Architectural Drawing Course_ Tools and Techniques for 2D and 3D Representation ( PDFDrive ) (1)

ARCHITECTURAL
drawing
course

Tools and Techniques for
2D and 3D Representation

MO ZELL



Architectural DRAWING
course



Mo Zell

Architectural
DRAWING course

A QUARTO BOOK Contents Foreword 6
About this book 8
First edition for North America
published in 2008 by 1Chapter
Barron’s Educational Series, Inc. Architectural language 10

Copyright © 2008 Quarto Publishing plc Unit 1 What is architecture? 12
Unit 2 Representation and drawing 14
All rights reserved. No part of this book Unit 3 Representational intention 16
may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, Unit 4 Types of drawing 20
microfilm, xerography, or any other means, Unit 5 Models as representations 24
or incorporated into any information retrieval Unit 6 Who is the audience? 28
system, electronic or mechanical, without the Unit 7 Concept 30
written permission of the copyright owner. Unit 8 Tools for success 32

All inquiries should be addressed to: 2Chapter
Barron’s Educational Series, Inc. Learning to see: sketching 36
250 Wireless Boulevard
Hauppauge, NY 11788 Unit 9 Sketching types 38
www.barronseduc.com Unit 10 Sketching techniques 40
Unit 11 Sketching media 42
Library of Congress Catalog Card No.: Unit 12 Sketching the line 46
2007941877 Unit 13 Selecting an object 48
Unit 14 Figure drawing 50
ISBN-10: 0-7641-3814-6
ISBN-13: 978-0-7641-3814-0 3Chapter
Orthographic projection 52
QUAR. ADE
Unit 15 Plan, section, and elevation 54
Conceived, designed, and produced by Unit 16 Composite representations 62
Quarto Publishing plc Unit 17 Modeling techniques 64
The Old Brewery Unit 18 Construction: Dürer’s alphabet 68
6 Blundell Street
London N7 9BH

Senior Editor Liz Dalby
Copy Editor Ilona Jasiewicz

Art Director Caroline Guest
Designer Karin Skånberg
Photographer Evan Witek
Picture Research Claudia Tate

Creative Director Moira Clinch
Publisher Paul Carslake

Colour separation by Modern Age
Repro House Ltd., Hong Kong
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987654321

4Chapter Glossary 136
Timeline 138
Objective abstraction: axonometric 72 Resources 140
Index 142
Unit 19 Introduction to axonometric 74 Credits 144
Unit 20 Spatial overlap and complex spaces 76
Unit 21 Introduction to analysis 78
Unit 22 Introduction to El Lissitzky 80

5Chapter
Subjective representation: perspective 82

Unit 23 Perspective concepts 84
Portfolio Presenting perspective 86
Unit 24 Two-point perspective 88
Unit 25 One-point perspective 94
Unit 26 Finishing a perspective 98
Unit 27 Architectural element design: opening 100
Unit 28 The kit of parts 104

6Chapter

Dynamic rendering strategies 106

Unit 29 Rendering techniques 108
Unit 30 Charcoal drawing 110
Unit 31 Shade and shadow 112
Unit 32 Color, collage, and composition 114
Unit 33 Addition and subtraction 118

7Chapter

Accessing the profession 124

Unit 34 A career in architecture 126
Unit 35 Manual vs. digital representation 128
Unit 36 Your portfolio 130
Unit 37 Internships 134



Foreword

Architecture is an intellectual and physical endeavor. Much like the process of architectural design, the
That is, architecture is the amalgamation of intention (idea) approach of this book is cumulative in nature. Skills are
with iteration (the process of problem solving with each taught incrementally and build upon prior exercises.
investigation building upon the preceding one) manifest in
a building or space. Architects illustrate and study their Architectural representations are utilized both for
intentions and ideas through drawings and models. These processing ideas and documenting those ideas for
architectural representations exemplify a visual language presentation. They are both a means to an end and an
with rules, conventions, and meanings. These visual tools end in themselves. Ideas conceptualized in your head
convey ideas, reinforce concepts, and otherwise try to need to be translated onto paper so that they can be
persuade others. They are essential tools for designing, tested. When ideas are manifest in physical form (on
describing, and exploring your surrounding environment. paper or as a model), those ideas are forced to address
questions. By physically representing your ideas, you can
This book is an introduction to the visual language of begin to see them for what they are, make changes, and
architectural representation. It is intended to familiarize revise them. When you draw or build your ideas you can
readers with basic concepts of architecture through a react to them physically and visually, but when they are
series of design exercises that develop necessary skill isolated in thought you can only react to them
sets supplemented with examples, references, and conceptually. This suggests a process of recording all of
research recommendations. It will challenge your your thoughts and ideas in a physical manner. While
preconceptions about architecture while enabling you to making representations of your ideas, ask yourself the
become critical of your built environment. This book question “why?” Why this size, this shape, this many, and
explores architectural representation from the point of view so on. At the end of the iterative process, these models
of a designer. It is a foundation course book that is ideal and drawings are finalized and presented for
for someone who is debating about attending architecture particular audiences.
school, starting at architecture school, or generally
interested in the creative aspects of architectural design. Architecture is taught through design, process, and
technique. With the use of precedents, background
Through a series of three-dimensional design problems, information, clear instruction, examples, and exercises,
the reader will explore issues of proportion/scale, this book will have you investigating your surroundings by
space/volume, composition/sequence, and material/ being a curious observer. The goal is to urge you to
texture while simultaneously learning the language of think and see spatially, in three dimensions.
architectural representation. In addition, a series of
exercises that explain the process of conceptualizing
architectural ideas and how to represent those ideas in
both drawings and models is provided.

7

About this book

This book is divided into seven chapters that cover architectural representational This book also includes professional examples of architectural projects. These real-
techniques supplemented by design problems based on a college-level beginning life scenarios demonstrate building techniques and materials that impact design
design curriculum. Within each chapter the process of design is emphasized. Each decisions. Case studies show different designers’ interpretations of a range of
chapter is further broken down into units that include step-by-step tutorials to project statements. You will also find professional advice about entering the
explain the processes of representation. Hands-on exercises allow you to practice architecture profession and what to expect when you get there. Common myths
and refine your new skills, from the conceptualization of a space to visualizing it about architecture will also be dispelled.
two- and three-dimensionally to describing it through sections, elevations, and
fully-realized perspective drawings.

Read this!/websites Advice

Reading material and useful websites Advice boxes are interspersed
will be referenced for a variety of units throughout the book to provide
in the book. additional observations and instruction
related to architectural design.
Drawing techniques, research methods,
and comparative assessment are all
found here.

1UNIT: Read this! The studio course

What is architecture? Laugier, Marc Antoine In architecture school, the most important course for a design
An Essay on Architecture student is the studio course. This is where you are introduced
This unit encourages you to think about the built environment Hennessy & Ingalls, 1985. Alvar Aalto to different processes of design.
in a more critical way. What is your definition of architecture? (Originally published in Paris in 1753.)
What is your definition of building? How are they similar and Alvar Aalto’s (Finnish, b. 1898 The structure of a studio course is much different than that of
different? Can architecture be art? Vitruvius d. 1976) early works were the typical lecture course. In studio, student ideas are typically
The Ten Books on Architecture influenced both by the Nordic discussed in the company of the professor within a preset
The word “architecture” derives from are often referred to as anything (Chapters 1–3) translated by Classicism of Scandinavian context—that is, within a given program or topic. This dialogue
the Greek word arkhitekton, meaning that is constructed, while architecture predecessors such as Gunnar differs greatly from the monologue typically associated with the
“master builder or craftsman.” The is usually defined as having been Hicky Morgan, Morris. Asplund and by the ever-growing lecture course. As a student in the studio course, you meet in
contemporary definition given by influenced by aesthetics. Adamant Media Corporation, 2005. Modern Movement. His library in groups and individually to discuss ideas directly with your
Webster’s New Universal Unabridged (Originally written around 27 BC.) Viipuri (1929–32) clearly reflects professor. Professors provide direct feedback in these settings,
Dictionary states that architecture is “the The qualification of aesthetics that both of these influences and his including suggestions on how to proceed or precedents to study.
profession of designing buildings, open creates a distinction between buildings while fulfilling a functional task. humanist manner. The interior This direct dialogue between student and professor is fostered in
areas, communities, and other artificial and architecture elicits the question, Artists never have to contend with was carefully designed with warm the open studio environment. The one-to-one interaction with the
constructions and environments, usually “Can architecture be art?” Can function as a requirement of their wood details and a thoughtful professor is unique to architecture and other creative professions.
with some regard to aesthetic effect.” something that is functional also be art? art, while architects must consider manipulation of natural light. Students, however, also learn from one another in this type of
Those in the profession state that in every architectural task. atmosphere. The working environment provides a place in
unambiguously that architecture and Some would question the ability of Aalto believed in gesamtkunstwerk, which to interact with other students.
building are not the same. Buildings architects to create something artistic a synthesis of the arts. That is to
say, he carefully orchestrated the Design projects developed in the studio course are evaluated
design of not only the building, Riola Parish Church, Italy. during a “review,” often with guest critics in attendance.
but also of the many furnishings These participants are generally other academics or design
such as light fixtures, door handles, professionals. The design work is displayed for review. The
chairs, and so on within it. He has student then verbally describes his intentions, using the graphic
a number of chairs and household material as visual support. The reviewers critique the
goods credited to him. Aalto was a work based on the clarity of the idea and its relationship to
prodigious builder, completing well the representations. Student comment and participation is
over 100 projects throughout encouraged because this environment is meant to foster learning.
Europe and North America.

្ Architecture or building? You should define architecture include graphic and information
The application of aesthetic for yourself—now, and then again design. Frank Lloyd Wright, for
considerations distinguishes after reading this book. This example, in many of his houses,
architecture from building. This definition question is left open to allow you designed every aspect, down to
recognizes that there is a distinction to modulate and transform your the furniture and the cutlery. He was
between a shed and a cathedral. own definition of architecture as even known to return to his clients’
you read the book and continue homes and move the furniture back
The following definitions of architecture were “Architecture is the design of buildings and landscapes “Architecture is the process of taking a concept or your architectural education. to its original placements.
suggested by a group of new students: with the intentions of being both aesthetically pleasing function and giving life to it structurally.”
“Architecture is structures built for human needs. Being and functional.” A. Brown The design of the built environment Architects design buildings, ។ The studio environment
an architect is having the spirit to build for people.” B. Pierson “Architecture is an expression of an artist’s beliefs, takes on many forms and scales. spaces, campuses, landscapes, Students work best in a studio environment, at
T. Wen “Architecture is the poetry in building in which feelings, or surroundings through a structure, Over many centuries, architects and even entire cities. Regardless individual desks in dedicated spaces. In many studios
“Architecture is the design of spaces that can be communities are reinterpreted and refined in varying landscape, or object.” have taken on the role of of the nature of the setting—urban, drawing boards sit adjacent to computers to allow for
fundamental and beautiful.” degrees. However, it must maintain its purpose in its B. Newell architectural designer, landscape rural, or suburban—buildings have transition between analog and digital media.
L. Miggins design for human use.” designer, urban designer, product a context. In designing architecture
K. Patterson designer, and furniture designer. at all scales, the architect should
The scope of work available to recognize this context both
architects has even grown to physically and intellectually.

12 CHAPTER 1: Architectural language UNIT 1: What is architecture? 13

Biographies

These parts provide opportunities to
highlight an important figure in architecture.

8 Introduction

Physical vs. digital models 1CASE STUDY:
Architectural mock-ups
During the design process, there the keyboard or mouse in order to ្។Material construction
are several benefits to making a rotate, move, or modify the image. These two images depict transparency Architects should be conscious of the impact of their design ideas
physical model over a digital model. There is a type of hesitation to the studies of the same architectural project on a site. Smaller-scale representations can be limiting in presenting
Physical models let you experience designer’s engagement with the through the use of a digital model the full considerations of the design project.
the building as a three-dimensional concept. However, digital models (below) and a physical model (left).
material object, allowing the design can also provide opportunities to The digital model is more diagrammatic, In some cases, architects support deeper
to be understood simultaneously simulate travel through and into emphasizing the continuity of spaces, investigations by constructing full-scale mock-
through all of its parts and as a whole. spaces, providing views that a while the physical model allows the ups to test impacts on a site, constructability,
There is tactile immediacy to grasping physical model might not allow. viewer to understand the massing or material effect. The following images
and understanding the form visually of the addition (in basswood) with demonstrate a full-scale mock-up of the
and the composition through physical greater clarity. Northeastern University Veterans Memorial.
movement and rotation. This The scale of the Memorial Wall, along with its
process compels the designer to placement on the site, was being tested. ។៑ Defining wall
be empathetic to the force of gravity The relationship of the wall to the surrounding context
and encourages him or her to think Some mock-ups can be made using non- and the relative size of the space being created were
of the material connections and traditional materials to replicate the design verified with a full-scale mock-up. The height of the wall
their tectonic implications for the impacts while others require real materials to be was altered when tested on the site, while the location
architectural idea. In essence, tested. The wall detail mock-up is typically and length were found to be appropriate.
the designer responds to his constructed on site at full scale to test the
physical connection with a construction techniques, color, and pattern
handcrafted model. choices relative to the context.

While the digital model also allows
a type of visual immediacy through
the rapid selection of views, these
views are ultimately limited by the
screen size and the limitations of the
software interface. The designer
needs to input a command using

Typical modeling materials

Models do not have to be made from a single Basswood Museum board Plexiglass Styrene
material. Using two materials can distinguish Pros: grain can emphasize directionality Pros: easy to cut, no grain, comes in big sheets Pros: provides a transparent material allowing Pros: highly-polished smooth surface ideal
between existing and new, or between materials. of materials, more refined look, easy to cut, Cons: hard to keep clean, not always interior views, can model curtain wall easily as a mold for casting plaster; comes in a
Chipboard comes in sticks, sheets, and blocks consistent material throughout, more Cons: difficult to cut, especially holes variety of sheet sizes
Pros: no grain, easy to cut, cheap, consistent Cons: has grain, sheet size is limited, expensive than chipboard in the middle; transparency is sometimes Cons: more expensive than basswood
color and material throughout, comes in different costs more than chipboard Foamcore misunderstood
thicknesses, comes in large sheets Modeling clay Pros: for making large scale models, comes Corrugated board
Cons: doesn’t look as refined, slight variations Pros: good for carving and landscape models in a variety of thicknesses Cork Pros: affordable and accessible material, can
in color Cons: dries out quickly, messy, imprecise Cons: not consistent material throughout, need Pros: comes in rolls and sheets, looks use boxes and other packing material
to adjust edges when joining pieces together finished, easy to cut, used as contours Cons: quality of material is rarely sufficient for
or landscape final presentation models; must consider
Cons: expensive Case studiesexposed edges in model
styrene ។Combining materials
chipboard basswood clay museum board foamcore Plexiglass cork corrugated board The plexiglass depicts the existing house while
the basswood is used to depict the house addition.
Digital applications The plexiglass allows the connectivity between
the two wood masses to be seen.

Typically in26cluded at the end of each chapter, the These sections will highlight professionalUNIT 5: Models as representations 27

digital applications category provides an projects that exemplify the topic being
opportunity to discuss the changing role of digital introduced. Professional examples
media relative to both the traditional modes of ground the representational assignments
architectural representation and the education of Assignments with real-world applications.
an architect.
Each chapter includes a number of
project assignments that provide
opportunities for you to test your skills
and challenge your creative thinking.
aSntuddsetnrat teexgaimesptloesdwesililgpALnSirSnoIaGeNvpMi-dEpdNeTrr:oa8laewcsihsnoegsn.sexercises
UNIT: 12 “Line does not exist in nature. Line is an invention of man;
so, in fact, is all of drawing… There must have been a
Sketching the line reason for the invention of the line. Yes, it is a guide for
those who would venture into the formlessness that
Lines are manmade creations that surrounds us on every side; a guide that leads us to the Line drawing exercises allow you to gauge your own hand pressure and to achieve straight line accuracy. It is
provide information about changes in recognition of form and dimension and inner meaning.” important to develop the proper hand-eye coordination to draw. You will need to move your entire arm while
form, depth, material, or brightness. making long straight lines. This provides you with stability as you move the lead holder across the page. Twist the
lead holder between your fingers as you move it across the page to maintain a consistent point on the lead.

George Grosz, painter, 1893–1959

One technique that is extremely helpful thickness of the line can vary with You should come to understand the harder leads, while if you have a
in improving sketching is the mastering different media. your own natural hand pressure. This light touch on the page you will want
of the straight line. The language of the affects the marks made on the page to work with softer leads so that your
line is an essential component to The line, if properly drawn, can by graphite. It is important that you lines appear appropriately darker.
understanding drawing. The line is a delineate sharp edges or soft contours. know this so that you can determine
continuous mark on a surface that is Through the pressure, thickness, and which leads, hard or soft, are best 1Place at least 10 dots randomly on a page in your 2Connect every dot to every other dot. Do not use a ruler 3On another sheet, draw a series of horizontal lines,
defined mostly by its length relative to angle of application, it can suggest suited for you. If you have a heavy drawing pad. Use the entire space to distribute the dots. or straight edge for these exercises. Use an HB sketching keeping the lines parallel and around 1⁄2 in (12 mm)
its own width or thickness. The different textures, shapes, and forms. hand you will want to work more with Do not align more than three. Now draw freehand lines pencil. Sharpen your pencil often. Do not lift the pencil up or apart. Draw each line continuously from one side of the
connecting one point to each of the others. Look ahead pause in the middle of a line. Use your entire arm to draw—not paper to the other. Vary your hand pressure after every five
Pen and digital line weights it is not necessary to maintain all to where the line will end and try to make each line just your wrist—from your shoulder to your fingers. Remember to eight lines.
Pen and digital line weights do not vary in the same the pen sizes. A good range includes straight and of a consistent line weight. to roll your pencil to help keep the point consistent.
way as graphite. Variation of line types is achieved small, medium, and large tips: 0.13 mm,
through pen thicknesses rather than hand pressure. ។ Proper line weights 0.25 mm, and 0.50 mm. You should
Pens have a consistent stainless steel tip and ink The section cut is clearly visible as the various line weights, have the variety of pens necessary to
flow and therefore maintain their line consistency from dark to light, depict the depth of the space. convey depth properly in a drawing.
and type throughout the length of the line, as well Graphite line weights
as throughout the entire drawing. Graphite line weights include the
The pen weight range includes: 0.13 mm, 0.18 mm, spectrum of marks made by both
0.25 mm, 0.30 mm, 0.35 mm, 0.50 mm, 0.70 mm, hard and soft leads. There is a range
1.0 mm, 1.4 mm, and 2.0 mm. The range of lines of graphite weights associated with
available in digital output may vary, but typically hard-lined drawing (drawing with your
includes 0.05 mm–2.1 mm. The number of pens parallel rule and drafting board),
available in both digital output and as individual freehand drawing, and sketching.
drawing instruments offers a large variety of line Leads range from a soft 6B to a hard
weights with which to draw. As with the lead range, 9H. The harder the lead, the lighter,
crisper, and thinner the line will be.
It is important that you find your own 4Now cross vertical lines over the horizontal ones to create 5Carefully draw horizontal lines across the width of another 6Repeat the same exercise drawing vertical lines.
appropriate range of drawing weights a grid. Try a variety of lead hardnesses, and both lead page. Maintain a 1-in (25-mm) distance between the
។ Single line weights as each lead has a variety of associated holder and pencils, to experiment with your own hand pressure. lines at the top quarter of the page. For the next quarter,
The lack of a strong section cut and other line weights renders this marks depending on your own hand Compare the lines created with the lead holder and a sketching keep a consistent 1⁄2-in (12-mm) spacing between the lines,
section illegible. The strongest component of the image is a series pressure. For example, an HB lead (a pencil. In addition, use an HB lead in the lead holder for five followed by a 1⁄4-in (6-mm) spacing for the next quarter.
of closely packed vertical lines. In the previous section, the line middle-range lead weight) can actually lines, then press harder for five lines, then lighter for another Finally, the bottom quarter of the page should be filled with
weight is lightened quite a bit to reduce the emphasis. provide a number of different line marks, five lines. Next try the HB pencil using the same methodology lines 1⁄8 in (3 mm) apart. Keep the lines straight and parallel.
ranging from light to medium to dark, of five lines regular, five lines harder, and five lines lighter. Work on line control and consistency.
based on how much pressure is
applied. Variation in graphite is made
through pressure and lead choice.

A range of digital line weights UNIT 12: Sketching the line 47
46 CHAPTER 2: Learning to see: sketching

About this book 9



CHAPTER 1

Architectural language

This chapter establishes a foundation for architectural education. It is divided into a
series of units that describe in detail architectural drawing types and representation
methods while establishing the fundamental architectural language necessary for
future success in the profession. Preparation for the profession begins with the
introduction to each communication tool, coupled with the identification of your
intended audience.
Knowledge of the fundamental architectural language is necessary for
clear communication of architectural ideas. The units in this section define the
basic concepts, representation types, and conventions used to create and
communicate architectural ideas. You will learn about architectural representation,
to whom architects want to communicate, why they draw and make models,
and what implements they use to create those representations.

11

1Unit: Read this!

What is architecture? Laugier, Marc Antoine
An Essay on Architecture
This unit encourages you to think about the built environment Hennessy & Ingalls, 1985.
in a more critical way. What is your definition of architecture? (Originally published in Paris in 1753.)
What is your definition of building? How are they similar and
different? Can architecture be art? Vitruvius
The Ten Books on Architecture
The word “architecture” derives from are often referred to as anything (Chapters 1–3) translated by
the Greek word arkhitekton, meaning that is constructed, while architecture
“master builder or craftsman.” The is usually defined as having been Hicky Morgan, Morris.
contemporary definition given by influenced by aesthetics. Adamant Media Corporation, 2005.
Webster’s New Universal Unabridged (Originally written around 27 BC.)
Dictionary states that architecture is “the The qualification of aesthetics that
profession of designing buildings, open creates a distinction between buildings while fulfilling a functional task.
areas, communities, and other artificial and architecture elicits the question, Artists never have to contend with
constructions and environments, usually “Can architecture be art?” Can function as a requirement of their
with some regard to aesthetic effect.” something that is functional also be art? art, while architects must consider
Those in the profession state that in every architectural task.
unambiguously that architecture and Some would question the ability of
building are not the same. Buildings architects to create something artistic

C Architecture or building?

The application of aesthetic
considerations distinguishes
architecture from building. This definition
recognizes that there is a distinction
between a shed and a cathedral.

The following definitions of architecture were “Architecture is the design of buildings and landscapes “Architecture is the process of taking a concept or
suggested by a group of new students: with the intentions of being both aesthetically pleasing function and giving life to it structurally.”
“Architecture is structures built for human needs. Being and functional.” A. Brown
an architect is having the spirit to build for people.” B. Pierson “Architecture is an expression of an artist’s beliefs,
T. Wen “Architecture is the poetry in building in which feelings, or surroundings through a structure,
“Architecture is the design of spaces that can be communities are reinterpreted and refined in varying landscape, or object.”
fundamental and beautiful.” degrees. However, it must maintain its purpose in its B. Newell
L. Miggins design for human use.”
K. Patterson

12 CHAPTER 1: Architectural language

Alvar Aalto The studio course

Alvar Aalto’s (Finnish, b. 1898 Riola Parish Church, Italy. In architecture school, the most important course for a design
d. 1976) early works were student is the studio course. This is where you are introduced
influenced both by the Nordic to different processes of design.
Classicism of Scandinavian
predecessors such as Gunnar The structure of a studio course is much different than that of
Asplund and by the ever-growing the typical lecture course. In studio, student ideas are typically
Modern Movement. His library in discussed in the company of the professor within a preset
Viipuri (1929–32) clearly reflects context—that is, within a given program or topic. This dialogue
both of these influences and his differs greatly from the monologue typically associated with the
humanist manner. The interior lecture course. As a student in the studio course, you meet in
was carefully designed with warm groups and individually to discuss ideas directly with your
wood details and a thoughtful professor. Professors provide direct feedback in these settings,
manipulation of natural light. including suggestions on how to proceed or precedents to study.
This direct dialogue between student and professor is fostered in
Aalto believed in gesamtkunstwerk, the open studio environment. The one-to-one interaction with the
a synthesis of the arts. That is to professor is unique to architecture and other creative professions.
say, he carefully orchestrated the Students, however, also learn from one another in this type of
design of not only the building, atmosphere. The working environment provides a place in
but also of the many furnishings which to interact with other students.
such as light fixtures, door handles,
chairs, and so on within it. He has Design projects developed in the studio course are evaluated
a number of chairs and household during a “review,” often with guest critics in attendance.
goods credited to him. Aalto was a These participants are generally other academics or design
prodigious builder, completing well professionals. The design work is displayed for review. The
over 100 projects throughout student then verbally describes his intentions, using the graphic
Europe and North America. material as visual support. The reviewers critique the
work based on the clarity of the idea and its relationship to
the representations. Student comment and participation is
encouraged because this environment is meant to foster learning.

You should define architecture include graphic and information
for yourself—now, and then again design. Frank Lloyd Wright, for
after reading this book. This example, in many of his houses,
question is left open to allow you designed every aspect, down to
to modulate and transform your the furniture and the cutlery. He was
own definition of architecture as even known to return to his clients’
you read the book and continue homes and move the furniture back
your architectural education. to its original placements.

The design of the built environment Architects design buildings, Z The studio environment
takes on many forms and scales. spaces, campuses, landscapes,
Over many centuries, architects and even entire cities. Regardless Students work best in a studio environment, at
have taken on the role of of the nature of the setting—urban, individual desks in dedicated spaces. In many studios
architectural designer, landscape rural, or suburban—buildings have drawing boards sit adjacent to computers to allow for
designer, urban designer, product a context. In designing architecture transition between analog and digital media.
designer, and furniture designer. at all scales, the architect should
The scope of work available to recognize this context both
architects has even grown to physically and intellectually.

UNIT 1: What is architecture? 13

2Unit: Read this!

Representation and drawing Ambroziak, Brian
Michael Graves: Images of a
In reality, architects produce representations of buildings, not
actual buildings. In many instances, drawings and models are Grand Tour
the closest an architect comes to constructing a building. These Princeton Architectural Press, 2005.
methods of representation require careful thought and articulation.
This unit focuses on the art of drawing. Le Corbusier
Le Corbusier Sketchbooks

The MIT Press, 1982.

Fraser, Ian and Henmi, Rod
Envisioning Architecture:
An Analysis of Drawing
John Wiley & Sons, 1994.

Drawing, as an artifact, is a two- Technical or architectural drawing Drawing, as a skill, improves with good draftsman. Therefore it is also
dimensional representation used operates under an established set of practice. Contrary to a common myth, necessary to motivate and exercise
by architects. It is a form of visual conventions and rules. It serves to it is also a skill that can be learned. the creative mind while learning the
communication, based on a common, provide visual representations for the Though some people seem to have a skills to craft drawings.
agreed-upon visual language that discussion and understanding of natural inclination for drawing, everyone
conveys ideas, depicts existing design ideas and intentions. Just as can be taught the skills to create X Representation breakdown
conditions, and creates as-of-yet a common set of codes and symbols informative, competent, and beautiful
unbuilt environments. Drawing allows us to communicate verbally drawings. However, repeated Digital programs provide an
transposes three-dimensional images, with one another, a common language construction of drawings will not additional method of generating
both real and imagined, onto in architecture makes it possible to necessarily result in becoming a good architectural representations—but
two-dimensional surfaces. communicate ideas. architect, although it might produce a manual representation will always
be a valuable, necessary skill.

REPRESENTATION

DRAWING MODEL

HAND DIGITAL PHYSICAL DIGITAL

PAINTING SKETCHING 2D ORTHOGRAPHIC LASER CUTTER
WATER COLOR PROJECTION CNC MILLING MACHINE
CAD / CAM
PLAN
SECTION
ELEVATION

3D
PERSPECTIVE
AXONOMETRIC

DIAGRAM/ ANALYSIS
COLLAGE

SPECULATIVE

14 CHAPTER 1: Architectural language

Le Corbusier Sketchbooks

Le Corbusier (Swiss/French b. 1887 d. 1965) was q One of the tools that you will want to keep handy
undoubtedly one of the most influential architects of at all times is your sketchbook. Having multiple
the 20th century. His Five Points of Architecture sketchbooks can be useful—a small one about
challenged previous methodologies of designing, 31⁄2 x 51⁄2 in (89 x 140 mm) is convenient to carry
namely the Beaux Arts tradition, and reshaped the in your back pocket, and a mid-sized one about
built environment. These five points included the 81⁄2 x 11 in (216 x 279 mm) allows you to
piloti, ribbon window, free plan, free façade, and work in a larger format.
roof garden. This approach to architecture was
formalized in many of his residential designs. He q The smaller sketchbook should travel with you
is not only credited with designing some of the everywhere. It is the place to record ideas, sites that
most important buildings of the 20th century, but interest you, and architecture that excites you. The
also for influencing the instruction and curriculum other sketchbook is ideal for working out ideas
of countless architecture schools around the world. regarding your own projects and collecting images
His paintings and sculptures were equally renowned for your image folder.
and respected.
Z Plan as the generator

Le Corbusier has been credited with the
notion of the “plan as the generator.”

CZ Design intentions

Different drawing methods are used to
represent different design intentions.
Charcoal drawings (such as the one
shown on the left) can capture the mood
of a space while line drawings (such as
this sectional perspective, above)
provide a more precise technical
depiction of a space.

UNIT 2: Representation and drawing 15

3Unit:

Representational intention

Architects envision, design, and think through drawing and modeling. They record ideas,
test scenarios, and produce lines that capture thoughts. These representations can have
meaning beyond a purely functional one of displaying the project. Drawings and models
can reinforce a designer’s idea through representational intention.

This intention—the methodology and establish the criteria required to Intentions that support architectural
choices behind the representation— reinforce the architectural idea. ideas can also be conveyed through
has the potential to create a more an editing process. When making
meaningful connection between project For example, in perspective drawing, considerations about a drawing,
depictions and the architectural idea, the vantage point of the viewer can what you leave out is just as important
making possible a stronger argument strengthen design ideas. A dramatic as what you include. You should
for the project. By asking the questions, effect can be reinforced by placing the be aware that every line you construct
“What will the drawing convey? What is vantage point lower on the page. This is part of the decision-making process.
the design idea that needs to be lowered viewpoint, in combination with
narrated through the representations? a closeness to the object, emphasizes
What types of drawings best convey the building’s monumentality.
those architectural ideas?” you begin to

C Ideology

The exaggerated low viewpoint in this
Russian Constructivist perspective
drawing reinforces a political ideology
as well as an architectural one.

Frank Lloyd Wright

Frank Lloyd Wright (American, b. 1867 d. 1959) Z Connection with the land
is one of America’s most recognizable architects.
His buildings are characterized by flowing spaces The horizontally-oriented perspective
and a rich palette of natural materials such as brick, representation of a house reinforces
stone, wood, and glass. His early houses, known Wright’s interest in low, horizontal
as “Prairie Style,” were organized around the designs that hug the land.
hearth, both symbolically and spatially. Wright
later designed a series of houses, known as the
Usonian Houses, that he hoped would create an
affordable, democratic, distinctively American
house type. Wright’s important works include not
only residences, but also churches and temples,
office buildings, and museums.

16 CHAPTER 1: Architectural language

1Assignment: Make a representation of your home. Begin What you need
by defining the term “home.” You do not have
Fold and crumple to think literally about the term. You can and q Three sheets 81⁄2 x 11 in
should interpret this place through the act of (216 x 279 mm) regular opaque
In this assigment, you will take a limited making. The model you create will be a copy paper, each cut into six strips
set of materials and use them to express representation of this interpretation. 1.5 x 11 in (38 x 279 mm)
your intention: to represent a specific space
that you have experienced. This assignment q Two sheets 12 x 12 in (305 x 305 mm)
is meant to get you interpreting and making trace or other transparent material
at the same time. You will be thinking through
the act of doing. This is your first of many q Hand-torn piece of newsprint—
spatial exercises. approximately 8 x 10 in
(203 x 254 mm)

1Take the materials listed and lay 2Without the use of tools or glue (no scissors, 3Fold and crumple the materials to connect
them out on a flat surface so they are pencils, or tape) start to create a representation and integrate them. Think about the spatial
all easily accessible. of your favorite space from memory. Try to give relationships created between walls, objects,
form to your visualization. You need not be literal buildings, or planes.
in your representation.

Assignment rules Two finished representations (above and right).
The volumetric representation on the right is
q Be creative—you don’t have to be literal. Try to more abstract than the model above.
capture the essence of the space.

q You must be able to pick up the creation with one
hand and NOT have anything fall off—meaning
all the items must somehow be integrated and
physically connected.

q Think about the intention of your representation.
q You cannot tear any pieces once you have them

sized to the given dimensions.
q Give yourself 15–20 minutes to create your

abstract representation.
q Understand that there is no wrong answer or

wrong model to make. This is solely about your
interpretation of the assignment.

UNIT 3: Representational intention 17

2Assignment:

Study the sketch

Myth: A good drawing must be beautiful. artists and architects. The study of these drawings sketches by some of the most famous architects
provides you with insight into the mind, abilities, style, are not always the most beautiful. During the drawing
A successful drawing is one that clearly conveys technique, and subject matter selected by the artists process, each artist edits or omits information that
intentions and ideas. It does not have to be rendered and architects. does not support the intention of the sketch.
in an artistic, beautiful manner for it to be “good.”
Drawing techniques have different associated This editing process allows the artist to emphasize
One method to help you understand the successful intentions; therefore not all sketches appear to be a particular aspect of the view or design, clarifying
nature of drawing is to study sketches by master beautiful artistic renderings. Very clearly conceived the idea.

Find two sketches, one from each category
listed below. Reproduce the renderings by
hand in your sketchbook by copying the method
of sketching. The purpose is to replicate the
sketching technique used by the artist. Do not
trace the sketch. Attach a copy of the original
sketch into your sketchbook adjacent to your
own sketch.
Examine the technique of sketching while you
copy the work. Notice the medium of sketching,
the sketch surface, and the size of the sketch.

Sketches to study: ZV Edge contours

Architects Artists Note the various techniques used in
these drawings by Leonardo da Vinci
Louis I. Kahn Michelangelo (right) and Raphael (above). Profile lines
Alvar Aalto Leonardo da Vinci in conjunction with hatching patterns
Le Corbusier Raphael clearly define the edges of the figure.
Tadao Ando Rembrandt
Michael Graves Fra Angelico

CLine and rendering

The rendering of this Frank
Lloyd Wright drawing
emphasizes the form and
mass of the building.

18 CHAPTER 1: Architectural language

CZ Sketching with lines

Lines vary greatly among sketches.
Transparency and contours provide
objects with form and shape in these
drawings by Michaelangelo (left)
and Rembrandt (above).

 Spatial quality

The spatial quality of the architecture is
captured by this sketch. The energy and
orientation of the linework reinforces the
character and quality of the space.

Concept sketch by
Norman Foster

UNIT 3: Representational intention 19

4Unit:

Types of drawing

Architects give their ideas physicality through drawing. They
employ a variety of different drawing types, typically selected
based on the criteria of design intention and the audience.

Two-dimensional drawings,
referred to as orthographic projections,
include plans, sections, and elevations.
Perspective and axonometric are
examples of three-dimensional
drawing types. Drawings that overlap
or combine linework with photographs,
color, or some other graphic material
are referred to as collage. Any
of these drawing types can be
constructed as hardline drawings
or as freehand drawings.

V Multiple sections C Site collage

Multiple sections depict the changing Constructed perspective drawings
conditions of the light in the space. can be combined with exisiting images
Each section captures a wall elevation through collage techniques. The spatial
showing the changing nature of the continuity of the bathhouse design with
poche (or thickened service) zone. the adjoining park pathway system is
The darkest areas depict the deepest depicted in this collaged image.
parts of the poche.
20 CHAPTER 1: Architectural language

C Finding scale

Interior and exterior perspectives can be linked
through colors indicating the same spaces viewed
from different vantage points. The interior perspective
(left) abstracts glazing as a blue film. The blue
additionally indicates a subtractive move, carved
out of the solid mass of the building. Abstract figures
provide scale in both images while the blue coloration
provides another reading of scale when considered
from the exterior (right).

V Exploded axon

Details of construction and material
patterns are exposed in this exploded
axon. Repetitive material patterns
are grouped and pulled apart to
demonstrate the parts relative
to the working of the whole.

C Perspective rendering

The graphite-rendered drawing
showcases material transparencies
and light qualities in spaces. In the
perspective, the depth of the interior
space is discernable even from an
exterior view of the building.

UNIT 4: Types of drawing 21

Using an architectural scale Other scale rules are a more conventional flat format. They
generally have two scales on each edge, one being 10 times
(Metric) the size of the other, i.e. 1:20 and 1:200. Specialist rulers are
available to read measurements in meters from old imperial
The triangular scale rule, usually having six measurement scales, i.e. 1:96 (1⁄8 in. to a foot) or 1:48 (1⁄4 in. to a foot).
gradations, is commonly used for drawing and modelling
constructions. Most use increments of one millimetre to create a On some scale rulers, smaller increments are
wide range of scales. The appropriate scale is used to take marked outside the “0” mark. Therefore, it is
measurements from the drawing in metres or parts thereof. necessary to measure the meters and add on
fractions of a meter outside the mark.
Along this line of measurements, every 2 cm is equal to
1 meter. The scaled numbers are already indicated on the
measurement line. Note that the numbers on each scale
correspond to a complementary set of scales.

Each scale is indicated as a ratio at the far
edges of the measurement increments.
For instance, the 1:50 marked on the far left
indicates the scale of 1 cm being equivalent
to 50 cm on a drawing scaled at one to fifty.

ZV Scale and level of information

The type and amount of information conveyed by a drawing depends on its
scale. A drawing at 1:100 scale requires less detailed information than one at
1:50 or 1:20 scale. For example, the delineation of brick at 1:100 scale may be
abstracted as horizontal lines, while at 1:50 or 1:20 scale the details of the
individual bricks are more appropriately drawn.
22 CHAPTER 1: Architectural language

3Assignment: Website

“Things I like” image folder Professionals create their own
image folders in a variety of ways.
This assignment provides you with • one-point, two-point, and books and magazines. Include the New York architects Tod Williams
an opportunity to collect images of three-point perspectives source of each image, the name of and Billie Tsien include on their
things that you like, find interesting, the magazine or book title, and the website a link to a section called
or are curious about. Build a folder • freehand sketches publication date. By recording “things”; representing a collection
of images of spaces, materials, • ink drawings this data, you will discover which of images and objects that
and construction techniques to • graphite drawings books and magazines most inspire them.
influence and inspire your design • computer drawings appeal to you. Keep your images www.twbta.com
work. In developing your image • renderings in a clearly organized binder or in
folder, ask yourself not only what • physical models. your sketchbook. Research tip
you like, but why you like it. Try In all, collect any image related It is important that you
to boil it down to a single idea. to drawing and representation expand your knowledge of The physical act of looking
Use the following representation that is aesthetically appealing representational methods. By for information in books and
categories as a guide to help to you. These images will be a seeing what others have done magazines in the library
you maintain a variety of resource and inspiration for your before you, you can learn to encourages a kind of exploration
drawing examples: own designs. develop your own style. that the Internet has not quite
• plans The focus of the assignment is offered yet. The Internet, though
• sections on representation, so do not use good for searches in which
• elevations photographs of existing you know what you are looking
• axonometrics buildings. Take images from for, is limited in making
non-linear connections.

ZV Captured images

It is important to become familiar with precedents in
architecture; look at designs and drawings from contemporary
and historically significant architects. Images of interest might
range from conceptual to finished drawings, and from plans
to perspectives. Being familiar with contemporary and historic
representations allows you to learn from past examples and
develop a visual library of precedents.

UNIT 4: Types of drawing 23

5Unit: Model practicalities

Models as representations Questions to ask yourself:

Drawings and models are both abstract representations: they provide q What material should I use?
methods for expressing architectural ideas and concepts. Drawings
are typically constructed on two-dimensional surfaces, while models q How can I successfully abstract
provide a three-dimensional abstraction of space and form. real building materials?

As in drawing, both the process and of wood. The model is used as an reinforce a connection between the q At what scale are the materials
the presentation of ideas are recorded abstract representation of the space building and the ground. By enlarging to be depicted?
in models. In comparison to drawings, and form of the building, not the the depth of the model base, there is
models provide a clear representation materials. If material distinction is a greater emphasis placed on the q Is the whole model made out of
of space, operating in three necessary, abstract those as well. rooted quality of the project with the the same material?
dimensions. Because of their abstract earth. Architects can also edit the
nature, do not attempt to make them As in drawings, models can reinforce information in a model. This enables q What are the limits of the site
too realistic. For instance, models architectural intentions, be they spatial, control over the model’s intention versus the limits of the model? Is it
made out of basswood are not meant formal, or tectonic. For example, the which can result in the reinforcement the property line, or the strong edge
to indicate that the building is made out base of a model can be exaggerated to and clarity of the design ideas. in the neighborhood? The context
provides a comparative element to
judge your own building against.

q At what scale should I make
the model?

q What do I want to show?
Remember, entourage can be
included to demonstrate scale
in a model.

Z Site connection

The exaggerated base of this model of
the Newton Library by Patkau Architects
emphasizes the connection between the
building and the site. The angle and
form of the exterior columnar system is
carried through in the depth, form, and
articulation of the model base.

Z Parasitic design V Detail model

Material distinction establishes clarity This large-scale model depicts structural and framing systems.
between existing and new elements. Abstract models of this nature force you to become familiar
This design intervention is constructed with actual construction techniques. They allow you to understand
of basswood and inserted into a model the tectonics of the building and how components join together.
of chipboard and corrugated cardboard These models can also inform the design process. This means that
to represent the existing building. once these models have been built, you can study and reevaluate
the construction and make changes to the geometry, proportion,
and scale of the design.

24 CHAPTER 1: Architectural language

C X Study models

The study model is a type of model meant for the
assessment of ideas. These models can be manipulated
and remade quickly. They provide opportunities for
discovery, inspiration, and investigation. You should
consider these types of models as developmental and not
final renditions of the idea; they are part of the iterative
design process. Therefore, you should feel comfortable
manipulating and molding these models. Don’t be afraid
to rip them apart to test different ideas.

This series of models A topographic model made from cork.
depicts a three-
dimensional design Z Topographic model
process that enables ideas
to be tested and changed Topographic models depict the
in a fluid manner. changing landscape of the site.
The scale of the model determines
XMassing model the thickness of each contour
depicted on the model.
A massing model depicts the volumetric qualities
of a building without much detail. Massing models CZPresentation models
are used to assess and compare the relative form
and scale of a building to the adjacent building Presentation models are used to show final design
context. Contextual information is often included ideas for either your own projects or studies of other
in these models to show how new buildings and precedent examples. In the profession they are used
spaces interact with the existing conditions. for client and community meetings. These models are
not about process but product; they are usually the
Massing models are used to explore form. most well-crafted models produced for the project. The
model shown above represents a precedent study of
Le Corbusier’s Maison Cook. The model on the left
shows a room for repose, using hydrocal and wood.

UNIT 5: Models as representations 25

Physical vs. digital models

During the design process, there the keyboard or mouse in order to CZMaterial construction
are several benefits to making a rotate, move, or modify the image.
physical model over a digital model. There is a type of hesitation to the These two images depict transparency
Physical models let you experience designer’s engagement with the studies of the same architectural project
the building as a three-dimensional concept. However, digital models through the use of a digital model
material object, allowing the design can also provide opportunities to (below) and a physical model (left).
to be understood simultaneously simulate travel through and into The digital model is more diagrammatic,
through all of its parts and as a whole. spaces, providing views that a emphasizing the continuity of spaces,
There is tactile immediacy to grasping physical model might not allow. while the physical model allows the
and understanding the form visually viewer to understand the massing
and the composition through physical of the addition (in basswood) with
movement and rotation. This greater clarity.
process compels the designer to
be empathetic to the force of gravity
and encourages him or her to think
of the material connections and
their tectonic implications for the
architectural idea. In essence,
the designer responds to his
physical connection with a
handcrafted model.

While the digital model also allows
a type of visual immediacy through
the rapid selection of views, these
views are ultimately limited by the
screen size and the limitations of the
software interface. The designer
needs to input a command using

Typical modeling materials

Models do not have to be made from a single Basswood Museum board
material. Using two materials can distinguish Pros: grain can emphasize directionality Pros: easy to cut, no grain, comes in big sheets
between existing and new, or between materials. of materials, more refined look, easy to cut, Cons: hard to keep clean, not always
comes in sticks, sheets, and blocks consistent material throughout, more
Chipboard Cons: has grain, sheet size is limited, expensive than chipboard
Pros: no grain, easy to cut, cheap, consistent costs more than chipboard Foamcore
color and material throughout, comes in different Modeling clay Pros: for making large scale models, comes
thicknesses, comes in large sheets Pros: good for carving and landscape models in a variety of thicknesses
Cons: doesn’t look as refined, slight variations Cons: dries out quickly, messy, imprecise Cons: not consistent material throughout, need
in color to adjust edges when joining pieces together

chipboard basswood clay museum board foamcore

26

1Case study:

Architectural mock-ups

Architects should be conscious of the impact of their design ideas
on a site. Smaller-scale representations can be limiting in presenting
the full considerations of the design project.

In some cases, architects support deeper ZV Defining wall
investigations by constructing full-scale mock-
ups to test impacts on a site, constructability, The relationship of the wall to the surrounding context
or material effect. The following images and the relative size of the space being created were
demonstrate a full-scale mock-up of the verified with a full-scale mock-up. The height of the wall
Northeastern University Veterans Memorial. was altered when tested on the site, while the location
The scale of the Memorial Wall, along with its and length were found to be appropriate.
placement on the site, was being tested.

Some mock-ups can be made using non-
traditional materials to replicate the design
impacts while others require real materials to be
tested. The wall detail mock-up is typically
constructed on site at full scale to test the
construction techniques, color, and pattern
choices relative to the context.

Plexiglass Styrene
Pros: provides a transparent material allowing Pros: highly-polished smooth surface ideal
interior views, can model curtain wall easily as a mold for casting plaster; comes in a
Cons: difficult to cut, especially holes variety of sheet sizes
in the middle; transparency is sometimes Cons: more expensive than basswood
misunderstood
Corrugated board
Cork Pros: affordable and accessible material, can ZCombining materials
Pros: comes in rolls and sheets, looks use boxes and other packing material
finished, easy to cut, used as contours Cons: quality of material is rarely sufficient for The plexiglass depicts the existing house while
or landscape final presentation models; must consider the basswood is used to depict the house addition.
Cons: expensive exposed edges in model The plexiglass allows the connectivity between
the two wood masses to be seen.
Plexiglass cork styrene corrugated board

UNIT 5: Models as representations 27

6Unit: Read this!

Who is the audience? Allen, Stan
Terminal Velocities—the Computer
Depending on the audience to whom they are presenting
ideas, architects produce different types of drawings. Through in the Design Studio
representations, architects try to convey their ideas and intentions. pages 242−255, from
There are three main audience groups: the fellow student, academic, The Virtual Dimension
or architect; the builder or contractor; and the client. Beckmann, John, (Ed.)
Princeton Architectural Press,

New York, 1998

Presenting to architects and students CZ Conveying ideas
Architects understand the abstract nature of
representation; therefore, the presentation of your These two plans for a veterans’ memorial,
ideas can be made using the full spectrum of were created for two different audiences. The
representation techniques—freehand and hardline, rendered plan (left) was presented to a design
conceptual and realistic—and using all of the review committee. It demonstrates the qualitative
drawing techniques. In addition, these aspect of the project. The monochrome plan (above)
representations can reveal the process of your is a construction document. It delineates clearly the
design thinking. The design process is stressed as qualitative description including exact number,
a presentation component in academia. It is not type, and location of all the building elements so
only the design that gets evaluated; that the contractor can construct the project.
it’s also the process of arriving at
that design that is critiqued and
assessed in school. School is one
of the best places for learning
and experimenting with design
process representations. Be
creative, adventurous, and
inventive. Design feedback is
provided in this arena.

Planning board/community group

Architects need to be able to communicate directly to the public. In an age of greater community involvement in
the design of many public and private buildings, an architect’s ability to communicate clearly and effectively with
this group is key to the success of a project. A variety of presentation-style drawings are used in the public forum.
Architects use these representations to convey their vision to the audience. In this role as community liaison,
architects need to learn how to listen to their audience. The public generally wants to understand how the project
might benefit their community through improved landscaping, reduced traffic congestion, increased accessibility,
and façade treatment, to name a few. Similar modes of representation techniques presented to the client, including
perspectives, models, and sketches, are also those that the community understands.

28 CHAPTER 1: Architectural language

2Case study:

Design decisions

This example demonstrates the decisions Schematic Design (SD)—sketches, C Building envelope
an architect makes when determining the study models, perspectives
appropriate representations for a specific Architects use spatial diagrams to demonstrate the
audience. The variety of drawing types Architects generate lots of ideas through drawing possible zoning volumes based on the site FAR.
associated with the design process in a and model-building during this phase. Some architects This image depicts the volume of the buildable area
professional architectural office is explained. work simultaneously at a large scale, exploring the on a given site. This should not limit your ideas
Pre-design form of the building relative to the neighborhood, and about formal building compositions and other
In this phase, the architect can assist the client at small details like material selection. This phase of design aspects. For a series of zoning models
in establishing the program and site. Zoning work is typically generative and exploratory. The for this project, see www.ssdarchitecture.com
issues are explored, including maximum architect explores the possibilities and limitations.
buildout due to Floor Area Ratio (FAR). FAR is Construction Documents (CD)—full-scale
the total building area that can be constructed Design Development (DD)—drawings, mock up, details developed at larger scales
on a site. For example, a site might have a FAR models, perspectives, mock-ups
of 2, which means that a building two times the These drawings graphically depict the instructions to
area of the site can be built. This does not limit Architects generally describe, through drawings and the contractor. They explain the design intentions of
the number of floors; it limits only area. Other models, the project in more detail during this phase. the architect. They constitute legal documents for the
factors, such as setbacks, participate in defining Often, drawings increase in scale from ⁄1 16 in or 1⁄8 in design project, emphasizing the importance for clarity
the maximum building envelope. The FAR is to 1⁄2 in for more detailed information. and legibility in visual representation. The scale and
established by zoning codes. number of drawings increase during this phase.
The program is the project statement that often
includes specific room types and associated Construction Administration (CA)—on site
square footage areas. Some architecture firms
specialize in helping clients establish project During the construction process the reality of
programs and square footage requirements. site conditions, changing availability of building
This part of the design process is materials, and cost issues may require that changes
sometimes the least graphic and often to the original construction drawing set be made.
includes interviewing user groups who will Architects often use sketches to depict these
occupy the finished building. desirable changes, thus modifying the original
construction document set.

Digital communication Presenting to clients clients to understand, architects often use
As an architect, communication with your client constructed perspectives, sketches, and models.
Digital technology is changing the ways architects and is critical. Their feedback is necessary to the Seeing spaces and forms is clearer with these
contractors communicate. For example, the use of development of the project. Two-dimensional methods. Ultimately, clients want to understand
computer-aided design (CAD) software, computer-aided representations are difficult for most untrained spaces being created relative to their desired
manufacturing (CAM) systems, and Building Information people to understand, since they are unfamiliar program and project statements.
Modeling (BIM) have modified typical standards for with the conventions of the drawing language.
communication. CAD software and CAM systems create Typically, the most challenging representations Presenting to builders and contractors
more functional connections between the architect for clients to grasp are the orthographic Architects communicate with builders through
and the manufacturer or fabricator. This streamlined projections like plan and section, due to their the construction drawing document set. These
process of production promotes effective organizational abstract quality. It is difficult for some people drawings are considered the instructions that
structures and helps to reduce inefficiencies of data to translate information from two-dimensional convey the design intentions to the builder
transfer. BIM ties three-dimensional modeling to the data lines to three-dimensional space. Therefore, through detailed prescriptive drawings. They
information of each component part of the building. it is imperative that you learn to communicate are part of the legal documents that explain to
BIM is a relatively new paradigm to the design and with clients in a manner that is lucid and the builder what the architect wants built, and
building industry which has the potential for creating understandable to them. Since plans and how. Builders are well versed in architectural
a more seamless transition of information between sections are typically more challenging for drawing and understand the representations
architect, contractor, and subcontractor. made in the construction document set.

UNIT 6: Who is the audience? 29

7Unit: Read this!

Concept Arnheim, Rudolph
Visual Thinking
Purely functional solutions to problems often lead to the design
of buildings, not architecture. When generating ideas about University of California Press, 1971.
possible architecture solutions to a given problem, consider
both the functional and the artistic/spiritual aspects. Generating ideas

A concept is a generating tool; it is a pixie sticks (Coop Himmelblau), You can analyze the site, context, q Too many ideas do not
way to organize the component parts analysis, or whatever works for you. program, or relationships between make a better project.
of the project under a single idea. these topics and others to generate q Simplify your ideas; simple
Even within a single approach there a concept. You can start developing does not mean boring.
There are many ways to arrive at a are many methodologies of generating a conceptual idea by asking questions. q Represent your ideas graphically.
concept. There are formal approaches, ideas. For example, a system of Start with what you know—program
tectonic approaches, intuitive analysis is one way to grasp as many and site. Analyze these to understand Conceptualizing an idea
approaches, analytical approaches, tangible existing conditions as what each might mean for the given
narrative and metaphorical approaches, possible that then might provide the project. Then ask the question: Imagine being asked to design a
and site responses, to name a few. You generating idea for the project. “what is important and why?”. pencil holder without any further
can derive architectural concepts from design parameters. Here’s a possible
just about anything: a folded piece of method of conceptualizing the idea:
paper (Rem Koolhaas), a jumble of • Research the pencil (ask the
pencil what it wants to be).
V Documenting thoughts • Consider how many pencils will
be held.
Recording your ideas is a vital part of the design process. • Analyze precedents—what form
Brainstorming can generate a series of ideas and sketches that do other pencil holders take; what
lead you to other investigations. Recorded images allow you to questions do they answer? By looking
react visually to a concept. Do not limit your conceptualization at precedent you can think about what
process to just words or images—use both. questions the previous designer asked
and answered.
Design does not occur in a to think physically about the idea. of a project. Research can involve • Study the hand—this is the
vacuum. Ideas can be generated For example, you should sketch a number of possible investigation one element that will be interacting
from other projects. Understand the idea, model it, or draw it. methods. You can research the with the pencil.
that ideas are not sacred; that is, It’s important to remember that history of the building type, the • Consider the ergonomic
similar ideas can be copied from the idea is not the architecture— history of the site, contemporary relationships of the hand to pencil
other architects and buildings. it provides a way to arrive at versions of the building type, or when removing it from the holder.
These ideas can then be translated the architecture. even similar-scale buildings with a • Ask: how long are the pencils?
into your own design. The key to Research is a vital component of different program. You can also How thick? How heavy?
borrowing ideas in architecture is to the design process. It provides you research the program itself. • Think how you can organize the
translate them and make them your with a more in-depth understanding space related to each pencil. How do
own. Learn from precedents and you want the pencils to sit: vertical?
apply your own design sensibilities horizontal? What material to use?
to the knowledge you have gained. • Investigate form relative to the
When trying to arrive at a given pencil.
conceptual idea, it is helpful to try

30 CHAPTER 1: Architectural language

Iterative process CZ Diagramming form
Once you have a conceptual idea, you need to
develop it into architectural forms and spaces, Folded colored planes depict
details and materials, circulation and experience. the floor plates for a natatorium
The process of design is one of iteration; that is, (left). The overlapping quality
a repetitive process of development that represents the conceptual
changes over time. Each successive iteration idea: a connection between
builds on the lessons from the previous one. swimmer and spectator. The
The iterative process emphasizes an exploration material continuity, represented
of several options before settling on one single in the diagram as the
manifestation of a project. Through an iterative continuous plates, connects
process of problem solving, you will be the water in the pools with the
graphically and theoretically testing potential spectators. The folded plates
design solutions. are visible in the constructed
In every phase of the process, ask yourself perspective (above).
why—Why that form? Why that space?
Why that location? Realizing intentions
In the iterative process of design you are
The continuity of the public area, shown by the blue line, is most important here. ultimately trying to translate what you are saying
and thinking to what you are making. The
Diagrams help explore the circulation zones in this precedent study. process requires you to be critical of your own
work. It is important to analyze your own design
Z Simplifying ideas throughout the process. Synthesize your
concepts into simple reductive drawings, or
Diagrams describe the essence of the idea. These diagrams are analytical diagrams (see Unit 21, page 78).
used to describe the various elements of one project. The sectional
diagram provides the main idea for the project, one of the continuity
of the ground plane as it extends into the bathhouse project.
Secondary diagrams simplify additional supporting ideas.

UNIT 7: Concept 31

8Unit:

Tools for success

Some basic tools and techniques are essential for well-crafted drawings and
models. As with any skill, technical ability comes with practice. The challenges
met with the first drawing and first model will disappear with experience.

Papers and pads Large perforated recycled pad Large-format drawing pad Vellum roll or sheets
9 x 12 in (229 x 305 mm). 18 x 24 in (457 x 610 mm), 24 in (610 mm) roll 20 lb.
Sketchbooks A drawing pad is ideal for sketching 100# paper. Vellum is a semi-transparent material.
One spiral-bound hardcover sketchbook assignments where pages need to be A large-format drawing sheet is ideal It is relatively easy to erase and is
81⁄2 x 11 in (216 x 279 mm) and one removed for presentation. for figure drawing and still-life drawing. a durable material to construct
31⁄2 x 51⁄2 in (89 x 140 mm). Newsprint pad Backed by a clipboard, this drawing presentation drawings.
Keep a sketchbook with you at all times. 18 x 24 in (457 x 610 mm). pad can be taken into the field for
Use it to record things that you see A newsprint pad is ideal for quick on-site sketches. The paper quality in Roll of cream, yellow, or
around you, ideas for assignments, or sketches. The quality of the paper is not this drawing pad is much more durable white tracing paper
anything else that inspires or interests suitable for finished drawings or for the than in the newsprint pad and is 12–18 in (305–457 mm) wide.
you. Think of the sketchbook as a preservation of drawings. This type of therefore better for more finished types Tracing paper is ideal for sketching
“diary” of your observations and pad is not ideal for use with charcoal. of work. This pad is ideal for use with and working in overlays. Overlay your
architectural thoughts. charcoal and pencil. trace on top of other drawings to make
modifications and change ideas.

32 CHAPTER 1: Architectural language

Tools for freehand work

Large box Pencils
For carrying and storing tools. Hard: 2H, H; Mid: HB;
Pencil sharpener with Soft: B, 2B, 4B, 6B.
shavings receptacle The ideal pencils for sketching
Charcoal sticks include the range from HB to 6B;
White charcoal pencil softer leads give you a variety of line
weights and types. You will need to
develop a rapport with the pencils
to establish your own line weights.

Colored pencils
Spray fix Start with primary colors, then
Use this to seal your experiment with others.
charcoal drawings.

Kneaded eraser
Use a kneaded eraser to dab
lines when you want to dilute their
strength or weight.

White eraser

Tools for hardline work

Swing-arm lamp Drafting surface and board cover
Lighting is key to creating beautiful A self-healing vinyl membrane covers
drawings and models. Use task lighting and protects your drafting board and is
to highlight your desk surface. ideal for drawing on. It is not a good
Drafting board idea to draw directly on wood or other
32 x 48 in (813 x 1219 mm) hard surfaces.
minimum; a hollow-core door or Double-sided tape
other smooth portable surface. Use this to attach the drafting surface
Your drafting board must be sturdy to your board.
and smooth without nicks or dents. Leadholders
A large surface is ideal for flexibility Having multiple leadholders lets you use
of drawing sizes. A lightweight board a variety of thicknesses simultaneously
is ideal for carrying. without exchanging leads.

UNIT 8: Tools for success 33

Tools for hardline
work (continued)

1 box of each of the following Drafting dots or tape Compass 6-inch (152-mm) metal-edge ruler
leads: 4H, 2H, H, F, HB, and B Use dots or drafting tape to attach Use this for constructing circles. A metal ruler is good for measuring
The leads for drafting range in the drawings to the board. These adhesive Sandpaper (200-grit) and cutting smaller model pieces.
H, with a few darker leads of HB and B. materials won’t leave residue on Use sandpaper to clean the edges of Permanent marker
The harder leads offer more precision your paper. any wood surface. A sanding block is Use a marker to label your tools.
and sharpness of line. Drafting brush helpful to maintain 90-degree corners 18-inch (457-mm) 30/60/90° triangle
Lead pointer A drafting brush prevents smudging. on wood. You can make a sanding 14-inch (356-mm) 45° triangle
Use a lead pointer for sharpening Use this tool rather than your hand or block by wrapping the sandpaper Triangular scale
your lead. To sharpen, pull slightly sleeve. Oils from your hands must be around a scrap piece of square-edged Use the scale for measuring and
outward, using centrifugal force minimized on the drawing surface. wood. Light sanding can remove pencil dimensioning your drawings.
when rotating the lead around Parallel edge marks and minimize joints between two Aluminum or plastic push pins
in the pointer. 42 in (1,067 mm) long with rollers pieces of wood. Too much sanding, Use pins to hold your work up for
Tweezers on underside. however, can round the edges of the display or reference.
In model building, use tweezers to help Use the parallel edge to construct model. You can also sand plexiglass to 10-inch (254-mm)
you connect small pieces together. hardline drawings. Never use it as change the transparency to appear adjustable triangle
Erasing shield (with small slots) a guide to making cuts—preserve translucent. Reduce the amount of Use this to construct axonometric
Use a shield to erase short lines or and protect it at all times. Make sure scratches apparent in the plexiglass by and perspective drawings.
specific lines in areas where there are each time you come to your board sanding on both sides.
lots of other lines you want to keep. that it is aligned properly. You can Drafting powder
test this by bringing the edge down Sprinkle drafting powder onto the vellum
to the bottom of the board. to protect the drawings from smudging.

34 CHAPTER 1: Architectural language

Tools for model making Caring for equipment

Blade holder It is important to maintain your equipment
Use a blade holder to cut most model in a careful manner. Properly stored
making materials. Thicker materials and cleaned tools provide a strong
require either more cuts or the use of foundation for crafting high-quality
a utility knife. drawings and models.
Blades (x100)
Buy blades in bulk, since you Optional tools
will be replacing them often.
Utility knife Portfolio for carrying drawings,
Make long cuts with a larger knife. and/or a drawing tube (tubes are
Cutting into thick surfaces like foam not ideal for Arches paper)
is easier with a long blade that is French curve
adjustable up to 4 in (102 mm) long. Triangles, 4–6 in (102–152 mm) long
Remember when cutting with large and 16–20 in (406–508 mm) long:
knives to score the material first with 30/60/90˚, and 45˚ triangles
a light stroke. In general, aim to use Triangular engineer’s scale
less pressure and more strokes. Calculator
Change blades often. Scissors
White glue Electric eraser
White glue dries clear and is very Cleaning solution to maintain your
strong. Use in small amounts to drafting board
maintain a clean appearance. Circle template (inking bumps optional)
Acrylic glue Oval template (inking bumps optional)
Use this for gluing acrylic materials. Measuring Tape (25 ft [7.6 m] or longer)
Cutting mats Graphite sticks (6B or softer)
18 x 24 in (457 x 610 mm) Clamps and fasteners: binder clips,
and 8 x 10 in (203 x 254 mm). small clamps, and rubber bands. These
Cutting mats are designed to “heal” can be used to hold pieces in place while
after cuts. It is useful to have more glue is drying.
than one size. They protect your Miter box and saw
tabletop and drafting board. Wax paper: useful as nonstick
36-in (914-mm) long metal edge gluing surface.
with cork backing Chopper: used for making repeated
A cork-backed metal edge provides accurate cuts across the grain of the
a slip-resistant tool for cutting. You wood. Used most often with stick
can also use any straight-edged basswood pieces.
metal object like a metal triangle.
Plastic triangles and parallel bar edges
are susceptible to nicking and should
never be used to cut along.

UNIT 8: Tools for success 35



CHAPTER 2

Learning to see: sketching

Sketching is a technique of documenting ideas in a quick, uninhibited fashion.
Learning to sketch is like learning to see in a new way for the first time. It is a
method of visually thinking on paper, and it can be observational or invented.
The quick fashion or loose methodology does not imply that the sketch is
sloppy or uninformative. Quite the contrary—sketches provide architects
with a method of representation that isolates, recalls, and documents ideas.
They give architects some of the first opportunities to make design ideas
physical as well as being useful for gathering information.
Like drawing, sketches can reinforce design intentions. With the fluidity of a
single line or the movement found in a group of thoughtfully composed lines,
sketches can reinforce the architectural narrative.
As with architectural skills, sketching can be learned, developed, and
mastered with patience and time. With practice you increase
your ability to capture ideas quickly, efficiently, and accurately.
This chapter will demonstrate different ways to facilitate your ability to
observe and record ideas and visual data in the world around you. It will
teach you to demonstrate the ideas in your mind on paper.

37

9Unit: Sketch vs. photograph

Sketching types Sketching teaches you to see, not just to look. The
act of careful observation of a scene and then the
The types of sketches used by artists and architects vary translation of that information onto paper requires a
depending on intent. Sketching involves the translation of serious understanding of the subject. When
existing visual information or an idea to a two-dimensional sketching you can critically assess relationships,
surface—the paper. To do this effectively you must know sizes, and spaces between objects. In addition, the
what you want to draw and how best to represent it. editing process gives you control over the translation
of an image to the paper. Removal of superfluous
X Observational sketching information brings clarity to the image. Like
sketching, photography enables the artist to capture
Observational sketching is one of the most common ways to record the environment. a moment in time. One striking difference between
The first rule is to draw what you see and not what you know, or think you see. Sketching the two formats is that the sketching artist is forced
involves seeing, not just looking. By not letting your knowledge of an environment or familiar to make conscious representational decisions about
object muddle your observational skills, you will be able to transfer existing information to what to draw. These decisions act as a filtering
the page more easily. Look at observational drawing as an exploration, not mere documentation. process. Limit sketching from photographs because
As the artist, you are making decisions about what to edit and include as part of the exploration these are already filtered environments.
process. You can use this process to emphasize aspects of the drawing or clarify the
visual information. In general, drawing from life is complex. You provide clarity and your own
self-expression through your sketches of the built environment. Start each sketch with
a purpose. Think about what aspect of the view you want to capture. Ask yourself what
you want the narrative of the drawing to be; that is, what story you want it to convey.

The plan of a space is something experienced, Z Blind sketching
but not seen in its totality. By sketching the
plan, you can begin to understand the forms of Blind sketching, another type of observational drawing,
spaces and relationships between elements. captures an object or space without the artist being
distracted by accuracy. In this type of drawing, the
Multiple drawings of the hand and eye communicate an image onto the paper
same building on a single without the eye watching the hand construct the
spread can provide image. Your hand is not inhibited by the observations
a more complete story. of your eyes trying to make the image “correctly.”
This method of sketching allows you to concentrate
38 CHAPTER 2: Learning to see: sketching on what you are seeing, and helps to develop and
strengthen the control of your hand in regard to
what you want to depict. Sometimes blind sketches
capture the essence of the view better than a longer,
observational sketch. This technique teaches you
how to move your hand according to what you see.
It also improves intuitive spatial coordination when
practiced often.

4Assignment:

Plexiglass sketch

Take a piece of plexiglass, roughly This assignment allows you to understand
10 x 14 in (354 x 356 mm), and hold it the fundamental elements of observational
16–24 in (406–610 mm) away from your sketching through the method of tracing. In
face in a comfortable position. Go outside constructing some of your first sketches, it is
and direct the plexiglass toward something much easier to trace the lines of the view. This
that interests you. Close one eye. Literally trace technique focuses on what you see over what
over what you see using a washable marker. you know. It provides the structuring elements
that will aid your confidence in sketching.
5Assignment:

Unusual viewpoint

This method of observational nose, cheeks, and chin become you think you know. By
drawing teaches you to see without foreshortened and are presented to drawing in this manner, the
being distracted by what you think you in an atypical manner. This face becomes more of a
you see. Find a sculpture or bust of unique view forces you to look landscape and less of what
a Greek or Roman statue. Sit closely at the relationships between we recognize as a face.
obliquely to it, relatively low and these elements (the nose, eyes,
close, so that the contour of the and chin) rather than drawing what

Contour sketching variety of drawing types that are both
two- and three-dimensional in nature.
The contour sketch is a single-line Design sketches can also be intermixed
drawing that focuses on the outline of with text, photography, and other
the form or figure. When drawing, you graphic images. Most of what you
should be attentive to the edge of the design does not exist until you construct
form and the quality of the line creating it on paper; therefore it is important to
that edge. There is no tonal value learn how to draw what does not exist.
expressed in this sketch type, but by Frequent sketching of existing objects
varying the thickness of the line, it can hones your invented drawing skills.
express the mass of the object. In
graphite, lines can accentuate, Analytical sketching A gesture sketch of a landscape.
accelerate, become thin and then
become thick. With each change, they Analytical sketches are less pictorial; Z Gesture sketching
indicate a subtlety in the form of the they don’t necessarily depict spaces or
object representing roundness, a crisp objects as you would see them, but are The gesture sketch is a very quick sketch that captures the essential
edge, depth, and thickness—all with a more abstract and reductive in nature. weight and movement of a scene. It captures an initial reaction to a
single line. These types of drawings help reorient view. It is made with a series of gestural lines, usually in a matter of
a project or an existing condition to about 30 seconds. It conveys the essence of the object, the “bones,”
Design sketching understand it better. Analytical sketches without being distracted by the details.
assess the essential component parts
Design sketches allow you to think on and relationships of an object or idea
paper and draw what does not actually and record them in a visual manner.
exist. The nature of the design sketch is
one of exploration; it can take on any
physical manifestation, including a

UNIT 9: Sketching types 39

Unit: 10 Read this!

Sketching techniques Laseau, Paul
Freehand Sketching: An Introduction
The line is the basic building block of any sketch. The quantity
and quality of the lines determine the type of sketch and the W. W. Norton and Company,
technique employed. Line variations occur with different medium New York, 2004
types, and a series of lines graphically conveyed in similar
fashion can create tonal value. Kahn, Louis.
The Value and Aim of Sketching
Writings, lectures, and interviews, 1931

Tonal value emphasizes the creation of value. Value sketches represent a organizing elements in the initial
a surface rather than the contour or series of comparisons of visual layout, then work the detail into the
edge of an object. These sketches relationships—they are a tool to see drawing. There are a number of
map the lights and darks of objects those relationships in an abstract sketching techniques that can be
and spaces. The space between manner. When blocking out for value used to create tonal values.
objects is shaped and formed with sketching, concentrate on the major

Hatching Z Vertical or horizontal lines Scribbling Z Shading
Hatching is created by a series Lines without cross hatching can Scribbling is a technique used to create
of diagonal lines in one direction. also be used to create a surface tonal value. It employs random rounded Shading, as in this example by
Cross hatching is created by a tone. The collection of lines in this lines that numerously overlap to create Hugh Ferriss, emphasizes areas of
series of diagonal lines in two Paul Rudolph drawing of the Art and a tonal value. The emphasis is not on tonal space over the production of a
directions to provide tonal values Architecture Building creates density, the individual squiggle or line but on the single line. The drawing is made by
in sketching. providing areas of tonal value. totality of all the lines creating a tone. concentrating the marks on a surface as
Stippling opposed to an edge. A sense of depth
Stippling uses a series of dots marked is achieved when changing values of
on the page quickly—the collection of the tone. This technique is typically
dots is used to create tonal values and associated with drawing media that
gradations. The density of the dot quickly create large surface areas, such
pattern determines the legibility of the as charcoal, pastel, and loose graphite.
forms. By varying the number of stipples
in an area, the impression of depth or
the curvature of an object can be
achieved. Though this method can be
very time consuming, the outcome can
be quite wonderful due to the control of
each individual point.

40 CHAPTER 2: Learning to see: sketching

6Assignment: Composition

Achieving tonal variation q The foreground and background
areas can provide a transition between
On a sheet of paper from of the vertical box, begin to put a Stippling provides tonal the viewer and the object or space in
your drawing pad create six few dots on the paper. Put the variations for sketching the drawing.
rectangular boxes 2 x 8 in same density of dots in the whole and rendering.
(51 x 203 mm) divided box from top to bottom. Repeat this q The white of the page, along with the
into 1 in (25 mm) increments. exercise from the top, but this time edges, is just as important as the black
Practice a different method of skip the first eighth. Repeat the of the line being created. Don’t be afraid
sketching in each box. Start at the exercise again, this time skipping to leave lots of white on the page.
left and label the boxes as follows: the first two eighths. Continue Understand the role of the white on the
“stippling,” “shading,” “scribbling,” until you have repeated this eight page; it should have some meaning.
“crosshatching,” “vertical lines,” times. Within the eight divisions
and “horizontal lines.” of the vertical box you will see q Understand the relationship between
To achieve tonal consistency, the variety of tonal variation it is form and space. Consider the effects of
build up a series of layers rather possible to achieve with the light, volume, weight, shadow, edge,
than using hand pressure to vary layering technique. The goal is and space.
tone. For example, start with the to achieve a smooth gradation
stippling method. In the top eighth from one tonal range to another. q Consider the size of the image
relative to the size of the paper—the
Louis I. Kahn X Capturing space size determines the amount of
information necessary and feasible.
Louis I. Kahn (Estonian/American The travel sketches of Alvaro Siza
b.1901 d. 1974) is one of the provide an excellent case study for q Consider the location of the sketch on
best-known architects and architectural sketching. The beauty the page. The finished size of the image to
teachers of the 20th century. For of these sketches is not found in be drawn determines where it is possible
Kahn, architecture was the their representational quality, but to locate the sketch and the page
resolution of the interaction of rather is derived from how clearly orientation. The overall composition of the
materials and light—without light, they convey mass of buildings and page can affect the legibility and power of
architecture would not exist. the space in between. the drawing. The page orientation, either
Kahn’s travel sketches depicted landscape or portrait, can reinforce the
not only the architecture he intentions of the sketch (see page 16).
observed, but more importantly
the way buildings interacted with Z Mass and light
light. He was a keen observer, and
is known for his insightful and Louis I. Kahn’s travel sketches
inspirational quotes. document ancient Italian
architecture like the Campo
in Siena. The appreciation of
mass, geometry, and light in
his travel sketches would later
inspire his own architecture.

“The capacity to see comes from persistently
analyzing our reactions to what we look at, and their
significance as far as we are concerned. The more

one looks, the more one will come to see.”

Louis I. Kahn

UNIT 10: Sketching techniques 41

Unit: 11

Sketching media

There are not only a number of different media that help determine the legibility
of your intentions, but also a variety of paper types on which to sketch. Both can
reinforce the intentions of the drawing and should be considered before starting
the sketch. Some papers are better suited to certain media.

Medium choices include graphite, ink, wash, charcoal X Water-based washes
crayon, Conté crayon, and pastel or colored pencil. Time, Water-based washes include watercolor, gouache,
location, intention, and audience determine which medium and ink wash. Watercolor is a water-based paint
choice to use as well as which technique would be most that is applied like a wash. It is good for showing
appropriate. Each medium can provide a variety of effects. transparency, tonal variation, and color, but it is difficult
to correct and hard to control the location of the wash,
and you cannot overpaint. Watercolors are created
from the lightest to darkest value. Gouache is a water-
based opaque wash that can be overpainted. Ink wash
can be made by diluting ink. You can use bamboo or
brushes and can create both line and value.

Z Ink
Ink is a permanent, non-erasable material with a
consistent line-weight and thickness. Drawing with it is
about commitment. Tonal variation is achieved with
variations in pen thickness, overlapping lines, pattern,
and density of lines rather than variations of hand
pressure. Ink is appropriate for gesture drawing due to
the fluidity of the material.

Z Graphite C Conté crayon
Graphite is a flexible material. It makes readily Conté crayon is a square-profiled drawing stick
controled marks and is easy to erase. Soft pencils are made of compressed chalk. It is similar to charcoal—
typically used for sketching, as they have the flexibility often harder—but you can still achieve a soft line.
to create a number of different marks on the page Conté crayons are ideal for creating drawings on
based on hand pressure and the angle of the lead. rough paper. They offer a variety of line types from
With a soft pencil, it is easy to create an illusion of the thin line to the thick line to the tone achieved by
depth on a two-dimensional surface. With the pressure using the flat of the stick. Different from the charcoal
on graphite you have more opportunities for creating stick, you cannot smudge with Conté crayon.
different types of marks on the page including
shading, cross-hatching, linework, and tones. If not
protected with spray fix, graphite will fade over time.

42 CHAPTER 2: Learning to see: sketching

Making marks

q Map out a few light lines that q Don’t be afraid to put the first mark if you will—but developing the
indicate the general structure of the on the page. understanding of when and which
object or space; start with the general media and papers to use to
and proceed to the specific. Use q Develop hierarchy in the sketch. convey your ideas best. Your
guidelines to establish relationships drawing medium and type should
between elements. q Build up detail. reflect the nature of your design
and the architectural intentions.
q Think about the location of the q While sketching, never apologize for
first marks—understand the limits any line that you make on the page. V Transferring data
of the page. Where you set your first Do not erase. Redraw over any part of
marks will determine size and scale a sketch that seems incorrect; this is To establish accurate proportions, scale,
of the image, so design the sketch part of the process of learning to and distance, use a pencil (or other
on the page. sketch. Start light and build up. straight device such as your finger) to
transfer approximate dimensions and
q Pay close attention to proportion q There is an editing process that angles onto the paper.
and scale of elements. occurs when transferring what you see
or invent onto paper. This allows you
q Use a pencil or your index finger to simultaneously to process a specific
create alignments of objects in the intention for the drawing while making
view (setting up vertical or horizontal decisions about what to include and
relationships). Use construction lines what to leave out.
to help define relationships between
parts of the object. q Sketching is not only about
developing your style—your voice,

Pastel crayons
Pastel crayons are created from
powdered pigment and adhere to
rough paper easily. They are similar
to charcoal sticks, but come in a
variety of colors. They provide similar
qualities to the charcoal and Conté
crayon, but with a focus on color.

C Z V Charcoal Connecticut (above), the strength
Charcoal is a workable material that has of the medium derives from the
the flexibility to create various types of marks high contrasts in light and
and tonal values. It is ideal for depicting the shadow: even quick sketches
dramatic effects of light on a surface, and take on a dramatic effect when
providing textural qualities of space, light, rendered in charcoal. Vine
and materials. The “messy” quality of charcoal charcoal is good for quick gesture drawing,
allows an artistic freedom to describe space while compressed charcoal, with different
—it liberates any fear of drawing incorrectly. qualities based on different thicknesses, is
As in the drawing by Turner Brooks of the good for large tonal drawings. With charcoal,
Eugene O’Neill Theater in Waterford, always start light and work into the darks.

UNIT 11: Sketching media 43

newsprint Papers and pads 7Assignment:

trace Newsprint Still-life sketching
Newsprint is a thin, inexpensive paper with a natural
vellum gray tone, ideal for practice sketches. It does not have Create a still life using a combination of chairs, stools, and
the same durability as other types of drawing papers. other small-scale objects. Place them in a manner that is
It tears easily and it is therefore harder to develop or atypical to their normal orientation; this helps to relieve
work a drawing on this type of paper. It has no tooth. familiarity with the object. This assignment asks you to
100# all-purpose acid-free paper challenge your preconceived notions of recognizable
Acid-free paper such as Strathmore is a thicker white things, and will help you to push yourself beyond what you
paper ideal for sketching with charcoal, ink, and pencil. are most familiar with. You are asked to see the object in
It is more durable than newsprint. different ways, as a solid, as a space definer, as a surface,
Arches and as a void. One goal for the project is to push your
Arches paper is a French watercolor paper better own observational skills by re-examining something that is
for line and tonal drawings. It comes in a variety of familiar. You are also asked to think about the drawing as a
weights ranging from 90 lb to 140 lb. “Hot press” way to tell the story of the object. It is a method of
is a smooth paper with less tooth, while “cold press” intentional description of a given object.
is rougher and more textural. The paper is archival You should experiment with media and techniques to find
quality and very sturdy. The rougher tooth holds the those that are interesting and expressive for you. You
marks of Conté crayon, charcoal, and pastel very should consider issues of layout and composition (how
well, while the smooth tooth is ideal for graphite. you fill the page with the object). This assignment should
Mylar give you drawing confidence as you become familiar with
Mylar is a clear film that takes ink well. It is relatively your object as well as an opportunity for you to challenge
easy to erase ink on mylar using an electric eraser yourself with new approaches.
and a little bit of moisture.
Vellum Brief
Vellum is a translucent material that is ideal for
working with graphite. The paper comes in a Construct a series of six timed sketches using a variety of the
variety of weights. Linework, rendering, and techniques and media described in this chapter.
shade/shadow tonal work can be created on • Two rounds of 30-second blind drawing
vellum. It is ideal for layering drawings on top • 30-second sketch
of one another due to its translucent quality. • 1-minute sketch
Craft paper • 5-minute sketch
Craft paper is a smooth brown paper. It works • 10-minute sketch
well with pastels and charcoal and it provides Redraw the same composition using another medium.
an excellent non-white surface on which to draw.
all-purpose acid-free paper White and colored pencils can be used with
ease on this surface.
Trace
Trace is a transparent material used for
overlay sketches.

44

1Start with a 30-second blind drawing to attune your
hand and eye control. Work to get the whole object on
the page within that timeframe. Detail is not important in
this drawing. Concentrate on proportion and the relative
scales of each object to itself and to the other objects.

2Begin a new drawing by sketching the 3Use guidelines to verify the location of 4Return to areas of the drawing to provide
spaces between objects as opposed to elements in the sketch. For each timed additional details, tone, or corrections
objects themselves. This will enable you to drawing, your goal is to get a complete image to the alignment, proportion, or scale of
work on proportion and scale without being on the page. Your drawing techniques will the elements. Build up the drawing. Do not
distracted by foreshortened elements. change slightly as the time increases. develop one area too much prematurely.

Steven Holl

Steven Holl (American b.1947) founded a critical
journal in 1978 entitled “Pamphlet Architecture.”
These small booklets became avenues for architects
to disseminate theoretical architectural treaties.
Holl balances theoretical work with built work,
exploring and testing ideas pertaining to the links
between science, technology, and art. He has
designed important cultural buildings throughout
Europe and North America. Steven Holl’s work
can be characterized with his insightful investigations
of how light enters and interacts with a building.
He studies these relationships through
watercolor sketches.

V Investigative watercolor sketch

This Steven Holl sketch of the Chapel of St. Ignatius
in Seattle captures his concept of the seven vessels
of light entering and energizing the building.
The characteristics of watercolors, transparency,
overlapping, and color perfectly allow him to study
the interplay of light and form.

UNIT 11: Sketching media 45

Unit: 12 “Line does not exist in nature. Line is an invention of man;
so, in fact, is all of drawing… There must have been a
Sketching the line reason for the invention of the line. Yes, it is a guide for
those who would venture into the formlessness that
Lines are manmade creations that surrounds us on every side; a guide that leads us to the
provide information about changes in recognition of form and dimension and inner meaning.”
form, depth, material, or brightness.
George Grosz, painter, 1893–1959

One technique that is extremely helpful thickness of the line can vary with You should come to understand the harder leads, while if you have a
in improving sketching is the mastering different media. your own natural hand pressure. This light touch on the page you will want
of the straight line. The language of the affects the marks made on the page to work with softer leads so that your
line is an essential component to The line, if properly drawn, can by graphite. It is important that you lines appear appropriately darker.
understanding drawing. The line is a delineate sharp edges or soft contours. know this so that you can determine
continuous mark on a surface that is Through the pressure, thickness, and which leads, hard or soft, are best
defined mostly by its length relative to angle of application, it can suggest suited for you. If you have a heavy
its own width or thickness. The different textures, shapes, and forms. hand you will want to work more with

Pen and digital line weights Z Proper line weights it is not necessary to maintain all
the pen sizes. A good range includes
Pen and digital line weights do not vary in the same The section cut is clearly visible as the various line weights, small, medium, and large tips: 0.13 mm,
way as graphite. Variation of line types is achieved from dark to light, depict the depth of the space. 0.25 mm, and 0.50 mm. You should
through pen thicknesses rather than hand pressure. have the variety of pens necessary to
Pens have a consistent stainless steel tip and ink convey depth properly in a drawing.
flow and therefore maintain their line consistency
and type throughout the length of the line, as well Graphite line weights
as throughout the entire drawing.
The pen weight range includes: 0.13 mm, 0.18 mm, Graphite line weights include the
0.25 mm, 0.30 mm, 0.35 mm, 0.50 mm, 0.70 mm, spectrum of marks made by both
1.0 mm, 1.4 mm, and 2.0 mm. The range of lines hard and soft leads. There is a range
available in digital output may vary, but typically of graphite weights associated with
includes 0.05 mm–2.1 mm. The number of pens hard-lined drawing (drawing with your
available in both digital output and as individual parallel rule and drafting board),
drawing instruments offers a large variety of line freehand drawing, and sketching.
weights with which to draw. As with the lead range, Leads range from a soft 6B to a hard
9H. The harder the lead, the lighter,
Z Single line weights crisper, and thinner the line will be.
It is important that you find your own
The lack of a strong section cut and other line weights renders this appropriate range of drawing weights
section illegible. The strongest component of the image is a series as each lead has a variety of associated
of closely packed vertical lines. In the previous section, the line marks depending on your own hand
weight is lightened quite a bit to reduce the emphasis. pressure. For example, an HB lead (a
middle-range lead weight) can actually
provide a number of different line marks,
ranging from light to medium to dark,
based on how much pressure is
applied. Variation in graphite is made
through pressure and lead choice.

A range of digital line weights
46 CHAPTER 2: Learning to see: sketching

8Assignment:

Line-drawing exercises

Line drawing exercises allow you to gauge your own hand pressure and to achieve straight line accuracy. It is
important to develop the proper hand-eye coordination to draw. You will need to move your entire arm while
making long straight lines. This provides you with stability as you move the lead holder across the page. Twist the
lead holder between your fingers as you move it across the page to maintain a consistent point on the lead.

1Place at least 10 dots randomly on a page in your 2Connect every dot to every other dot. Do not use a ruler 3On another sheet, draw a series of horizontal lines,
drawing pad. Use the entire space to distribute the dots. or straight edge for these exercises. Use an HB sketching keeping the lines parallel and around 1⁄2 in (12 mm)
Do not align more than three. Now draw freehand lines pencil. Sharpen your pencil often. Do not lift the pencil up or apart. Draw each line continuously from one side of the
connecting one point to each of the others. Look ahead pause in the middle of a line. Use your entire arm to draw—not paper to the other. Vary your hand pressure after every five
to where the line will end and try to make each line just your wrist—from your shoulder to your fingers. Remember to eight lines.
straight and of a consistent line weight. to roll your pencil to help keep the point consistent.

4Now cross vertical lines over the horizontal ones to create 5Carefully draw horizontal lines across the width of another 6Repeat the same exercise drawing vertical lines.
a grid. Try a variety of lead hardnesses, and both lead page. Maintain a 1-in (25-mm) distance between the
holder and pencils, to experiment with your own hand pressure. lines at the top quarter of the page. For the next quarter,
Compare the lines created with the lead holder and a sketching keep a consistent 1⁄2-in (12-mm) spacing between the lines,
pencil. In addition, use an HB lead in the lead holder for five followed by a 1⁄4-in (6-mm) spacing for the next quarter.
lines, then press harder for five lines, then lighter for another Finally, the bottom quarter of the page should be filled with
five lines. Next try the HB pencil using the same methodology lines 1⁄8 in (3 mm) apart. Keep the lines straight and parallel.
of five lines regular, five lines harder, and five lines lighter. Work on line control and consistency.

UNIT 12: Sketching the line 47

Unit: 13 Read this!

Selecting an object Chaet, Bernard
The Art of Drawing
Architects draw for a number of reasons—sometimes Wadsworth Publishing, 1983
just to practice. There are many opportunities to
practice sketching from the built environment. Cooper, Douglas and Mall, Raymond
Drawing and Perceiving
Deciding what to sketch can your hand or something as large as a that has lots of physical and visual
sometimes be difficult—you can pick city. You can also sketch buildings or variation that allows you to draw it Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992
from a variety of elements based on spaces—but to be able to practice, with a variety of media.
size and opportunity. You can select choose an object that is convenient to Crowe, Norman and Laseau, Paul
an object small enough to hold in draw. When practicing, pick an object Visual Notes for Architects and Designers

John Wiley & Sons, 1986

Edwards, Betty
Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain

Tarcher, 1979

Yee, Rendow
Architectural Drawing (Chapter 3)

John Wiley & Sons, 2007

Finding a small object to draw Additional qualities to look for in Building
can be quite easy. There are choosing an object include: Select a building that has a regular
many objects in your everyday • Multi-sidedness geometry, repetitive elements, and
environment that are ideal for • Complex lines non-curvilinear forms. It would be
sketching. It is good to practice • Geometric variation useful to sketch both the interior
sketching the same item over and • Reflectivity and exterior conditions of a
over again, as this will help you • Transparency building, so access is important.
evaluate and practice with a variety • Irregular surfaces Selecting a building like a public
of media. Vary the lighting and the • Shadows it casts on itself and on library is a good place to start.
viewpoints of the same object to surfaces below and behind. X Tonal sketches
provide further areas of study. Rendered graphite sketches can
Object highlight details of an object. The
Pick an object that can sustain your curvature of metal, its reflective
interest for a long time. The object quality, and deep shadows can
you choose should be portable. It all be captured with graphite.
would be best if it moves in some
fashion; it could be a tool. You will A close-up view of the penknife shown on the left
be using the tool and the sketch
as a way to discover your own Space
particular drawing interests and Find a space to sketch that is
passions. Tool examples that have open and well-defined. That is,
movable parts include pliers, the buildings that surround the
scissors, leatherman/multitools, space clearly define the shape
stapler, corkscrew, can opener, nail of the space. This could be a
clippers, architectural compass, large room inside, a large space
and corkscrew. outside like a plaza or courtyard, or
an alleyway between two buildings.

48 CHAPTER 2: Learning to see: sketching