pages 107-119

https://doi.org/10.22146/lexicon.v9i2.72944

The Heroine’s Journey towards Wholeness
as seen in Margaret Atwood’s Surfacing

Hendarti Azizah Ayuningtyas, Rahmawan Jatmiko*
English Department, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This study discusses the psychological journey of the female heroine in Margaret Atwood’s Surfacing.
This paper applies the psychological approach since it is believed to be the most suitable approach to
analyze the process of the heroine’s journey towards wholeness. It aims at analyzing the process of
individuation which occurred in the main plot of the novel as well as the characteristics of the process
on the heroine’s personal quest. The portrayal of the individuation process is identified through the
theory of individuation proposed by Jung (1980), which discusses the process of the individual’s
development towards psychological completeness. The results show that there are six characteristics
of the individuation processes found within the story. Furthermore, there are five stages in the
heroine’s journey, namely the recognition of persona, the assimilation with the shadow, the
confrontation with the animus, and lastly, the appearance of the Self that leads the heroine towards
psychological wholeness.

Keywords: individuation, journey, process, psychology, wholeness.

INTRODUCTION Surfacing (1972) was Atwood’s second novel,
published by McClelland and Stewart in 1972. It is
Human psychology and mental disorders have one of Atwood’s most successful works and tells the
always been emerging cases to be discussed. As story of an unnamed narrator who returns to her
technologies continuously evolve, there is an hometown in Quebec, Canada, to find her missing
increase in mental health awareness, not only in the father. Accompanied by her lover, Joe, and a married
academic field but also in the production of arts and couple who has been her friend for months, Anna
cultures. There are a lot of movies, dramas, and and David, the female heroine recalls her past and
literary works with the psychological theme being remembers some events and feelings she experienced
produced to gain more people to recognize the in childhood. While trying to find clues to her
importance of the human mind. Among them are the father’s mysterious disappearance, she discovers her
works of Margaret Atwood. The present paper uses inner Self through a psychological breakdown with
one of the notable novels that lead her to achieve the help of nature and her surroundings. As a young
national and international recognition as a writer, woman who had just lost her baby to an abortion, the
Surfacing. narrator of the story identified as an emotionally
unstable and unreliable character. She lost the sense

Hendarti A. Ayuningtyas, Rahmawan Jatmiko | The Heroine’s Journey towards Wholeness | 107

108 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

of feeling towards others and felt disconnected from investigated the interaction between the main
people and the world around her. She lives in the character and nature and its role in her self-
state of “the conscious mind”, and does not want to exploration and maturity. The study adopted eco-
cope with the possible reality of her father’s death. feminist criticism. It examines the main character’s
She believes that he is still alive and being lost discovery of herself, her surroundings, women’s
somewhere in the wild. exploitation and oppression by men, and also a
memory of her parents that eventually leads her to
The narrator of the novel suffers from the attain spiritual wisdom within herself. Another
division of the inner Self, and the whole novel similar study by Bhalla (2012) provided an in-depth
deals with the journey to make unity between analysis of the novel from the female main character
each of the aspects of her psyche. As she makes of the story, which is assumed to be an eco-feminist.
a trip to the place where she was born and Bhalla (2012) argued that power and domination
experiences flashback moments to recover from directly oppress both the feminine world and the
her traumatic events, she is finally able to attain natural world, and the female main character’s
emotional wisdom and completeness within association with nature raises her consciousness of
herself. Therefore, this research aims to explore the victimization of women. She concludes that the
the psychological journey towards wholeness as novel constitutes a representative literary example of
experienced by the heroine of the novel. The ecological feminism because the language, events
analysis applies the psychological approach in and characters in this novel reflect a world that
order to find the best results, for it provides the oppresses and dominates both femininity and nature.
development of one’s inner mind as well as how Another study by Endurance, Babaee, and Majeed
the individual achieves a psychological (2014) focused on the unnamed narrator’s life
integration on the psyche. transformation on the island, which gives her the
privilege of seeing things from a different
LITERATURE REVIEW perspective. The protagonist’s encounter with nature
vividly reveals the identification of life, putting on a
Atwood always successfully delivers her main new identity and refusing to be a victim.
character with a unique, complex and strong
personality. Thus, many studies have been conducted The present paper deals with the process of
on the analysis of the character. Some scholarly finding the Self, a concept in which a person can
works discuss the main character of Margaret have consciousness and unconsciousness balanced in
Atwood’s novels, such as Cat’s Eye and Lady Oracle. their inner world. The novel itself, Surfacing, has
For example, Widyaningrum (2018) focused on the unquestionably been studied from different angles
development of the main character, Elaine Risley, in throughout the years. Many researchers conducted
Atwood’s novel Cat’s Eye from her childhood, on the novel are usually aware of the fact that the
adolescence, and early adulthood to adulthood years. novel is all about a journey, both physically and
It also examined the factors that affect Elaine Risley’s spiritually. However, most of them are less aware of
character development. The study found that Elaine the aspects of the narrator’s inner mind: what
Risley always experiences development in her happens inside her world and how she develops
character throughout her life; The result also shows herself from there. It mostly does not use any
that Elaine Risley’s character development is affected psychological concept to break down the narrator’s
by several factors, namely Toronto as her personality and character development throughout
environment, her experiences with bullying, the the story, while these aspects, as a matter of fact, are
men and women in the society around her, her own very important to be discussed. Thus, the present
paintings, the cat’s eye marble, and the Virgin Mary. paper is different from the above-mentioned studies.
While some previous papers have endeavored to
Some studies on the novel Surfacing have also analyze the feminist side of the main character and
been conducted previously. Gautam and Sinha (2012) the relation with nature, the present paper gives
emphasis on the process of the narrator’s attempt to
reach wholeness to be psychologically ‘completed’.

Hendarti A. Ayuningtyas, Rahmawan Jatmiko | The Heroine’s Journey towards Wholeness | 109

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK awareness. There is an ego as the central part of the
consciousness, taking the role of the gatekeeper
In analyzing the psychological aspects of the main between the mind and the world outside, making
character, the theory of the psychology of literature contact with the external world and forming an
by Wellek and Warren (1942) and the theory of identity. The Ego will determine which contents are
individuation by Jung (1980) are used. reflected in the consciousness and which others are
repressed and ignored (Jung, 1966).
Individuation is the process of becoming an Unconsciousness, however, is more complex and
“individual”, or the attainment of Self by which completely different but also compensatory to the
individual beings are formed and differentiated from conscious aspects (Fordham, 1956). The unconscious
others; in particular, it is the development of the contains the events or memories that the ego
psychological individual to be distinctive from the represses or disregards for various reasons. It contains
general or collective one (Jung, 1980). It is when the the things that its energy isn’t strong enough to be
individual wants to be different from the other and maintained in the consciousness. What belongs to
separate the unconsciousness from the collective to consciousness is what ‘I’ know about myself and the
the personal one. Individuation happens when the world, while the unconscious is filled with things ‘I’
individual realizes their unique nature of them, even want to forget, ‘I’ repress, ‘I’ do not like, and what is
though they belong to a particular group; each of not socially acceptable (Fordham, 1956). These do
them will be differentiated by the words like “You not completely disappear and are not deleted from
are what you are” and “I have a life of my own”. the psyche but rather occupy the personal
Individuation can also be understood as a process of unconscious to continue influencing one’s
psychological integration between the conscious and personality.
unconscious.
The personal unconscious “belong to the
According to Jung, contrary to the external individual, formed from one’s repressed child-like
world, the world within oneself is an entirely impulses and wishes, subliminal perceptions, and
different one. This inner world is more chaotic and countless forgotten experiences belong to them
complex, and it is called the unconscious. In the alone” (Jung as quoted in Fordham, 1956). As
Jungian psychological framework, the process where someone is growing up, many of the attitudes are
the individual Self develops from an changed, and some of them are lost or rather pushed
undifferentiated unconscious to the conscious world away into the unconsciousness. Small children are
is called “Individuation”. It is the process of often lustful, acquisitive, and aggressive and show all
integrating the conscious and the unconscious in the tendencies that the adult is supposed to have
order to attain self-actualization and wholeness in grown or been educated for (Fordham, 1956). These
one’s psyche. To attain psychological completeness as repressed tendencies are what Jung calls the personal
a result of the individuation process, one has to take unconscious. These memories, impulses, wishes, or
several stages to achieve the final goal: the perceptions are not entirely under the control of the
recognition of Persona, the assimilation of the will of each individual, but when the repression
Shadow, the confrontation with the Animus, and the weakens (as, for instance, in sleep), it can be recalled
final part is the appearance of Self. and appear in disguise as a dream or fantasy.

According to Jung, there are two basic The last term of Jungian’s basic structure of
structures of personality, the consciousness and the personality is the collective unconsciousness. Jung
unconsciousness. The unconsciousness is further (as quoted in Kalia, Singh & Singh, 2002) defines the
divided into personal unconsciousness and collective collective unconscious as “the reservoir of our
unconsciousness (Hall, Lindzey & Campbell, 1997). experiences as a species, a kind of knowledge we all
The consciousness is the psyche (a Jungian term used are born with”. In addition to the personal
to describe a pack of one’s thoughts, feelings, unconscious, which mainly gathers the elements
behavior, and emotions) which is fully recognized by from one’s life experiences, the collective
each individual, or precisely the field of one’s unconscious contains more universal and inherited
elements. Later, Jung states that the collective

110 | LEXICON, Volume 9, Number 2, October 2022

unconscious “influences all of our experiences and whether they experience a psychological journey
behaviors, especially the emotional ones, but we which belongs to the Jungian process of
know about it indirectly by looking at those individuation. The characteristics are as follows.
influences.” (Jung as quoted in Kalia, Singh & Singh,
2002). Humans inherited the tendencies and Individuation is mostly experienced by
possibilities to summon the life experiences that middle-aged people or those who live in the second
happened in the past to make them act more selective half of what Jung calls “the stages of life”. The second
and aware of the world. The basic component of this half of life, as Jung states, is the phase of finding a
term is the archetype symbols, such as Shadow, new meaning and purpose for living, and this is when
Animus, and Self. the neglected, inferior, and undeveloped personality
is found and born (Fordham, 1956). In the first stage
As Jung (1966) states, the collective of life, the individual responsible for fulfilling social
unconscious is “the deep layers of the unconscious, expectations according to their position in society,
where sleep the primordial images common to while in the second stage, they often have to deal
humanity”. It contains a number of ideas that have with the feeling of emptiness and lack of meaning in
been inherited and passed down to generations, their lives, for they are too busy dealing with the
repeating themselves through history and resulting world and abandon their inner mind. Thus, it is not
in the recurrence of similar legends and themes at impossible that the individuation process happens to
different times around the world (Hernandez, 2015). those who have been successful in their life, have
These abstract images are what Jung calls the chosen the right career path, have been in a marriage,
archetypes. They have been imprinted upon the built up a family, have children and so on.
mind of every human being for eras, but it needs
certain conditions to be able to reappear (Hernandez, Individuation happens to a mature individual
2015). However, although the archetypes belong to who ‘has been impelled by a serious illness, a
the unconsciousness, it still has an influence on one’s neurosis, or some unusual experience to leave the
psyche, both in the form of dreams or indirectly ordinary safe paths and look for a new way of living.’
appearing in the production of human art. (Jung in Fordham, 1956). In accordance with
characteristic number one, it is possible for some
The Self as has been mentioned previously is adolescents to feel depressed and become mentally
the archetype of wholeness. To go towards unhealthy because of the social obligations they have
psychological wholeness, the individual should to pursue while ignoring their inner values within
recognize the Self in the first place. The process of themselves. As Fordham states in An Introduction to
finding and recognizing the Self is called Jung’s Psychology, “there is a marked increase in the
individuation. Wholeness is also considered a symbol cases of mental depression and nervous disturbance
of unity and totality in oneself. The unity within the about the age forty when the ambitions of youth no
Self can lead to a conflict since the two different longer satisfy.’ (Fordham, 1956). The unpleasant
aspects of personality are being united into one. experiences and a chaotic and undeveloped inner self
However, in the process of individuation, individuals in the first stage of life often lead the individual to a
must not strive for perfection. To reach wholeness psychological breakdown; find a new path and
does not mean to become perfect by ignoring our purpose of living. Moreover, they have to be fully
flaws, guilt and dark sides of ourselves. It is, on the aware of every consequence and able to overcome it
contrary, a personal quest to realize the things we do through the process of individuation.
not want to see closely, or to be precise, the
imperfections which the individuals keep inside the The process of individuation is sometimes
unconsciousness. Thus, the process of individuation described as a psychological journey, a long-term
is one of many ways for an individual to be process that undoubtedly takes a long way of
psychologically completed by accepting the true suffering and struggles for the individual,
nature of ourselves, both the bad and good ones. psychologically and emotionally (Jung, 1989;
Fordham, 1956; von Franz, 1964). Emotional pain
There are some characteristics that can be used appears because of some reasons. An individual
as a reference for each individual to determine should develop the unconsciousness that includes the