(2016) Merriam & Tisdell (2)

NAME INDEX 327

McLean, S., 168 Patton, M. Q., 4, 8, 9, 10, 15–16,
McTaggert, R., 53–54 22, 26, 34–35, 40, 59, 96, 97,
Mead, G. H., 10 98, 102, 105, 108, 118–119,
Merriam, S. B., 25, 37, 80, 89, 128, 138, 144, 146, 148, 164,
172, 216, 233, 239, 245,
93, 145, 200, 214, 283 248–249, 255, 257, 260, 262,
Merton, R. K., 113–114 264, 271, 281, 285
Mertz, N. T., 85, 88
Michel, A., 31 Paulus, T., 177, 178
Miles, M. B., 38, 40, 97, 98, 214, Pauwels, L., 169
Pearce, C., 158
215 Perry, H., 38
Mishler, E. G., 36 Peshkin, A., 16–17, 122
Mishoe, S. C., 139 Piaget, J., 7
Monturori, A., 91 Piersol, L., 36
Moon, P., 74, 127 Pillow, W., 65
Moss, G., 172 Pink, S., 163, 166, 169, 177, 180
Moustakas, C., 27, 28, Plano Clark, V., 46, 48
Plunkett, R., 170
227–228 Prasad, P., 8
Muhamad, M., 25, 200 Preissle, J., 14, 216, 244
Muncey, T., 29 Preston, R., 288
Murdock, G. P., 30, 165, 230 Probst, B., 64, 249
Murphy, C., 171 Punch, M., 264
Myers, G., 114 Pyrch, T., 58

N Q
Nardi, B., 158 Quigley, B. A., 51
Ní Léime, A., 58
Nixon, R., 53–54 R
Ntseane, P. G., 205, 213 Rachal, J. R., 170
Ramaswamy, A., 235
O Rapley, M., 28
Oh, H., 75 Rathje, W. L., 171, 173
Olson, J. K., 170 Ray, S. L., 170
O’Meara, P., 289 Richards, L., 223, 252
O’Toole, G., 114 Richards, T. J., 223
Ozanne, J. L., 278 Richardson, L., 239, 245–246,

P 268, 277–278
Padgett, D. K., 170 Richer, M., 55
Parmentier, G., 177

328 NAME INDEX

Riessman, C. K., 35, 232 Shamdasani, P. N., 114
Riske, M., 113–114 Siha, A., 56, 74, 174
Ritchie, J., 55 Simmons, L., 165, 230
Roach, C. M., 147 Simpson, T. A., 25
Roberson, D. N., Jr., 283 Smith, B. T., 170
Robertson, R. V., 62 Smith, E. F., 170
Roland, S., 177 Snow, D., 30, 230, 273
Rosenberg, M. W., 36 Spaulding, D., 68, 69
Rossiter, M., 35 Spiegelberg, H. A., 26, 28
Rossman, G. B., 113, 169, 209 Spradley, J. S., 113
Roulston, K., 112–113 Sprow Forté, K., 38, 47, 75
Ruona, W. E. A., 222, 226 St. Pierre, E. A., 10, 17, 239,
Ruth-Sahd, L. A., 28
Ryan, J., 28 245–246, 268
Ryle, G., 256–257 Stake, R. E., 37, 38, 39, 40, 99,

S 241, 262
Sabshin, M., 119 Stanley, M., 33
Saldaña, J., 38, 40, 97, 98, 199, Stavros, J., 4, 55
Steel, G., 170
214, 215 Steinbeck, J., 243
Salmons, J., 116, 187 Steinberg, S., 10, 62
Sandlin, J. A., 168, 278 Stellefson, M., 179
Schatzman, L., 119, 268–269 Steward, J., 278
Schensul, J. J., 97, 140, 149 Stewart, D. W., 114
Schiffrin, D., 35 Stewart, K., 114
Schneider, C. J., 178, 179–180 Strauss, A. L., 7, 31, 32, 33, 75,
Schoepfle, G. M., 274, 280–281
Schram, T. H., 26 98–99, 119, 175, 180, 181,
Schreier, M., 179 182, 201–202, 206, 207, 212,
Schultz, J. G., 86 220–221, 228, 229, 268–269
Schutz, A., 9 Stringer, E., 49, 51, 52
Schwandt, T. A., 84–85 Stuckey, H. L., 53, 67–68, 174,
Schwartz, R. D., 163, 172, 182, 235, 289

262 T
Seale, C., 224, 226, 245 Tannen, D., 35
Sechrest, L., 163, 172, 182, Taylor, B., 171
Taylor, E. W., 40, 47, 75
262 Taylor, S. J., 7, 127–128, 150,
Seidman, I. E., 123, 130
Selltiz, C., 181–182 263
Taylor, T., 158

Tedlock, B., 28 NAME INDEX 329
Terkel, S., 108–109, 288
Tesch, R., 22 Voegtle, K., 68, 69
Thaker, S., 133 Vogel, C., 188
Thomas, W. I., 167
Thompson, B., 33 W
Thornton, S. J., 88 Wainwright, S. P., 31
Tierney, W. G., 276 Waldron, J., 158–159
Timmermans, S., 75 Walford, G., 146, 152
Tinkler, P., 169 Walkerdin, V., 278
Tisdell, E. J., 25, 28, 47, 68, 75, Ward, A., 68
Webb, E., 172, 182, 262
174, 285, 289 Wenger, E., 75–76
Tobin, J., 285 Werner, O., 274, 280–281
Tracy, S. J., 240, 252, 261 Whitney, D., 4, 55
Treadwell, J., 177 Whitney, J. M., 165, 230
Trent, A., 239 Wilensky, A. S., 36
Trotman, D., 28 Wiles, J. L., 36
Turner, B. S., 31 Williams, C., 31
Tuttas, C., 116, 187 Williams, M., 114
Tyler, J., 70–72 Wolcott, H. F., 29, 30, 88, 105,

U 148–149, 229, 240, 244, 250,
Uldam, J., 145, 146 251–252, 258, 274
Underberg, N., 160 Wolf, M., 278
Wright, R. R., 60, 168
V Wuthnow, R., 288
Valente, J. S., 81, 82, 86
Van Harken, E., 65 Y
Van Maanen, J., 15, 29 Yin, R. K., 37–38, 73, 233, 234,
Van Manen, M., 26, 227
Vasconcelos, A., 177 270, 287
Verständig, D., 183, 184–185, Yule, P., 188
Yurkovich, E., 31
188
Vessey, J. A., 229 Z
Vicars, M., 64 Zeki, S., 66
View, L., 290 Znaniecki, R., 167
Zorn, E., 160
Zorrilla, A., 69–70, 290



SUBJECT INDEX

A Applied research, 3–5; data
ABR. See Arts based research collection for, 4; types of, 4–5
Accuracy: of documents, 176–177;
Appreciative inquiry (AI), 4–5; in
of personal documents, action research, 4, 55–56
181–182
Action research, 4–5, 49–58; AI in, Artifacts: anthropologists and, 171;
4, 55–56; coding for, 235; data of culture, 171; data collection
analysis for, 52–53, 234–235; from, 53, 106, 162–193; defined,
data collection for, 52–53; 162; limitations and strengths
in-depth interviews for, 53; of, 180–183; as mute evidence,
participants in, 4, 49, 51; 171; for qualitative research,
postmodernism and, 11; 175–180; by researcher,
principles of, 50–53; reports for, 173–175; types of, 163–175
288–290; researcher in,
49–52; types of, 53–58. Arts based research (ABR), 65–72;
See also Critical action research; about artists and artistic
Participatory action research processes, 69–72, 71fig;
Adobe Connect, 115, 116 autoethnography and, 70; data
AI. See Appreciative inquiry collection for, 66–69; reports
Ambiguity: in interviews, 130; in for, 288–290
observations, 147; in qualitative
research, 18; in theorizing, 216 Asynchronous interviews, 115–116
Analysis section, in ethnography, ATLAS.ti, 223, 225t
229–230 Audience conjuring, for reports,
Analytical coding, 206
Anchored interviews, 139 268–270
Anonymity: on Internet, 188; in Audit trail: for data collection,
reports, 264
Anthropologists, 6; artifacts and, 252–253, 259t; for reliability,
171; case studies by, 37; 252, 259t
nonprobability sampling by, 96. Authenticity: of documents,
See also Ethnography 176–177, 181–183; of personal
documents, 181–182; in
qualitative research, 238–239;
researcher and, 252
Autoethnography, 29; ABR and,
70; with critical research, 60

331

332 SUBJECT INDEX

Auxiliary documents, 178 for, 232–234; data collection for,
Axial coding, 206, 229 40; data management for,
233–234; defined, 37–38;
B grounded theory with, 39;
Background/demographic historical, 182; qualitative
research design for, 37–40;
questions, 118 two-tier sampling and, 99–100;
Basic qualitative study: unit of analysis for, 38–39. See
also Comparative case studies
book-length examples of, 25; Case study database, 233
interpretivism in, 24; in Categories: in CAQDAS, 224;
journals, 25; qualitative research conceptually congruent,
design of, 23–25 213–214, 213e; for data analysis,
Basic research, 3 203–221, 207fig; in
Behavior and experience ethnography, 230; exhaustive,
questions, 118 212, 213e; in grounded theory,
Best fit, 249 33, 228–229; inductive process
Biases, 16–17; in data analysis, 208; for, 210; mutually exclusive, 212,
ethics and, 260; on Internet, 213e; naming, 211–214, 213e; in
187; in interviews, 130; narrative analysis,
phenomenology and, 27; in 231–232; number of, 214–215;
reports, 277; in research properties and, 216, 217e, 218e,
proposal, 298 219e, 220; purpose and, 212; in
Big-tent criteria, for reliability and reports, 280; sensitizing, 213,
validity, 240 213e; sorting, 208–210;
Biographical approach, to theorizing for, 215–221, 217e,
narrative analysis, 35 218f, 219f, 220f; with constant
Bounded system, context in, 38 comparative method, 208.
Bounded systems: case studies of, See also Core categories
24, 37–40; two-tier sampling Center for Educational Statistics,
and, 100 164
Bracketing, 26–27, 42fig, 113, 227 Chain sampling, 98
Chicago School, 6–7
C Classification schemes: for data
CAQDAS. See Computer assisted analysis, 212, 230; for
ethnography, 230; in reports,
qualitative data analysis 280
Case analysis: cross-case, 233–234; Close-ended questions, 45
CMC. See Computer mediated
discrepant, 249, 259t; negative, communication
249, 259t; within-case, 234 Code-and-retrieve, for CAQDAS,
Case studies: by anthropologists, 223
37; of bounded systems, 24,
37–40; context and, 37–38;
convergent parallel mixed
method for, 46–47; data analysis

333SUBJECT INDEX

Coding: for action research, 235; Constant comparative method:
analytical, 206; axial, 206, 229; categories with, 208; for data
for data analysis, 178–179, 199, analysis, 32, 201–202, 220–221,
204–206, 205e, 208, 229, 231, 228; for grounded theory, 32,
235; in data management, 199; 201–202, 220–221, 228; for
for documents, 178–179; for substantive theory, 201, 228
ethnography, 231; in grounded
theory, 229; open, 204, 229; Constructionist interviews, 112
selective, 229 Constructivism. See Interpretivism
Consumer Reports, 3
Cognitive maps, 230 Content analysis, 298; for
Collaborative partner stance, for
documents, 179–180
observations, 145 Context, 48; in bounded system,
Comparative case studies, 40,
38; case studies and, 37–38; in
233–234; mixed methods critical research, 60, 61; in
research and, 47; two-tier ethnography, 30; in narrative
sampling and, 100 analysis, 232; observations and,
Comparative process, of data 139; in qualitative research, 18
analysis, 200–201 Convenience sampling, 98
Complete observer stance, for Convergent parallel mixed
observations, 145 method case study, 46–47
Complete participant stance, for Copyright, Internet and, 188
observations, 144 Core categories: in grounded
Composing a Life (Bateson), 108 theory, 33, 42fig, 219, 228–229;
Computer assisted qualitative data substantive theory and, 33
analysis (CAQDAS), 221–226, Credibility. See Validity
225t; categories in, 224; Critical action research, 55, 56–57;
code-and-retrieve for, 223; data critical race theory and, 56;
management with, 222–223; feminism and, 56
software selection for, 226 Critical autoethnography, 60
Computer mediated Critical ethnography, 11, 12t, 29;
communication (CMC), with critical research, 60
115–117; confidentiality with, Critical race theory, 11; critical
117; for ethnography, 158–159 action research and, 56; critical
Conceptually congruent research and, 60; epistemology
categories, 213–214, 213e in, 12t
Concrete universals, 255 Critical research, 9, 10, 11–13,
Confessions (Augustine), 181–182 59–65; context in, 60, 61; critical
Confidentiality, 188; with CMC, ethnography with, 60; critical
117; with participant as observer race theory and, 60; critical
stance, 144 theory and, 60; culture and, 60;
Confirmability, 239 feminism and, 60; goals and
Congressional Record, 164 types of, 59–62; grounded

334 SUBJECT INDEX

theory with, 60; hermeneutic Data collection, 105–189; ABR
philosophy and, 60; participants and, 66–69; for action research,
in, 62–65; positionality in, 52–53; for applied research, 4;
62–65; power dynamics in, 10, from artifacts, 53, 106, 162–193;
60–61; reflexivity in, 62–65; audit trail for, 252–253, 259t; in
transformative education basic qualitative studies, 24–25;
and, 60 for case studies, 40; data analysis
Critical theory, 11, 56; critical and, 196–199; from documents,
research and, 60 53, 105, 106, 162–193, 296;
Cross-case analysis, 233–234 ethics with, 261–263; for
Crystallization, 246 ethnography, 30, 158; for
Culture: artifacts of, 171; critical grounded theory, 31, 32;
research and, 60; ethnography internal validity and, 246–248;
and, 29–31; in mixed methods from Internet, 158, 185, 297;
research, 47; in narrative from interviews, 18–19, 105,
analysis, 35, 232; popular 106, 107–136, 262, 295–296; in
culture documents, literature review, 91; from
167–168 observations, 53, 105, 106, 142,
147, 296; from physical
D materials, 171–173; in research
Data: dynamic, 185; from proposal, 295–297; research
questions and, 78–79;
interviews, 108–109; in mixed researcher and, 187; saturation
methods research, 48; in in, 199, 246–248; from
qualitative research, 6; static, structured interviews, 125;
184–185 theoretical framework and,
Data analysis: for action research, 88–89
52–53, 234–235; beginning,
196–199; biases in, 208; Data management, 199–201; for
CAQDAS, 221–226; for case case studies, 233–234; coding in,
studies, 232–234; classification 199; with CAQDAS, 222–223;
schemes for, 212, 230; coding with field notes, 199–200
for, 178–179, 199, 204–206,
205e, 208, 229, 231, 235; data Data set: for data analysis,
collection and, 196–199; 201–202, 203; management of,
deductive method for, 210, 211f; 200–201
ethics with, 264; for grounded
theory, 32, 228–229; inductive Debriefing, 287; Internet and,
process for, 19, 201–202, 211f; 188
theorizing for, 217e, 218f, 219f,
220f Decolonizing interviews, 112–113
Data banks, for ethnography, Deductive method, 17; for data
165–166
analysis, 210, 211f
Demographic/background

questions, 118
Dependability. See Reliability

335SUBJECT INDEX

Description section, in reports, 173–175, 189; as secondary
276–277, 284–286; for sources, 178; stability of,
ethnography, 229 182–183; types of, 163–175;
visual, 168–171
Descriptive analysis, 229 Drinkers, Drummers and Decent Folk
Design. See Qualitative research (Steward), 278
Dynamic data, on Internet, 185
design
Devil’s advocate questions, 119, E
E-interview research, 116
120t E-mail interviews, 185–186
Discourse analysis, 35–36 Emancipatory education, 10;

The Discovery of Grounded Theory: critical research and, 60
Emancipatory knowledge, critical
Strategies for Qualitative Research
(Glaser & Strauss), 7, 29 research and, 60
Discrepant case analysis, 249, 259t Emergent: in action research,
Discussion section, in reports:
literature review in, 92; 50–51; in qualitative research,
theoretical framework in, 88–89 18
Dissemination of reports: ethics Emic. See Insider perspective
with, 192–193, 261; in journals, Emoticons, 186
287–288 Epistemology, 8; data analysis and,
“Do no harm,” 261 208; in feminism, 12t; in
Documents: authenticity and grounded theory, 12t; mixed
accuracy of, 176–177, 181–183; methods and, 44
auxiliary, 178; for case studies, Epoche (Refrain from judgment),
40; coding for, 178–179; content 27, 227
analysis for, 179–180; data Essential, invariant structure
collection from, 53, 105, 106, (essence), in phenomenology,
162–193, 296; data management 27–28
with, 199–200; defined, 162; Ethics, 237–266; biases and, 260;
ethics with, 263; fieldwork and, for Internet, 187–188; of
175; hypotheses and, 182; on researcher, 260; with data
Internet, 159, 177–178, analysis, 264; with data
183–189; limitations and collection, 261–263; with
strengths of, 180–183; medium dissemination of reports,
effects of, 187; personal, 192–193, 261; with documents,
166–167, 263; with in-depth interviews,
181–182; popular culture, 262; with Internet, 187–188,
167–168; as primary sources, 263; with interviews, 261–262;
178; public records as, 164–166; with observations, 261–263; with
for qualitative research, participant as observer stance,
175–180; for quantitative 263; with reports, 264
research, 174; in research
proposal, 296; by researcher,

336 SUBJECT INDEX

The Ethnographic Interview F
(Spradley), 113 Facebook, 34, 183, 185, 224
Feeling questions, 118
Ethnography: analysis section in, Feminism: critical action research
229–230; categories in, 230;
classification schemes for, 230; and, 56; critical research and,
CMC for, 158–159; coding for, 60; epistemology in, 12t;
231; context in, 30; culture and, ethnography and, 29;
29–31; data analysis for, postmodernism and, 11;
229–231; data banks for, poststructuralism and, 11, 14
165–166; data collection for, Field notes: data management
30, 158; feminism and, 29; with, 199–200; format for,
internal validity for, 244; 150–151; highly descriptive, 151;
Internet for, 158–160, 230–231; Internet and, 160; for
interviews for, 113; observations, 148–158,
performance, 29; 152e–157e, 160; reflection for,
postmodernism and, 11; 151–152
qualitative research design for, Fieldwork, 137; documents and,
28–31, 42fig; rich description in, 175
229; thick description in, Findings section, in reports,
256–257; with case studies, 39. 277–279, 279e–280e
See also Critical ethnography Flexibility, in qualitative research,
18
Etic. See Outsider perspective Focus, of reports, 270–272
Evaluation research, 4–5; Focus groups: data collection
from, 53; interviews with, 53,
postmodernism and, 11 113–115
Executive summaries, The Focused Interview (Merton,
Riske, & Kendall), 53, 113–115
286–287 Follow-up questions. See Probes
Exhaustive categories, 212 For grounded theory, 31–33,
Experience, phenomenology and, 42fig

9–10 G
Experience and behavior General description, 276–278,

questions, 118 285–286
Explanatory sequential design, 47 Generalizability. See External
Exploratory mixed methods
validity
research, 47–48 The God Problem: Expressing Faith
External validity, 239, 253–260;
and Being Reasonable
hypotheses and, 254–255; (Wuthnow), 288
maximum variation sampling Gore, Al, 3
and, 257, 259t; rich description GoToMeeting, 116
and, 256–257, 259t; sampling
and, 257–258; thick description
and, 256–257
Extrapolation, 255

337SUBJECT INDEX

Grounded theory, 24; categories I
in, 33, 228–229; coding in, 229; ICTs. See Information
constant comparative method
for, 32, 201–202, 220–221, 228; communication technologies
core categories in, 33, 42fig, 219, Ideal position questions, 120, 120t
228–229; data analysis for, 32, Imaginative variation, 27, 227
228–229; data collection for, 31, An Inconvenient Truth (movie), 3
32; epistemology in, 12t; In-depth interviews, 25; for action
hypotheses in, 33, 228, 229;
literature review for, 92–93; research, 53; ethics with, 262; on
maximum variation sampling in, Internet, 158; for narrative
98; postmodernism and, 11; analysis, 35
qualitative research design for, Inductive process: for categories,
31–33, 42fig; substantive theory 210; for data analysis, 19,
in, 31–32, 33; theoretical 201–202, 211f; in qualitative
framework and, 89; with case research, 7, 17
studies, 39; with critical Informal/unstructured interviews,
research, 60 110–111, 110t
Information communication
Group interviews, 108 technologies (ICTs), 115–117
“Guidelines for Authors,” 273 Information-rich cases, 96
Informed consent, 261; for
H observations, 262
Hermeneutic philosophy, 34–35; Insider perspective (Emic), 16; in
action research, 51–52; in
critical research and, 60 critical research, 63–65; in
Heuristic device, 223 interviews, 130; thick
Heuristic inquiry, 227–228 description and, 256–257
Highly descriptive field notes, 151 Institutional review boards (IRB),
Highly structured interviews, 109, 261
Intellectual property, on Internet,
110t 187–188
Historical case study, 182 Internal validity, 242–250; data
Horizontalization, 27, 227 collection and, 246–248; for
The Hot Zone (Preston), 288 ethnography, 244; member
Human Relations Area File, checks for, 246, 247t–248t, 259t;
peer review for, 249–250, 259t;
165–166 reality and, 242–244; reflexivity
HyperRESEARCH, 224, 225t and, 249; reliability and, 251;
Hypotheses: documents and, 182; researcher and, 248–249;
triangulation for, 244–246,
external validity and, 254–255; 259t
in grounded theory, 33, 228, International Journal of Qualitative
229; literature review and, 91; Methods, 288
working, 254–255
Hypothetical questions, 119,
120t

338 SUBJECT INDEX

International Journal of Qualitative management with, 199–200;
Studies in Education, 288 decolonizing, 112–113;
e-interview research, 116; ethics
International Review of Qualitative with, 261–262; for ethnography,
Research, 288 30, 113; in exploratory mixed
methods research, 47–48;
Internet: anonymity on, 188; group, 108; guide for, 124–126,
biases on, 187; copyright and, 126e; highly structured, 109,
188; data collection from, 158, 110t; by Internet, 115–117;
185, 297; debriefing and, 188; interviewer-respondent
documents on, 159, 177–178, interaction in, 128–130; in
183–189; dynamic data on, 185; mixed methods research, 47;
ethics with, 187–188, 263; for neo-positivist, 112; observations
ethnography, 158–160, 230–231; and, 137; participants for,
field notes and, 160; focus 127–130; person-to-person, 108;
groups on, 115; in-depth for phenomenology, 27, 113; by
interviews on, 158; intellectual philosophical and disciplinary
property on, 187–188; interviews orientation, 112–113;
by, 115–117; for observations, postmodernism and, 112;
158–160; participants on, 187, probes in, 122–123; questions
188–189; personal documents for, 117–122, 120t, 121t; in
on, 167; research proposal and, research proposal, 295–296;
297; researcher and, 187; static romantic conceptions of, 112;
data on, 184–185; triangulation semistructured interviews,
for, 177–178 110–111, 110t, 124–125;
standardized, 109; structured,
Interpretive analysis, 229–230 109–111, 110t, 125; subjectivities
Interpretive commentary, 285–286 in, 112, 129–130; synchronous,
Interpretive data, 229 115–116; in theoretical
Interpretive questions, 120, 120t framework, 112; transcriptions
Interpretive rigor, 239 of, 131–136, 133e–136e, 200;
Interpretivism, 9, 11–13; in basic transformative, 112–113; types
of, 109–117; unstructured/
qualitative study, 24; informal, 110–111, 110t; with
epistemology in, 12t; e-mail, 185–186; with focus
postmodernism and groups, 53, 113–115. See also
poststructuralism and, 10 In-depth interviews; Questions
Interviews: in action research, IRB. See Institutional review boards
49–50; ambiguity in, 130;
anchored, 139; asynchronous, J
115–116; beginning, 127–128; Job training and partnership
for case studies, 40;
constructionist, 112; data program (JTPA), 119–121
collection from, 18–19, 105, 106,
107–136, 262, 295–296; data
from, 108–109; data

339SUBJECT INDEX

Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 89–95; saturation in, 94;
288 theoretical framework from, 91

Journal of Narrative and Life History, M
34 Making Stories, Making Selves:

Journals: basic qualitative study in, Feminist Reflections on the
25; dissemination of reports in, Holocaust (Linden), 278
287–288; establishment of, 7–8; Mapping: in CAQDAS, 224;
for narrative analysis, 34; reports cognitive, 230
in, 287–288 Maximum variation sampling:
external validity and, 257, 259t;
JTPA. See Job training and in grounded theory, 98
partnership program MAXQDA (software), 225t
MBK. See My Brother’s Keeper
K Meaning: in ABR, 66; in basic
Kaleidoscope: A Graduate Journal of qualitative study, 24, 25; in
ethnography, 30; from
Qualitative Communication imaginative variation, 227; in
Research, 288 phenomenology, 9, 27; in
Knowledge: emancipatory, 60; qualitative research, 15–16; in
external validity and, 256; in symbolic interactionism, 10
interpretive research, 9; The Meaning of Others: Narrative
literature review for, 90–91; Studies of Relationships (Josselson,
nature of, 8; in positivist Lieblich, & McAdams), 34
research, 9; in postpositivism, 9; Member checks, for internal
validity and reliability of, 241 validity, 246, 247t–248t, 259t
Knowledge gap: problem Meta-analyses, 165
statement and, 79; research Methodological rigor, 239, 242
problem and, 77–78; theoretical Methodology section: in reports,
framework and, 87, 88 277, 293–299; in research
Knowledge questions, 118 proposal, 293
Mixed methods research:
L comparative case studies and,
Leading questions, 121–122, 121t 47; culture in, 47; defined, 45;
Life history: ethnography, 29; in history of, 45–46; in qualitative
research, 43–48; qualitative
narrative analysis, 6, 34–35, 232; research designs for, 46–48
in researcher-generated Models, in reports, 283, 283fig
documents, 174, 189 Moderator, for focus groups, 114
Linguistic approach, to narrative Multiple questions, 121, 121t
analysis, 35–36 Mute evidence, artifacts as, 171
Literature review: conducting and Mutually exclusive categories, 212
writing up, 93–95; data
collection in, 91; for grounded
theory, 92–93; hypotheses and,
91; in qualitative research,

340 SUBJECT INDEX

My Brother’s Keeper (MBK), Internet for, 158–160; interviews
70–71, 71fig and, 137; observer-observed
relationship, 144–149;
N participants for, 141, 144–149;
Narrative analysis, 24; categories privacy with, 262; in qualitative
research, 138–139; in research
in, 231–232; context in, 232; proposal, 296; research question
culture in, 35, 232; data analysis for, 138, 140–144; situationalism
for, 231–232; in-depth with, 148; subjectivities in, 138,
interviews for, 35; life history in, 147–148; theoretical framework
6, 34–35, 232; qualitative for, 140–144; for triangulation,
research design for, 33–36, 42fig 139; with data analysis, 200
Narrative Inquiry (journal), 34, 288 Observer as participant stance, for
National Institutes of Health observations, 144–145
(NIH), 46 Online. See Internet
National Science Foundation, 46 Ontology, 8. See also Reality
Negative case analysis, 249, 259t OoVoo, 116
Neo-positivist interviews, 112 Open coding, 204, 229
Network sampling, 98 Open-ended questions, 45,
Neutrality, in interviews, 128 121–122; in interview guide,
NIH. See National Institutes of 124–125; in reports, 287
Health Opinion and values questions,
Nonprobability sampling, 100, 118
102–103; by anthropologists, 96 Organizations, practical action
Nonreactive measures, 182–183 research for, 55–56
Nonreactive Measures in the Social Outline, for reports, 272–273
Sciences (Webb, Campbell, Outsider perspective (Etic), 16; in
Schwartz, & Sechrest), 182–183 action research, 51–52; in
critical research, 63–65; in
O interviews, 130
Observations, 137–161; for action
P
research, 51; ambiguity in, 147; PAR. See Participatory action
carefulness of, 18; for case
studies, 40; collaborative research
partner stance for, 145; Participant as observer stance:
complete observer stance for,
145; complete participant ethics with, 263; for
stance for, 144; context and, observations, 144
139; data collection from, 53, Participants: in ABR, 67; in action
105, 106, 142, 147, 296; ethics research, 4, 49, 51; in critical
with, 261–263; field notes for, research, 62–65; on Internet,
148–158, 152e–157e, 160; 187, 188–189; for interviews,
informed consent for, 262; 127–130; for observations, 141,

341SUBJECT INDEX

144–149; photo elicitation by, Positivism, 11–14; epistemology in,
170–171 12t; neo-positivist interviews,
Participatory action research 112; postpositivism, 9, 11–13,
(PAR), 57–58; epistemology in, 12t; quantitative research
12t and, 45
Particular description, 285–286
Pedagogy: ABR and, 69–70; critical Postcolonialism, 8; critical
action research and, 56 research and, 60; epistemology
Peer review: for internal validity, in, 12t
249–250, 259t; for reliability, 252
Performance ethnography, 29 Postmodernism, 8, 9, 10–11;
Personal criteria, for reliability critical research and, 60;
and validity, 240 epistemology in, 12t; feminism
Personal documents, 166–167; and, 11; grounded theory
authenticity and accuracy of, and, 11; interviews and, 112
181–182
Person-to-person interviews, 108 Postpositivism: epistemology in,
Phenomenological reduction, 27, 12t; knowledge in, 9, 11–13
227
Phenomenology, 9–10; bracketing Poststructuralism, 8, 9, 10–14;
in, 26–27, 42fig, 113, 227; data critical research and, 60;
analysis for, 227–228; interviews epistemology in, 12t; feminism
for, 27, 113; meaning in, 9, 27; and, 11, 14
postmodernism and, 11;
qualitative research design for, Power dynamics: critical action
25–28, 42fig; understanding in, research for, 56; in critical
24 research, 10, 60–61; PAR for, 57
Photographs, 168–171; in ABR,
66–67; by researcher, 174 Practical action research, 55–56
Photovoice, 170–171 Practical education, 10
Physical materials, data collection Practitioner research. See Action
from, 171–173
Physical trace material, 172–173 research
Pilot study, in research proposal, Pragmatists, 46
298 Prereflective experience, 26
Planning, for action research, 51, Primary sources, documents as,
57
Poetic analysis, 227 178
Popular culture documents, Privacy: on Internet, 188; with
167–168
Positionality, in critical research, observations, 262
62–65 Probability sampling, 96
Probes: in interview guide,

124–125; in interviews,
122–123
Problem statement: research
problem and, 77–79, 80e,
81e–82e; theoretical framework
and, 88
Problematic situation, in action
research, 50

342 SUBJECT INDEX

Properties: categories and, 216, designs for, 22–42, 42fig; reality
217e, 217f, 218e, 218f, 219e, 220; in, 45; reliability, validity, and
in grounded theory, 33, 228 ethics in, 237–266; reports in,
267–291; researcher in, 16–17;
Psychological approach, to rich description in, 17–18;
narrative analysis, 35 sampling for, 95–102; sources
of, 6–8; theoretical framework
Psychologists, case studies by, 37 for, 82–89, 87fig; topic selection
Public records, 164–166 for, 73–76; understanding in,
Purists, 45 15–16; writing, 267–291. See also
Purpose: categories and, 212; data Research problem; Research
proposal; Research question
analysis and, 207; in qualitative Qualitative Research (journal), 288
research, 18 Qualitative research design: of
Purpose statement: data analysis basic qualitative study, 23–25;
and, 202; research questions for case studies, 37–40; for
and, 78–79, 80e ethnography, 28–31, 42fig;
Purposeful sampling, 96–99; for explanatory sequential design,
focus groups, 114 47; for grounded theory, 31–33,
42fig; for mixed methods
Q research, 46–48; for narrative
QDA Miner, 224, 225t analysis, 33–36, 42fig; for
Qualitative case study. See Case phenomenology, 25–28, 42fig;
for qualitative research, 22–42,
studies 42fig; in research proposal, 293
Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative Research in Organizations
(software), 225t
Qualitative Health Research, 288 and Management: An
Qualitative Inquiry, 288 International Journal, 288
The Qualitative Report, 288 Qualitative research reports.
Qualitative research, 3–21; See Reports

ambiguity in, 18; artifacts for, Qualitative Research Reports in
175–180; authenticity in, Communication, 288
238–239; characteristics of, 20t;
competencies in, 18–19; context Qualitative Social Work, 288
in, 18; data analysis for, Qualrus (software), 225t
195–236; data in, 6; definition Quantitative content analysis,
of, 14–19; documents for,
175–180; inductive process in, 7, 179–180
17; literature review in, 89–95; Quantitative research, 5;
meaning in, 15–16; mixed
methods research in, 43–48; characteristics of, 20t;
nature of, 5–6; observations in, documents for, 174; positivism
138–139; overlap of types, 41; and, 45; validity and reliability
philosophical perspectives on, in, 238. See also Mixed methods
8–14; qualitative research research

343SUBJECT INDEX

Queer theory, 11; critical 238; validity, and ethics, in
research and, 60; epistemology qualitative research, 237–266
in, 12t Reports: for ABR, 288–290; for
action research, 288–290;
Questions, 117–122; to avoid, anonymity in, 264; audience
121–122, 121t; quality of, 18–19; conjuring for, 268–270; biases
types of, 118–122, 120t. See also
Research question in, 277; for case studies, 40;
categories in, 280; classification
R
Random sampling, 100 schemes in, 280; contents of,
Rapport: in interviews, 128; for 275–286; data analysis in,
284–286; description section in,
observations, 143 229, 276–277, 284–286;
Reader generalizability, 256 discussion section in, 88–89, 92;
Reality: in basic qualitative study, dissemination of, 192–193, 261,
287–288; ethics with, 264;
24; epistemology in, 12t; findings section in, 277–279,
internal validity and, 242–244; 279e–280e; focus of, 270–272; in
in interpretive research, 9; journals, 287–288; methodology
nature of, 8; in positivist section in, 277, 293–299; models
research, 9; in qualitative in, 283, 283fig; open-ended
research, 45; validity and questions in, 287; outline for,
reliability and, 239 272–273; placement of parts in,
Redundancy, in sampling, 101 280–284; preparing, 268–275; in
Reflection: for action research, qualitative research, 267–291;
51; content analysis and, 179;
for field notes, 151–152; understanding in, 278
phenomenological reduction
and, 227 Research design. See Qualitative
Reflexivity: in critical research,
62–65; internal validity and, 249; research design
of researcher, 62–65 Research problem, 76–82;
Refrain from judgment (Epoche),
27, 227 knowledge gap and, 77–78;
Reliability, 237–266, 241e; audit problem statement and, 77–79,
trail for, 252, 259t; 80e, 81e–82e; from theoretical
conceptualization of, 239;
criteria for, 240–241; internal framework, 86
validity and, 251; peer review Research proposal, 293–299;
for, 252; in quantitative
research, 238; reality and, 239; biases in, 298; data analysis in,
in research proposal, 298; 297–298; data collection in,
strategies for, 259t; triangulation 295–297; documents in, 296;
for, 252; understanding and, Internet and, 297; interviews in,
295–296; methodology section

in, 293; observations in, 296;

pilot study in, 298; qualitative

research design in, 293;

reliability in, 298; sampling in,

344 SUBJECT INDEX

293–295; translation issues in, S
298–299; validity in, 298 Sampling: chain, 98; convenience,
Research question: data analysis
for, 202–203; data collection 98; external validity and,
and, 78–79; for observations, 257–258; maximum variation,
138, 140–144; purpose 98, 257, 259t; network, 98;
statement and, 78–79, 80e nonprobability, 96, 100, 102–
Researcher: in action research, 103; probability, 96; purposeful,
49–52; artifacts by, 173–175; 96–99, 114; for qualitative
authenticity and, 252; research, 95–102; random, 100;
bracketing for, 26–27, 42fig, 113, in research proposal, 293–295;
227; in critical research, 63–64; saturation for, 101; size of,
data collection and, 187; 101–102; snowball, 98;
documents by, 173–175, 189; theoretical, 32, 98–99; two-tier,
ethics of, 260; in grounded 99–101; unique, 97–98; unit of
theory, 31; internal validity and, analysis and, 95
248–249; Internet and, 187; in Saturation: in data collection, 199,
narrative analysis, 36; in PAR, 246–248; in literature review, 94;
57; photographs by, 174; as for sampling, 101
primary instrument in Schoolgirl Fictions (Walkerdin), 278
qualitative research, 16–17; Second Life, 177
reflexivity of, 62–65. See also Secondary sources, documents as,
Biases; Insider perspective; 178
Outsider perspective; Selective coding, 229
Reflection; Reflexivity; Self-Other conjunction, 63
Subjectivities Semistructured interviews,
Respondent validation. 110–111, 110t; interview guide
See Member checks for, 124–125
Rich description: in ethnography, Sensitizing categories, 213, 213e
229; external validity and, Sensory questions, 118
256–257, 259t; in grounded Shakespeare in the Bush
theory, 31; in qualitative (Bohannan), 16
research, 17–18 Situationalism, with observations,
Rigor: ethics and, 260; 148
interpretive, 239; Situationalists, 45–46
methodological, 239, 242; Skype, 115, 116
reliability and validity and, 239; Snowball sampling, 98
strategies for, 259t Social justice, 32
Romantic conceptions, of Sociologists, 6; case studies by, 37
interviews, 112 Standardized interviews, 109
Royal Ballet of London Static data, on Internet, 184–185
study, 31 Step-by-step process of, 204–221
Stories. See Narrative analysis

345SUBJECT INDEX

Structured interviews, 109–111, A Thrice-Told Tale (Wolf), 278
110t, 125; data collection from, Tobacco company exposés,
125
175–176
Structured observations, 140 Tootle (Burbules), 61–62
Subjectivities, 16–17; in interviews, Topic selection, for qualitative

112, 129–130; in observations, research, 73–76
138, 147–148. See also Biases Toward a Methodology of Naturalistic
“Submission Guidelines,” 273
Substantive theory: constant Inquiry in Educational Evaluation
comparative method for, 201, (Guba), 7
228; core categories in, 33; in Transana (software), 225t
grounded theory, 31–32, 33 Transcriptions, of interviews,
Surveys, 5–6; in action research, 131–136, 133e–136e, 200
49–50; in mixed methods Transferability. See External
research, 44–50. See also validity
Interviews Transformative education, critical
Symbolic interactionism, 9–10 research and, 60
Synchronous interviews, 115–116 Transformative interviews,
112–113
T Translation issues, in research
Technical action research, 54 proposal, 298–299
Technical education, 10 Triangulating analysts, 245
Theoretical framework: data Triangulation: for internal validity,
244–246, 259t; for Internet,
collection and, 88–89; 177–178; observations for, 139;
grounded theory and, 89; for reliability, 252
interviews in, 112; from Trustworthiness. See Reliability;
literature review, 91; for Validity
observations, 140–144; for Truth, 61, 240; in postmodernism,
qualitative research, 82–89, 11
87fig; research problem from, Twitter, 185, 224
86 Two-tier sampling, 99–101;
Theoretical sampling, 98–99; for comparative case studies and,
grounded theory, 32 100
Theorizing: ambiguity in, 216; for
categories, 215–221, 217e, 218f, U
219f, 220f; for data analysis, Understanding: in interpretivism,
217e, 218f, 219f, 220f
Thick description: in 9; in phenomenology, 24; in
ethnography, 30, 256–257; qualitative research, 15–16;
external validity and, reliability and validity and, 238,
256–257 240; in reports, 278; in symbolic
“Thinking” block, 274 interactionism, 10
Unique sampling, 97–98

346 SUBJECT INDEX

Unit of analysis, 24; for case Video, 168–171
studies, 38–39; sampling and, Visual documents, 168–171
95; two-tier sampling and, 100 Visual methods, 163

Unobtrusive measures, 182–183 W
Unstructured/informal interviews, Watergate tapes, 176
“Why” questions, 119
110–111, 110t Will the Circle Be Unbroken?
User generalizability, 256
(Terkel), 288
V Within-case analysis, 234
Validity, 237–266, 241e; Working hypotheses, 254–255
Writer’s block, 274–275
conceptualization of, 239; Writing: comfort with, 19;
criteria for, 240–241; in
quantitative research, 238; reality literature review, 93–95;
and, 239; in research proposal, qualitative research, 267–291
298; strategies for, 259t;
understanding and, 238. See also Y
External validity; Internal validity Yes-no questions, 121t, 122
Value and opinion questions, 118 YouTube, 158, 163, 168, 178, 179,
Varieties of Narrative Analysis
(Holstein & Gubrium), 232 183

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