The Classical Music Book

RENAISSANCE 1400–1600 49

See also: Messe de Notre Dame 36–37 ■ Missa l’homme armé 42 ■ Missa Pange lingua 43 ■ Spem in alium 44 ■
Great Service 52–53 ■ Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott 78–79

bellowing, and stammering, they so that by the 1530s their presence The Council of Trent met 25 times
more closely resemble cats in at a polyphonic High Mass became in 18 years to discuss its response to
January than flowers in May.” less unusual to congregants. the “heresies” of Protestantism and
to clarify Catholic doctrine and liturgy.
The reform of notation in the While the contribution of wind
14th century had, for the first time, players to church music would have Cirillo was not always uppermost
given composers the ability to set been impressive, the resonance of in a composer’s mind. Franco-
down almost any musical idea with a brass ensemble, if badly handled, Flemish musicians often paraded
precision. Since then, the Catholic might hinder the clear delivery of their skill in handling complex
Church had at times encouraged, the text. The Spanish composer polyphonic structures in
and at other times censured, their Francisco Guerrero encouraged his compositions of extraordinary
tendency to embellish music and cornett players to improvise florid virtuosity. In a Mass in four parts,
add ever-increasing degrees of ornaments but to take turns, as for instance, certain sections might
complexity and subtlety. “when they ornament together it be written in the manuscript
makes such absurdities as would with only three parts notated, so
At the end of the 15th century, stop up the ears.” that the singer had to “find” the
the daily Mass was usually sung fourth part by following the logic of
to plainchant. However, if the Little thought for the text the other three parts—effectively
institution hosting the service had Even when a Mass was sung as solving a riddle. The composer
the resources, the Ordinary of the unaccompanied polyphony, the might make the singers’ job even ❯❯
Mass (the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, clarity of expression favored by
Sanctus, Benedictus, and Agnus
Dei) might be treated to many
varieties of embellishment. In the
1490s, several writers noted the
presence of a cornett player at
High Mass as part of the chapel
of Philip IV of Burgundy. They do
not mention what he played; his
mere presence, as a wind player
in the chapel, was enough to be
remarkable. Wind players, who had
previously improvised, began to
hone their skills in reading music
and accompanying such choirs,

[Palestrina’s] Stabat
Mater … captivates the

human soul.
Franz Liszt

50 SIMPLIFICATION OF POLYPHONY

Musical textures

Degrees of Monophony Homophony Polyphony
complexity Sung by a single singer Melody supported by chordal Several parts, which are
Renaissance or single choir in unison. harmony and solid bass in the independent and of equal
composers, aided Examples include plainchant same rhythm. Often used in importance. Forms include the
by more precise and most troubadour songs. canon, fugue, and motet.
notation methods the singing of hymns.
and encouraged
by wealthy
patrons, produced
increasingly
multilayered music.

harder by writing canonic voices clear that reconciliation between with polyphony and with organ,
that moved at different speeds from Rome and the Reformers would let nothing profane be intermingled,
the original. The tour de force here be impossible. but only hymns and divine praises.”
is Johannes Ockeghem’s Missa Composers needed to respond to
prolationum, in which each of Yet the Protestant reforms had this new directive.
the four movements of the Mass forced the Roman Catholic Church
explores a different canonic to introduce changes to doctrine Enhancing the words
scenario. The interval separating and practice, which included Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina
the voices of the canon becomes purifying its sacred music. In 1562, had published his first book of
progressively longer in each a resolution of the Council of Trent Masses in 1554 and had returned
consecutive movement laid down guidelines for musicians. to Santa Maria Maggiore, where
This stated: “All things should he had first served as a choirboy, as
Josquin Desprez’s Missa indeed be so ordered that the maestro di cappella (music director)
l’homme armé super voces Masses, whether they be celebrated in 1561. The story runs that he
musicales provides only one with chant or chorally, may reach anticipated complete papal
line of music for an elegant and the ears of listeners and gently censure. Fearing the reduction
varied three-voice setting of the penetrate their hearts, when of music in Catholic liturgy to
second repeat of the Agnus Dei. everything is executed clearly and plainchant alone (a reform a few
The result of three voices singing at the right speed. In the case of zealots had called for), he stood
polyphony woven from a single those Masses, which are celebrated ready with a Mass in four voices to
melody sung at different speeds is demonstrate that polyphony could
extraordinary for its audacity, but The Renaissance fostered the serve the text in a way that would
the emphasis is not on easily growth of personality, an idea please even the harshest critics.
discernible words. fundamentally opposed to the
selflessness and objectivity The Missa Papae Marcelli does
An official response appear to date from 1562, the
The Catholic Church dealt with the of the old polyphony. year of the Council’s resolution
mounting crisis precipitated by Zoë Kendrick concerning music. It is said that
Luther’s reforms with a series the cardinals found this Mass
of meetings to decide what the Biographer of Palestrina especially pleasing, approval that
official response should be. After gave Palestrina status as the savior
many delays, the Council convened of polyphony. It seems, in fact, that
in the town of Trent in northern the Mass was probably written for
Italy in 1545. By the time of the Holy Week and complied with Pope
final meeting (1562–1563) overseen Marcellus II’s desire for a restrained
by Pope Pius IV, positions had setting that could be clearly
reached a deadlock, and it was understood in mind.

RENAISSANCE 1400–1600 51

Palestrina’s work fulfils much of Palestrina was even more daring. The German states were greatly
what was expected of polyphony While he referred to it as a sacred split in their religious allegiance;
in the era after the Council of Trent, piece, he unashamedly embraced the Southern principalities still
with his targeted approach to a more passionate style, explaining adhered to Rome. Duke Albrecht V
dissonance, clarity of declamation, in his dedication to Pope Gregory of Bavaria, a leading figure of the
and refined command of polyphonic XIII that this was in keeping with German Counter-Reformation, for
writing. Yet Palestrina did not shy its subject matter. example, employed many musicians
away from taking the new precepts including Orlande de Lassus, a
to their limits: his Missa repleatur Elsewhere in Europe Flemish composer renowned as
os meum in five voices, published Palestrina was one bright star in a a child for the beauty of his singing
in 1570, shows complete control constellation of great polyphonists voice. Under generous ducal
of the virtuoso “canonic” style of the Counter-Reformation. In patronage, Lassus directed the
favored by the Franco-Flemish Spain, the orthodox zeal of Philip II Hofkapelle, combining voices,
composers but with such clear encouraged a strong school of violins, viols, lute, a variety of
handling of the text that even polyphonic composition in its brass and woodwind instruments,
Cirillo might have approved. cathedrals. Tomás Luis de Victoria, and even a rackett (a newly
a prolific composer of sacred works, invented, gently buzzing bass
In his Canticum Canticorum, was renowned for the intense reed instrument). Such a large
composed in 1584, an acclaimed drama of his music. He had been ensemble of almost orchestral
cycle of 29 motets based on the a choirboy and organist in Ávila, ambition would have been highly
Old Testament’s “Song of Solomon,” before going to Rome, where he unusual for the time. If the Catholic
may have studied with Palestrina. Church looked askance at such
Palestrina spent five years as Later returning to Spain, he spent instrumentation, its guidelines
maestro di cappella (music director) most of his working life at Madrid’s were obviously open to a degree
at St. John Lateran in Rome, depicted convent of the Descalzas Reales. of local interpretation. ■
in this 17th-century Dutch print.

52

RMOTHEFAPAKHETEYAIMTUSNSTTSHHW—EEAMNNTATHTETUYORE

GREAT SERVICE (c.1580/1590), WILLIAM BYRD

IN CONTEXT A lthough William Byrd is Mary died in 1558, Elizabeth I
believed to have been a returned England to Protestantism.
FOCUS Catholic for most, if not all, However, Elizabeth was tolerant of
English Protestant of his life, he composed music for Catholicism among the country’s
church music the Anglican Church in addition to gentry if they were loyal and
motets and Masses in Latin for the practiced it discreetly. She
BEFORE Catholic rite. He lived through three sanctioned the use of Latin for
1558 John Sheppard eras of religious revisionism in services at the Chapel Royal, and
composes his Second Service, England. Under Henry VIII and then
a setting for five voices of the Edward VI, the country had been The seeds of Protestantism in
“full” service (rather than Protestant since 1534, but in 1553 England were sown by Martin Luther,
the customary short service Mary Tudor acceded to the throne the architect of the Reformation in
comprising only settings of the with her husband Philip II of Spain Germany, shown here playing music
Magnificat and Nunc dimittis) and reinstated Catholicism. When with his children.
and precursor to Byrd’s
10-voice Great Service.

c.1570 William Mundy
composes his Evening Service
In medio chori for a choir in
nine parts, expanding to 11
parts at times.

AFTER
c.1620 Thomas Weelkes
publishes Evensong for Seven
Voices, a Great Service in up
to 10 parts.

c.1630 Thomas Tomkins’s
Third or Great Service for 10
voices is the grandest work
in the genre.

RENAISSANCE 1400–1600 53

See also: Missa l’homme armé 42 ■ Missa Pange lingua 43 ■ Canticum
Canticorum 46–51 ■ Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott 78–79

To a man thinking about the first publication of Latin “sacred William Byrd
divine things … the most songs” in 1575 was lukewarm,
perhaps because of the Catholic Born into a large merchant
fitting measures come, sentiment of some of the texts. family in London in 1540,
I know not how, as if by William Byrd most likely
In spite of his Catholicism, gained his musical training
their own free will. Byrd’s loyalty to queen and country as one of 10 boy choristers
William Byrd appears to have taken precedence at London’s St. Paul’s Church
over his religious adherence. In (the Gothic predecessor of
composers were permitted to thanksgiving for the victory of the St. Paul’s Cathedral), before
use Latin as well as English when English fleet over the Spanish going on to sing for Catholic
writing liturgical music. Armada in 1588, Elizabeth ceremonies at the Chapel
composed a song titled “Look, Royal under Queen Mary.
Byrd flourished under and Bow Down Thine Ear, O Lord.” Later, in 1572, during
Elizabeth’s patronage. By 1565, It is thought that she chose William Elizabeth I’s reign, Byrd
he was the organist and master Byrd to set it to music. Although became a Gentleman of the
at Lincoln Cathedral, where he the anthem is now lost, it would Chapel Royal, a post he held
produced his Short Service, have been a clear demonstration for more than 20 years.
settings for Matins, Communion, of her high regard for him.
and Evensong, amounting to the While Byrd composed
greater part of music in English for Last Anglican work much secular music, including
the Anglican liturgy. Later, when In 1580, Byrd published his works for virginals, he is best
Byrd was a Gentleman of the Great Service, his last work for known for his religious music.
Chapel Royal, Elizabeth granted the Anglican rite. A monumental In 1575, he and Thomas
Byrd and his fellow composer composition, the Great Service Tallis published a first volume
Thomas Tallis, who was also a comprises seven sections for an of Latin motets, Cantiones
Catholic, a monopoly on music Anglican celebration of the mass Sacrae (Sacred Songs). After
production in England. in English for two five-voice choirs. Tallis’s death, Byrd continued
It is not known if Byrd wrote his the series with two volumes of
God and queen Great Service with any particular his own Cantiones in 1589 and
Concern about Byrd’s religious choir or occasion in mind. However, 1591. Byrd published his last
adherence did become an issue, the sheer scale of the piece and the work, Psalmes, Songs, and
however, in 1577, when Byrd’s wife, technical requirement of the writing Sonnets in 1611, 12 years
Julian, was accused of failing to would have put it beyond the reach before his death in 1623.
attend a service by the Bishop of of all but the largest choirs. Some
London, John Aylmer, a rigorous hear it as a farewell to colleagues, Other key works
enforcer of the Act of Uniformity or a last act of contrition to a
of 1559, which aimed to unify the monarch who had chosen to 1589 Cantiones sacrae, Book 1
Anglican Church. From then on, overlook Byrd’s Catholicism. 1591 Cantiones sacrae, Book 2
Byrd did not make a secret of his 1605 Gradualia
Catholic faith, and the reception for In 1605, a messenger carrying
a copy of Byrd’s newly published
Gradualia (a collection of settings
of movements of the Mass for the
Catholic church year, for three
to five voices) was apprehended
and thrown in Newgate gaol.
The composer, however, avoided
imprisonment, facing only pressure
in the courts and heavy fines. ■

54

WAALNHLDISTMPHAEEDRARSIIRGOSAFLTSNE…SS

O CARE, THOU WILT DESPATCH ME (1600),
THOMAS WEELKES

IN CONTEXT I n 1544, at a time when England transalpina, a collection of Italian
was hungry for Continental madrigals reworked with English
FOCUS fashions, the composer and texts, whetting an appetite for
Madrigals poet Thomas Whythorne toured homegrown songs sung in parts.
Europe and wrote sonnets that
BEFORE he later set to music in Songs, the Illustrating the words
1571 Thomas Whythorne first book of English madrigals. Many English collections followed,
publishes Songes, the first often arranged for voices and viols
collection of English madrigals. In Italy, the masters of the to satisfy a growing middle-class
madrigal style included Philippe taste for after-dinner music
1594 Thomas Morley Verdelot and Jacob Arcadelt, whose making. In 1595, Thomas Morley
publishes his First Book of works appeared in the earliest book introduced the ballett, a rustic
Madrigals to Four Voices, of Italian madrigals, published in madrigal with a fa-la-la chorus
the first collection to use the Rome in 1530. In 1588, Nicholas in imitation of an instrumental
Italian description of the style. Yonge published his Musica refrain. Thomas Weelkes, among
others, began to use musical effects
AFTER Madrigal … music made to illustrate the text—known as
1612 Orlando Gibbons upon songs and sonnets … “word painting.” In O Care, Thou
publishes his First Set of Wilt Despatch Me (1600), Weelkes
Madrigals and Motets; it to men of understanding describes the poet’s disturbed
includes “The Silver Swan,” most delightful. state of mind in sliding semitones
a short madrigal but one of (chromaticism) at odds with the
the best known today. Thomas Morley cheerful fa-la-la refrain.

1620–1649 The fashion for In Italy, the madrigals of Carlo
the English madrigal waned, Gesualdo da Venosa use extreme
giving way to the lute song, harmonic shifts and dissonance to
and the style vanished with paint words, while the Madrigali
the establishment of the guerrieri et amorosi (1638) of
Commonwealth of England Claudio Monteverdi lift the form
from 1649. to theatrical heights. ■

See also: Le jeu de Robin et de Marion 32–35 ■ Musique de table 106 ■
Die schöne Müllerin 150–155

RENAISSANCE 1400–1600 55

RNTTHHEAVVIOSIESSRFEHEHSAAETSNARTDRA…DSNTGTUEHDPREIEDSLFETIIKEVHEEAANTLL

SONATA PIAN’ E FORTE (1597), GIOVANNI GABRIELI

IN CONTEXT T he Basilica of St. Mark’s Gabrieli, appointed organist of
in Venice provides a St. Mark’s in 1566, and his nephew
FOCUS dramatic setting for Giovanni Gabrieli, employed the
Renaissance wind bands composers exploring instrumental Venetian ensembles of pifferi
timbre and the use of space. The (civic wind players) both to
BEFORE Flemish composer Adrian Willaert reinforce a vocal ensemble or for
c.1480 A choir book prepared was the first to exploit its potential purely instrumental purposes.
as a gift for Isabella d’Esté on when he became musical director
the occasion of her marriage, there in 1527. His chori spezzati Dramatic impact
contains part of the repertoire (“split choirs”) style divided the In the past, civic trumpeters had
of the wind ensemble of the ensemble around the galleries, mostly just sounded the curfew and
Duke of Ferrara, one of the giving performances a greater played for dances. As Renaissance
most accomplished of the day. theatricality. Learning the chori cities and nation-states jostled
spezzati style from Willaert, Andrea for power, the role of their
1582 Florentio Maschera instrumentalists became more
publishes the first collection of Renaissance recorders were often important. Music making of the
canzoni, Italian instrumental used to accompany songs. This image highest order was encouraged, and
pieces for violins, or cornetts from Musica getutscht (1511), a treatise in this Venice became preeminent.
and sackbuts. on music theory by Sebastian Virdung,
illustrates fingering on the instrument. Giovanni Gabrieli’s Sonata pian’
AFTER e forte (1597), for six trombones,
1585–1598 Venetian a cornett, and a viola da braccio
cornettist Giovanni Bassano (early violin), was the first work for
publishes his book of passaggi, specific brass instruments and the
virtuosic ornamented versions first to include dynamic indications
of motets and popular songs. of loudness and softness for the
players, adding dramatic light and
1661 In England, the shade effects. In the shimmering
“Sagbutts and Cornetts” of the shadows of St. Mark’s, such an
Royal Wind Musick play suites intense sonata might accompany
by Matthew Locke for the the consecration of the Host. ■
coronation of Charles II.
See also: Canticum Canticorum 46–51 ■ Water Music 84–89 ■ The Four
Seasons 92–97 ■ St. Matthew Passion 98–105 ■ Elijah 170–173

56

MAWYALKUET!E,

LACHRIMAE (1604), JOHN DOWLAND

IN CONTEXT M usical instruments plectrums that then plucked
developed rapidly from strings. Zwolle also described the
FOCUS the late 14th century dulce melos, a keyboard instrument
Renaissance onward, as musicians refined their in which the strings were struck by
instrumental music skills and emulated court style to metal mallets, the earliest recorded
attract patronage. The first organ use of a piano-style action.
BEFORE with pedals and 12-note chromatic
1507 Francesco Spinacino’s keyboard was recorded in the The rise of the lute
Intabulatura de lauto is German town of Halberstadt in Beyond these innovations, the more
published in Venice—the first 1361. Around 1440, while working portable lute evolved to become
printed collections for solo lute. in the Burgundian court, Dutch the emblematic instrument of the
organist Arnaut van Zwolle drew a Renaissance. Pietrobono, a much-
1545 The appointment of diagram of the earliest harpsichord, feted musician to the Este family
“Mark Anthony Gayiardell and with keys that lifted vertical pieces of Ferrara around 1450–1470, had
George Decombe, viallines” of wood, called jacks, fitted with played virtuosic streams of melody
as court musicians marks the (not unlike fast electric guitar solos)
debut of the violin in England. Blame not my lute, with a quill plectrum, while an
for he must sound accompanist called a tenorista
AFTER Of this or that as liketh me; played the slow, accompanying
1611 Giovanni Girolamo For lack of wit with lower parts on another lute. The
Kapsberger publishes his the lute is bound addition of gut frets, tied around
Libro primo d’intavolatura de To give such tunes as the neck of the lute, facilitated
lauto, music for the theorbo—a left-hand speed and accuracy.
lute with an extended neck to pleaseth me.
hold additional bass strings. Thomas Wyatt A more significant stylistic
change occurred when the lutenist
c.1630 English composer John put down the plectrum. Stroking
Jenkins produces his pavans the strings with the thumb and
and In nomines for viol consort fingers of the right hand, the
in up to six parts, continuing soloist could play all the voices
an English interest in music for of a polyphonic piece. By the late
viol consort that lasts into the 15th century, the lute was no longer
time of Henry Purcell. simply the companion of minstrels
but had moved to the heart of
court music and composition.

RENAISSANCE 1400–1600 57

See also: Le jeu de Robin et de Marion 32–35 ■ Gabrieli’s Sonata pian’ e forte 55 ■ Le bourgeois gentilhomme 70–71 ■
Stamitz’s Symphony in E-flat major 116–117

Renaissance consort instruments,
including the lute and strings, are
shown in Hearing (c.1617–1618), a
collaboration between Jan Brueghel
the Elder and Paul Rubens.

The 16th-century lute at first had a lute with nine courses. England (1604) develops the composer’s
six courses (a single string for the excelled in the new style of lute own Lachrimae pavan (a dance
highest note, then five pairs of playing, which was also popular with stately music often treated to
strings tuned in unison or octaves), with amateur players, including instrumental elaboration) to create
then gained extra courses in the Elizabeth I, who is shown playing seven melancholy variations, scored
bass called diapasons, tuned the instrument in a miniature for a string ensemble with solo lute.
diatonically (by steps of one tone). painted by Nicholas Hilliard. Renaissance ensembles usually
comprised consorts of the same
The English connection Dowland composed around instrument, but Dowland imagined
By the turn of the 17th century, 90 works for the lute alone but also for his Lachrimae pavans either six
John Dowland was one of a number incorporated the instrument into viols or six violins, including the
of composers who were writing for a wider ensemble, known as a bass violin, forerunner of the cello.
consort. His collection Lachrimae
Dances like the pavan and the
triple-time galliard were used by
keyboard players and composers
to show their skill at improvisation,
usually playing “divisions”
(variations) on the repeat of a
section. My Ladye Nevells Booke
(1591) by the English composer
William Byrd contains 10 pavan—
galliard pairs with variations for
the virginal, an instrument related
to the harpsichord. ■

John Dowland It has been variously claimed Although his son, the composer
that Dowland was born in 1563 in and lutenist Robert Dowland,
Westminster (London) or Dalkey described his father in 1610 as
(Ireland), and his early life remains “being now gray, and like the
obscure. He spent his late teens in Swan, but singing toward his
service to the English ambassador end,” Dowland was, within two
in France, where he embraced years, made one of the lutenists
Catholicism, later claiming that of King James I of England
this conversion prevented his and Scotland. Between that
appointment as lutenist at the appointment and his death, in
English royal court in 1594. 1625, few compositions survive.
Dowland then set off for three
years on a European tour, before Other key works
finding an appreciative patron
in Christian IV of Denmark. The 1597 Firste Booke of Songes
relationship later soured, and or Ayres
Dowland was dismissed in 1606. 1612 A Pilgrim’s Solace

BAROQ

1600–1750

UE

60 INTRODUCTION

The earliest surviving Jean-Baptiste Lully’s Danish-German composer Handel premieres his
opera, Jacopo Peri’s Le bourgeois gentilhomme Dieterich Buxtehude’s suite of short pieces
Euridice, is composed in satirizes social climbing organ prelude Ein feste
honor of King Henry IV of Water Music on a
France and his marriage and the snobbish Burg ist unser Gott barge on the Thames
to Maria de’ Medici. aristocracy of France greatly influences the
River, hosted by
under Louis XIV. chorale genre. King George I.

1600 1670 C.1690 1717

1610 1689 1714

Claudio Monteverdi’s Henry Purcell’s The publication of
Vespers incorporates opera Dido and Aeneas Arcangelo Corelli’s
relates the mythical love Twelve concerti grossi,
polyphony and monody, affair between the Queen Op. 6, establishes the
bridging the concerto grosso as a
of Carthage and the style of composition.
Renaissance and Prince of Troy.
Baroque styles.

T he Baroque period of music accompaniment was of particular built their music on major and
started dramatically, with significance: in the recitative minor chords. Dramatic and
the performance of the sections of early opera—the freely contrasting effects were achieved
world’s first opera, Jacopo Peri’s composed expositions of the plot by varying the loudness and tempo,
Dafne, staged in Florence in 1598. that connected the arias—the voice moving the music between keys and
The opera illustrates the dramatic was accompanied by a single bass instruments, and sometimes adding
change in musical style from instrument, such as a cello, and embellishments such as trills.
polyphony to something more an instrument capable of playing
expressive—a change exploited chords, such as a harpsichord The revolutionary new style
to great effect in Monteverdi’s or lute. This accompaniment, and the idea of a drama set to
Vespers, which contrasts sections known as the “basso continuo,” music proved very popular,
in the old and new styles. or simply continuo, became a especially among the aristocracy
key feature of music in the Early in Italy and France, who employed
Key developments Baroque period. a staff of musicians and a resident
One of the main features of the composer to provide entertainment
Early Baroque period, and one that The importance of the continuo in the courts. In addition to operas,
must have been startling at the was that it provided a harmonic they performed instrumental
time, was a rejection of polyphony base for the melody. While music, and in the royal court at
in favor of a single line of melody Renaissance music had been Versailles, Jean-Baptiste Lully
with a simple accompaniment. characterized by polyphony, the assembled an orchestra to provide
This “monody,” as it was called, new style was defined by harmony. incidental music and dances for
was an attempt to reproduce the In place of interweaving melodies the performance of the latest
style of Classical Greek drama. The based on the ancient Greek scales comedies by playwrights such
or modes, early Baroque composers as Molière. This form of light

BAROQUE 1600–1750 61

Antonio Vivaldi’s Georg Philipp In the last decade
Le quattro stagioni (The Telemann handles of his life, J.S. Bach
Four Seasons) is published a diverse range of
musical genres in writes The Art of
with accompanying Fugue, comprising
program notes to his celebrated
critical acclaim. Musique de table. 14 fugues and
four canons.

1717–1723 1725 1733 C.1742–1750
1727 1733

François Couperin, of J.S. Bach’s sacred The success of
the renowned Couperin oratorio St. Matthew Jean-Philippe
Rameau’s Hippolyte
family of musicians, Passion sets et Aricie challenges
publishes four volumes of chapters 26 and 27 the dominance of
harpsichord orders in the
of the Gospel of Italian opera.
Pièces de Clavecin. Matthew to music.

entertainment caught on elsewhere of the instrumental chorale prelude, itself had been hijacked, appearing
and influenced the development of a sometimes florid setting of a instead as unstaged choral works
the musical drama known as a chorale melody, usually for organ. such as the secular cantata and
“masque” in England. the sacred oratorio.
High and Late Baroque
Since the Reformation, opera As time passed, many elements The Late Baroque period was
had been frowned upon by of the Early Baroque period dominated by three composers
Protestants, and in the Germanic disappeared. By about 1700, the born in Germany in 1685. The
countries, musical activity was period referred to as the “High first, Georg Philipp Telemann
largely restricted to the Church. Baroque” had begun. What had is often overshadowed by his
Gradually, though, a distinctly been a small accompanying group contemporaries but was by far
German Baroque style, very for opera singers had taken on a the most prolific. The second was
different from the Italian and life of its own as an orchestra of George Frideric Handel, a populist
French, evolved from the chorale, stringed, woodwind, and brass who made his name in England
the hymn tunes of the Lutheran instruments, playing a new form of with his oratorios and orchestral
Church, uniting the harmonic music, the “concerto grosso,” made music. The third, regarded by
treatment of the new style of vocal popular by Arcangelo Corelli and musicians as the greatest of the
music with some elements of the Antonio Vivaldi. The continuo, three, was Johann Sebastian Bach:
old Italian polyphony. while still acting as the harmonic a conservative composer but a
backbone of the orchestra, had also consummate craftsman. During a
This hybrid style was more become an independent chamber lifetime of employment by courts
suited to the northern European ensemble, playing a form of music and the Church, Bach’s sacred and
temperament and soon became known as the “trio sonata.” Opera secular music represented the high
accepted into Protestant church point of the Baroque period. ■
music. It inspired the development

62

EDMOXINAVPEGEENRONISFSFIIETOCFHNEUESNLMTLOASNDT

EURIDICE (1600), JACOPO PERI

IN CONTEXT T he conditions for the Orpheus and Eurydice climb out
birth of opera were of the Underworld in Edward Poynter’s
FOCUS right in Florence in painting of 1862. The Greek myth was
Early opera the 1590s. Large-scale theatrical a particularly apt subject for opera
entertainments utilizing music, because Orpheus was a musician.
BEFORE known as intermedi, often
c.700 bce Ancient Greek performed as interludes during introduction of recitative (recitar
drama incorporates music. spoken plays, were commissioned cantando), the art of speaking in
Greek myth identifies Orpheus for dynastic celebrations, such song, that defined opera.
as the “father of songs.” as weddings and baptisms. Their
musical sections—songs (or “arias”), Florentine intellectual societies,
1598 Peri collaborates with dances, and choruses—were most notably the Camerata de’
Jacopo Corsi on La Dafne, themselves interspersed with Bardi, which met at the house of
the first opera, to a libretto by spoken dialogue. It was the patron, playwright, and composer
Ottavio Rinuccini, staged at Giovanni de’ Bardi, had included in
the Palazzo Corsini, Florence.

AFTER
1607 Monteverdi’s first opera,
L’Orfeo, is staged in Mantua.

1637 The first public opera
house—the Teatro San
Cassiano in Venice—opens
with Francesco Manelli’s
L’Andromeda (now lost).

1640 Monteverdi composes
Il ritorno d’Ulisse in patria, his
first opera written for a public
theater in Venice.

BAROQUE 1600–1750 63

See also: Le bourgeois gentilhomme 70–71 ■ Dido and Aeneas 72–77 ■
Orfeo ed Euridice 118–119 ■ The Magic Flute 134–137 ■ The Barber of Seville 148

their humanist debates discussions Singing his works Jacopo Peri
about the nature of Greek drama, composed with the
which they concluded was sung greatest artifice … moved Born into a noble family in
throughout. Peri wrote La Dafne and disposed every stony 1561, Jacopo Peri grew up
(1598) with composer Jacopo Corsi in Florence. As a teenager,
and poet Ottavio Rinuccini in an heart to tears. he played the organ and
attempt to revive this practice. Severo Bonini sang at various churches
and monasteries in the city
Elements of opera instruments may also have been before beginning a lifelong
While only fragments of La Dafne used. The performance included association with the Medici
exist today, Peri’s second work, sections composed by Peri’s rival court as singer, accompanist,
Euridice, survives intact. The at court, Giulio Caccini, who had and composer. In 1598, he
libretto of Euridice tells the Greek trained several of the singers. produced La Dafne, followed
myth of Orpheus, who enters the Caccini even made his own two years later by Euridice
Underworld to retrieve his wife musical setting of the libretto for the wedding festivities of
Eurydice after her death from and had it printed prior to Peri’s. Maria de’ Medici and Henry IV
snakebite. Euridice offers the The publication of these scores of France. Peri also composed
standard intermedio combination ensured the opera’s survival. for the musically distinguished
of songs alternating with choruses Mantuan court.
and instrumental passages, but In Peri’s footsteps
these are linked by recitatives— The new form represented by Peri often collaborated
the new style of sung speech. In his Euridice was repeated in Florence with other composers, such as
preface to the work, Peri described and emulated elsewhere. In Mantua the brothers Giovanni Battista
his intention of “imitating speech in 1607, Claudio Monteverdi, master da Gagliano and Marco da
with song,” which was the bedrock of music at the city’s ducal court, Gagliano. While only a small
of the new genre. He also listed produced L’Orfeo, which is regarded handful of these works survive
some of the instruments played as the first operatic masterpiece. as testament to Peri’s talent,
in the original production, such as Monteverdi later composed three they nonetheless laid down
harpsichord, chitarrone (bass lute), further works for the Venetian the template that later opera
violin, lyre, and lute, although other opera houses—Il ritorno d’Ulisse composers would follow.
in patria, L’incoronazione di Poppea, Peri died in Florence in
It creates a coherent world, and one now lost—exemplifying 1633. His gravestone in the
highly charged with a the new style. Soon Monteverdi’s Florentine church of Santa
distinctive atmosphere. followers, such as Francesco Cavalli Maria Novella describes
and Antonio Cesti, were producing him as the inventor of opera.
It is simple without being operas in Italy and abroad, with
vapid, and dignified without the basic construction blocks of Other key works
recitatives and arias holding the
being portentous. structure together. ■ 1598 La Dafne
Stephen Oliver 1609 Le varie musiche

MUSIC

MUST MOVE

THE WHOLE MAN

VESPERS (1610), CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI



66 BIRTH OF THE BAROQUE

IN CONTEXT M onteverdi’s Vespers for known as seconda pratica (“second
the Blessed Virgin of practice”), with its emphasis on
FOCUS 1610 is one of the most solo voice. In the latter, harmonies
Birth of the Baroque influential collections of sacred became more adventurous, with
works for voices and instruments greater use of monody, in which
BEFORE of the 17th century. No larger choral a melody was underpinned by an
1587 Andrea Gabrieli work had been written before, and instrumental “continuo,” or bass
publishes Concerti, a collection none as long nor as innovative line, in the form of the organ,
of sacred ceremonial music appeared again until J.S. Bach’s harpsichord, or lute. The bass
for voices and instruments, Passions and Handel’s oratorios lines also became more melodic.
introducing the cori spezzati in the 18th century. Embellishments, which had
(“separated choirs”) style. previously been improvised by the
Choral leap performer, were more elaborate and
1602 Lodovico Viadana Written for vespers, the early often fully notated by the composer.
publishes Concerti evening service in the Catholic
ecclesiastici for one to Church, in particular vespers These developments led to the
four voices, the earliest in honor of the Virgin Mary, distinct musical characteristics
composition with a basso Monteverdi’s Vespers marks the of the Baroque period, in which
continuo—a chordal transition from the old polyphonic irregularity and extreme expression
instrumental accompaniment. (“many voices”) style known as sometimes disturb the smooth
prima pratica (“first practice”) of the musical flow, compelling the
December, 1602 Giulio Renaissance, in which all voices attention of listeners. Contrasts of
Caccini premieres Euridice are equal, to the freer Baroque style melody, texture, timbre, tempo, and
based on the same libretto rhythm abound in Baroque music.
as Jacopo Peri’s Euridice, Cremona Cathedral, where the In addition, instruments assumed a
introducing stile recitativo (a young Monteverdi is thought to more important role and their music
declamatory style between have studied composition under the was more idiomatic, reflecting
speaking and singing), choirmaster Marc’Antonio Ingegneri. greater technique and better-made,
inspired by the dramas more reliable instruments.
of the Ancient Greeks.

1607 Monteverdi composes
his groundbreaking first
opera, L’Orfeo, based on the
Greek legend of Orpheus.

AFTER
1619 Heinrich Schütz, a pupil
of Giovanni Gabrieli, publishes
Psalmen Davids, a collection
of psalm settings. He goes on,
in 1629, to produce three sets
of Symphoniae Sacrae, which
give equal importance to
voices and instruments.

BAROQUE 1600–1750 67

See also: Plainchant 22–23 ■ Magnus liber organi 28–31 ■ Messe de Notre
Dame 36–37 ■ Missa Pange lingua 43 ■ Canticum Canticorum 46–51

The end of all good music new style called concertato style,
is to affect the soul. contrasting multiple choirs and
instrumentalists, developed in
Claudio Monteverdi Venice and spread to Germany.
In England, this new trend was
reflected in the verse-anthem,
in which “verses” for solo voices
alternated with choral passages.

The new style was taken up in A virtuosic vespers Claudio Monteverdi
most forms of music. The greater Monteverdi’s Vespers was one of
use of figured bass (numerals and the first pieces of sacred music Born in Cremona in 1567,
symbols, indicating the harmonies to exploit the rich possibilities of Monteverdi began composing
to be played by the continuo player) seconda pratica, but the composer music while still a teenager,
lent themselves to opera and did not forget the advantages of producing a collection of
oratorio. In vocal music, the melody prima pratica and set the texts that three-part motets and a
projected the thoughts, emotions, are strictly liturgical in traditional book of madrigals. These
actions, and reactions of a plainsong. The usual musical achievements enabled him
character in an opera, or even sequence for the vespers service to leave Cremona to become
in an accompanied song. consisted of eight movements, a string player at the court
starting with an opening “versicle” of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga
The new emphasis on character that began with the words “Deus in Mantua, where he was
led to the development of the in adjutorium meum intende” (“God influenced by the court’s
accompanied sonata (including the make speed to save us”). The maestro di cappella (music
trio sonata, comprising two violins original 1610 edition of Vespers director), Giaches de Wert,
and a cello), the solo recitative and contains 13 movements, and and started writing operas.
aria, and the concerto—indeed, includes a version of the Magnificat In 1607, his first opera, L’Orfeo
any musical form showcasing one for six voices and organ. In addition was performed in Mantua,
particular performer among a to music for vespers itself, the followed by L’Arianna in 1608.
group. This stylistic development volume includes an a cappella (“in
emphasized contrast, allowing the chapel,” or unaccompanied) After Gonzaga’s death
for wider emotional expression in Mass setting—Missa in Illo in 1612, Monteverdi went to
vocal music and for more rhythmic Tempore—based upon a motet of Rome, where he presented
variation in expressing and the same name by the Renaissance his Vespers to the Pope. The
projecting the text. It stimulated composer Nicolas Gombert. (Mass following year he became
experimentation among composers, and vespers were the two services maestro di cappella at St.
who explored increasing of the Roman Catholic liturgy most Mark’s, Venice. His final opera
instrumental virtuosity. elaborately set in late 16th- and L’incoronazione di Poppea was
early 17th-century Italy.) performed in 1642, the year
Sacred music before he died.
While the old polyphonic style Within the 13 movements
continued to be widely used in of Vespers, Monteverdi sets five Other key works
European church music during the psalms that honor the Virgin Mary,
first half of the 17th century, a together with Ave Maris Stella 1605 Fifth Book of Madrigals
(Hail Star of the Sea), an eighth- 1607 L’Orfeo
century hymn to Mary that 1640–1641 Selva morale e
precedes the Magnificat in the spirituale
official set of daily prayers, and 1642 L’incoronazione di
the Magnificat itself. Monteverdi ❯❯ Poppea

68 BIRTH OF THE BAROQUE

uses plainsong (single line when they had slightly different
unaccompanied Latin chants, meanings and usage from today.
associated today with monks Until around 1650, “sonata” was
and monasteries) as the basis of used interchangeably with
the seven sections. The repeated “canzona,” an instrumental
return to plainsong provides a composition employing repetition,
compositional thread that connects while “concerto” simply meant
the very different Renaissance and an ensemble piece for voices
early Baroque styles. It also helped and instruments.
ensure that his work would not
alienate the Church. Monteverdi dedicated and presented Monteverdi’s intentions
his Vespers to Pope Paul V, a member It is not known whether Monteverdi
Sacred concertos of the powerful Borghese family, expected to hear the Vespers
In addition to Monteverdi’s five possibly in the hope of commissions. sung as a complete work. There is
psalm settings, the Ave Maris Stella little evidence that any of the 1610
setting, and the Magnificat, he set creating an other-worldly effect. For publication was actually performed
four antiphons—short sentences example, the first singer’s “gaudio” during his lifetime and it is not
sung or recited before or after a (joy) is echoed as “audio” (I hear). known whether the vesper
psalm or canticle. The first two Devices such as repeated phrases movements were ever performed
(non-liturgical—not part of the for emphasis might have appeared together. Some scholars have
service) antiphons come from the in an opera. suggested that Vespers is simply
Old Testament’s Song of Solomon. a collection of religious settings
They are Nigra Sum, sed Formosa The vesper settings are honoring the Virgin Mary,
(I am Black but Comely) and Pulchra completed by the Sonata sopra which were published together
Es (Thou Art Fair), sung by two Sancta Maria (“Sonata on [the for convenience. The publication
sopranos whose lines interweave plainsong] Holy Mary, Pray for Us”). may have been intended by the
as if in a love duet. Together, the four antiphons and composer as two works—Vespers
the Sonata were described by and Mass—complete in their own
In the third antiphon, Duo Monteverdi as “sacred concertos.” right, and also as a compendium
Seraphim, two angels call across “Sonata” and “concerto” are terms of sacred music from which to
the heavens, and in the fourth, that date from the 18th century, draw movements for different
Audi Coelum (Hear, O Heaven), occasions when expert singers
the endings of the words sung by and instrumentalists were
one tenor are echoed by another,

The Family in Concert, c.1752, Music in Venice opening of the world’s first
by the Venetian artist Pietro Longhi, opera house, the Teatro di
who specialized in contemporary Few other cities in Europe have San Cassiana, in 1637.
domestic scenes. a longer or more glorious musical
tradition than Venice. In the In the 19th century, Rossini
Baroque age, it was a major center saw some of his greatest
of the arts and a powerful trading triumphs in Venice, while
hub, with a great tradition of Wagner, a regular visitor who
church and state ceremonies later died in the city, composed
requiring music. The fame of Tristan und Isolde here, and
Venetian composers, such as Verdi premiered Rigoletto (1851)
Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, and La traviata (1853) at Teatro
Monteverdi, and Vivaldi, rivals La Fenice, the chief opera house
that of the city’s artists—Bellini, from 1792. In the 20th century,
Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto, and Stravinsky’s The Rake’s Progress
Tiepolo. Opera first found a mass (1951) and Benjamin Britten’s
following in the city, with the The Turn of the Screw (1953)
were also premiered here.

I would rather be some performances contrast large BAROQUE 1600–1750 69
moderately praised for choirs with smaller ensembles
using the cori spezzati (separated From the Renaissance
the new style than choirs) technique to create a to the Baroque
greatly praised for “stereo” effect. Instruments are
only specified for certain sections The Monteverdi
the ordinary. of the work: the opening fanfare Vespers builds on
Claudio Monteverdi borrowed from Monteverdi’s opera traditional Gregorian
Orfeo of 1607; the Sonata; and plainchant structure.
available, such as at a court like sections of the Magnificat.
Mantua, St. Peter’s in Rome, or It adds virtuoso music
St. Mark’s in Venice. A minimum Voices and instruments for solo singers, creating
of ten voices is required to perform Contemporaries were sometimes
Vespers, and instrumental and critical of Monteverdi’s change in a more emphatic,
vocal parts require enormous style from the traditional prima expressive effect.
dexterity. For the more “choral” pratica to the more operatic
sections, such as Laudate Pueri, seconda pratica technique he This freer expression is
Dixit Dominus, and the closing used in the sacred concertos and supplemented by
movement of the Magnificat, also in his madrigals. They may
have found this sort of writing too improvisational flourishes
A page from a manuscript shows ostentatious for religious music. and dramatic devices.
Monteverdi’s handwritten notation
for L’incoronazione di Poppea (“The One writer, Giovanni Artusi, A greater emphasis on
Coronation of Poppea”) of 1642, his attacked the Baroque style, harmony leads to a freer
last work before his death in 1643. quoting madrigals by Monteverdi compositional technique.
in support of his arguments.
He found the use of dissonance,
unorthodox key changes, and
irregular cadences objectionable.
However, Monteverdi did not see
the two techniques as radically
different: they were both ways of
setting a text expressively and
of being faithful to it. ■

The ultimate effect
is a grand

public sound …

… that builds
upon traditional
structures to create
a new choral style.

70

FLGTRUIOTELOLNLDEYCROHMEFEMAPRSURIOSTINNISCCTWIEAHINOETSFH

JLEEABNO-UBRAGPETOISISTEGELNUTLILLYHOMME (1670),

IN CONTEXT T he 1670 comédie-ballet grandeur, is told through a mixture
Le bourgeois gentilhomme, of spoken dialogue written by
FOCUS devised by the French Molière, interspersed with lively
French Baroque composer Jean-Baptiste Lully and orchestral interludes and dances
the playwright and actor Molière, by Lully. The choruses and solo
BEFORE represents the high point of this arias were the work of both men.
1626 Les vingt-quatre violons specifically French genre. It was
du roi, the King’s orchestra, the culmination of a series of Dramatic skill
is founded—an ensemble in comedy-ballets by the two men Lully was a skilled musician,
which Lully later performs. who were known as Les deux dancer, and actor, and this is
Baptistes (Molière’s real name evident in his compositions.
1647 The premiere is held of being Jean Baptiste Poquelin). The Instead of merely accompanying
Luigi Rossi’s opera Orpheus, comédie-ballet genre mixed spoken the singers, Lully’s orchestra
the first opera commissioned drama with music and dance, enhances the drama of his works,
by the French court. ballet having long been enjoyed commenting on the actions of the
at the court of King Louis XIV. characters and creating a sense
AFTER of place and occasion. His earlier
1691 Henry Purcell composes The story of Le bourgeois Ballet des Muses (1666) anticipated
his opera King Arthur, with gentilhomme, the foolish Monsieur the rise of the concerto, by pitting
“shivering” effects in the Jourdain, who has delusions of solo instrumental passages against
violins, allegedly influenced alternating orchestral responses.
by Lully’s opera Isis. I do not believe there is any
sweeter music under the Examples of virtuosity and
1693 Marc-Antoine heaven than Lully’s. complexity are often evident
Charpentier’s opera Médée Madame de Sévigné in Le bourgeois gentilhomme,
is indebted to Lully’s style. particularly in the quickfire
French aristocrat (1626–1696) exchanges between characters,
1733 Jean-Philippe Rameau’s in the whirling violin and flute
Hippolyte et Aricie is the first ornamentations of the Spanish
French opera to depart from tunes, and in the stately flourishes
Lully’s style and the first of the overture. Over the course of
piece of music to be described five acts, Lully uses every tool at
as “Baroque.” his disposal, from popular dance
forms, such as jigs and minuets,
to drinking songs and even a

BAROQUE 1600–1750 71

See also: Le jeu de Robin et de Marion 32–35 ■ Euridice 62–63 ■ Hippolyte et Aricie 107 ■ Orfeo ed Euridice 118–119 ■
The Magic Flute 134–137 ■ The Barber of Seville 148 ■ Der Freischütz 149 ■ La traviata 174–175 ■ Tosca 194–197

A skilled violinist, Lully performed the timing of both singers and method of musical direction that
in his own works. He is thought to be orchestra. Indeed, there is an precipitated his untimely demise.
the man holding the violin in François etching of Lully’s later opera, In March 1687, he died from a
Puget’s painting of 1688. Alceste, premiered in 1674, that gangrenous wound that developed
shows a man “beating time” on after a blow to his toe while
grandiose “Turkish” march with the floor with a staff. Unfortunately beating time as he conducted
lively percussion. Although Lully for Lully, it was this vigorous his own Te Deum. ■
was not the innovator of musical
“orientalism,” he is widely credited Jean-Baptiste Lully
with spreading its influence in the
18th century. His use of a scene- Born into which point he gallicized his
setting overture—an orchestral, a family of name. Lully’s monopoly on
marchlike introduction usually Florentine French opera enabled him to
to allow for royal pageantry and millers in 1632, produce multiple works of his
homage to be paid—became Giovanni own creation. His prolific output
a standard musical feature for Battista Lulli before his early death in 1687
almost all subsequent operas. began his rise through French also included chamber music
society when he gained a and sacred works.
Enter the conductor position as a servant at the
Lully’s increased instrumentation, French court at the age of 14. Other key works
with five-part strings, woodwind, He attracted the attention of
and percussion, meant that Louis XIV, with whom he later 1663 Miserere mei Deus
Le bourgeois gentilhomme was danced in courtly spectacles. 1674 Alceste
one of the earliest pieces of music By 1661, he had been placed 1677 Te Deum
to require a conductor to coordinate in charge of court music, at 1686 Armide

GENIUSHE HAD A PECULIAR
ETONEGXPLREISSSHTHWE ENOERRGDY OSF
DIDO AND AENEAS (c.1683–1689),
HENRY PURCELL



74 BAROQUE OPERA IN ENGLAND

IN CONTEXT T he greatness of Dido and Puritans show disdain for the
Aeneas by Henry Purcell flamboyantly dressed Cavaliers in a
FOCUS (1659–1695) lies in the 17th-century tavern scene. Cromwell
Baroque opera in England perfection of its characterization closed many inns and theatres, which
and musical depth. Although he called bastions of “lascivious mirth.”
BEFORE conceived on a miniature scale, it
1617 Lovers Made Men, a is the most significant early English tradition could develop, due to the
masque by Ben Jonson, is set opera and a masterpiece of the exile of the future King Charles II
to music by Nicholas Lanier in entire Baroque musical era. following the defeat of the Cavaliers
the Italian recitative style. (Royalists) in the English Civil War
In the late 17th century, when (1642–1651) and the establishment
1656 The Siege of Rhodes, by Dido and Aeneas was composed, of a Protectorate under the rule of
five composers, is considered opera was still in its infancy in the Puritan Oliver Cromwell. During
the first English opera, but is England. It had evolved in Florence this period, English composers
called “recitative music” to in the 1590s from a form of private were often not exposed to foreign
avoid the Puritan ban on plays. entertainment organized by groups influences and their music tended
of artists and musicians known as to retain a strong national identity.
c.1683 John Blow’s Venus “academies” (see pp.62–63). From Forms such as the verse anthem,
and Adonis is premiered at there, it had spread throughout Italy in which solo voices and choir sang
Charles II’s court. with performances in one or other alternate verses, were favored in
of the many small courts. Only in Anglican liturgy. Secular music
1685 Albion and Albanius, 1637, with the opening of the Teatro included “catches”—simple, often
with a libretto by John Dryden di San Cassiano in Venice, was bawdy rounds or canons, usually
set to music by Louis Grabu, is opera performed for a wider public. sung in taverns—which had no
the earliest full-length English The new genre had reached direct continental equivalents.
opera to survive in its entirety. Germany by this time and France
by the 1640s, quickly taking root A mysterious genesis
AFTER in both countries. The Restoration of the monarchy
1705 Jakob Greber’s Gli amori under Charles II in 1660 brought
d’Ergasto is the first Italian In England, opera advanced England closer to Europe and its
opera produced in London. more slowly, partly because of a musical repertoire. This would have
prejudice against sung drama in a influenced Purcell as he developed
1711 Handel premieres the country where spoken drama was his skills composing masterly
Italian opera Rinaldo, his first dominant. England also lacked a
work for the London stage. royal court around which operatic

Dido and Aeneas is
one of the most original
expressions of genius

in all opera.
Gustav Holst

BAROQUE 1600–1750 75

See also: Euridice 62–63 ■ Orfeo ed Euridice 118–119 ■ The Magic Flute 134–137 ■
The Barber of Seville 148 ■ La traviata 174–175 ■ Peter Grimes 288–293

anthems and songs from the age some suggest that it was Henry Purcell
of 16. Many of these early works commissioned originally for the
show the depth of imagination that court of Charles II. There is, Born in 1659, when court life
would later make Dido and Aeneas however, no evidence of any was about to be restored with
such a powerful work. performance in the proposed period the accession of Charles II,
(1683–1684). Priest himself was a Purcell was a thoroughly
Surprisingly little is known choreographer and dancing master trained musician. In his
about the creation of Dido and who knew Purcell from stage relatively brief career, he
Aeneas. The earliest surviving productions on which they had acquired the range of skills
manuscripts date from several both worked. John Blow’s Venus needed to succeed in every
decades after Purcell’s death, and Adonis, the model for Dido and available genre. He was a boy
and some material, such as music Aeneas and also an opera with a chorister in the Chapel Royal,
for his librettist Nahum Tate’s prologue and three acts, had been and, as an adult, held a series
prologue, has been lost. There is revived by Priest and his pupils and of court appointments, writing
also a mystery about when and premiered at court around 1683. music for state occasions in
where the work was first performed. addition to works for church
Although it was staged at Josias The continental influence and chamber, songs, and
Priest’s Boarding School for Young While Purcell drew on the style harpsichord suites. As the
Ladies in Chelsea in the late 1680s, of his English predecessors and organist of Westminster
contemporaries such as Matthew Abbey from 1680, he worked
Dido entertains Aeneas in a scene Locke and Blow, European musical close to London’s West End
by an unknown 18th-century Italian models are evident in Dido and and wrote incidental music
artist. While based on Virgil’s epic Aeneas and other works. During for dozens of plays. He also
poem, Purcell’s opera used witches, his years in exile, Charles II had ❯❯ collaborated on a series of
rather than gods, to separate the lovers. dramatic or semi-operas with
substantial musical content,
including King Arthur and The
Fairy Queen. He died in 1695
during the composition of
The Indian Queen, leaving his
brother to complete the work.

Other key works

1691 King Arthur
1692 The Fairy Queen
1694 Come, Ye Sons of Art
1695 Funeral music for
Queen Mary

76 BAROQUE OPERA IN ENGLAND

As a child, Purcell served as a A musical revival (“The king’s 24 violins”) at
chorister of the Chapel Royal at the court of Louis XIV. It played
Hampton Court, England, a training The creative foundations for for church services and court
ground for young musicians. England’s music and drama were occasions, performing birthday
in a poor state when Charles II odes by Purcell and others. The
came to the throne in 1660. The post of “Master of the King’s
Puritans had closed London’s Musick” was reinstated with
theatres from around 1642 and, the reappointment of Nicholas
abhorring music in places of Lanier. Foundations such as the
worship, had even disbanded Chapel Royal, which trained
cathedral choirs. Charles’s professional musicians, were
interest in the arts and his also renewed. New theatres
subsequent support for them were opened and thrived,
was part of a wider policy of producing what is now called
encouraging entertainment. Restoration drama—often
bawdy comedies—for which
This influenced music in songs and incidental music
several ways. Charles created a were required, frequently
royal string orchestra modeled on supplied by Purcell himself.
the Vingt-quatre violons du roy

acquired a taste for French and counterpoint, as well as a structural the classical hero of Virgil’s epic
Italian music. Such preferences device by which sections are poem, the Aeneid. Having escaped
influenced aspiring musicians repeatedly built up from a short from the burning city of Troy at the
eager for royal patronage. aria, followed by a chorus, and end of the Trojan War, he had sailed
then a dance. The opera included with his followers to North Africa.
French influences are noticeable several dances, a feature common There he woos the Carthaginian
from the start of Dido and Aeneas. for French and English operas of the queen Dido—a wary widow who
Act One starts with a typical time. Such dances would no doubt finally submits to his advances.
French overture, its slow, stately have pleased the dancing master, Wicked witches plot against her,
introduction based on intense Priest, when the opera was staged however, sending an imp in the
dotted rhythms (which divide at his school. likeness of Mercury to call Aeneas
the beat between a long note and away to his glorious destiny as the
a short one). The second part of Equally noticeable is the impact founder of Rome. In despair at his
the overture is fast, using imitative of Italian opera—and specifically of departure, Dido commits suicide.
Didone, another opera about Dido
As poetry is the harmony and Aeneas by Francesco Cavalli. Purcell masterfully employs
of words, so music is Both operas employ a ground bass stirring motifs and deft word-
that of notes; and as or passacaglia, in which the bass painting to express the fluctuating
poetry is a rise above line is repeated throughout with moods that shape the action.
changing melodies and harmonies Throughout the opera’s varied
prose … so is music the above it. Purcell uses this to great movements, Purcell’s text and
exaltation of poetry. dramatic effect for two of Dido’s music work together in perfect
Henry Purcell arias, including her lament, which synergy to evoke the necessary
comes close to the end of the score emotions of sadness, joy, or the
and provides a natural climax to evil intent of the witches—music
the whole drama. and poetry “walking hand in hand
support each other,” an ideal Purcell
Dramatic effects expressed in the dedication of his
As it has survived, Dido and semi-opera Dioclesian (1690).
Aeneas consists of three short His use of melismas—setting
acts telling the story of the arrival one syllable on several notes—is
in ancient Carthage of Aeneas, striking, enhancing the effect of

BAROQUE 1600–1750 77

descriptions of “valor,” “torment,” Compositional devices in 
and Dido “languishing” in grief in Dido’s Lament
her recitative “Whence could so
much virtue spring.” Purcell also A five-bar bass “Remember me” motif
intentionally creates dissonance repeated throughout lends a sense
(disharmony between notes) in suggests inevitability. of yearning.
the string parts during Dido’s
lament, to express the queen’s
extreme anguish in one of the
most moving musical statements of
grief ever composed. The last death
scene is remarkable, too, in an era
when operatic heroes or heroines
seldom perished. In Cavalli’s
Didone, Dido is saved from herself
and marries someone else.

A lasting legacy Appoggiatura Falling phrases and
Little is known about performances (short “leaning” note) dissonance to
of Dido and Aeneas in Purcell’s
lifetime. It was revived on the suggests sobbing. indicate anguish.
London stage in 1700 and again in
1704, yet these productions seem Queen Mary until 1694. Theatre and Aeneas suggests, however,
to have been the last until the work dominated Purcell’s last years. that, but for his early death at the
late 19th century. Increasingly Here the chief form was that of age of 36, Purcell could have laid
performed ever since, it is now dramatic or semi-opera. This very the ground for an English operatic
regularly presented by schools and English type of entertainment tradition. That space would
amateurs as well as in the world’s comprised a play with interludes of eventually be filled by the German-
great opera houses. songs, dances, and choruses at the born George Frideric Handel, who
ends of acts; these had little direct would compose his own operas in
The accession of William III to connection to the play and were London between 1711 and 1741. ■
the throne in 1689 diminished performed by a separate company
court patronage, although Purcell of singers and dancers. The best Music is yet but in its
wrote fine odes for William’s consort known examples are King Arthur nonage, a forward child,
(1691), to a text by the poet John which gives hope of what it
Dryden, and The Fairy Queen may be hereafter in England,
(1692), whose spoken text is an when the masters of it shall
adaptation by the actor-manager find more encouragement.
Thomas Betterton of Shakespeare’s
A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Henry Purcell

Purcell’s other works ranged
from church and chamber music
to songs and formal odes. His Dido

The score of Dido and Aeneas uses
a simple bass line which may have
been provided by cello, bassoon, double
bass—or bass viol, as shown here by
Dutch artist Caspar Netscher (1639–84).

78

BCTHHAWEUROLCIBNHJGEESCOTFISOCNFHOOTRITSHTEERS

CHORALE PRELUDE, EIN FESTE BURG IST UNSER
GOTT (1690), DIETERICH BUXTEHUDE

IN CONTEXT W hen, in 1517, Martin organ piece to introduce the melody
Luther penned the of the chorale so that people would
FOCUS 95 theses that would know what tune to sing.
Lutheran hymn tunes trigger the Reformation, his main
objections had little to do with Signature trait
BEFORE music: they rather concerned The chief pioneer of the chorale
1529 Martin Luther composes the selling of indulgences and the prelude was Dieterich Buxtehude.
the hymn Ein feste Burg. question of papal authority. As His practice was to present the
the Reformation got underway, chorale melody in an ornamented
1624 Samuel Scheidt however, church music was to be version in one single upper voice,
publishes his Tablatura nova, profoundly affected. For centuries, projected by the right hand on a
a collection of keyboard singing in church had been the separate manual (organ keyboard),
music containing eight sets preserve of monks and trained while the left hand and pedals
of chorale variations. singers and, being in Latin, it was provided an accompaniment,
incomprehensible to the average normally on softer-sounding stops.
AFTER person in the congregation. Buxtehude drew some influence
1705–1706 J.S. Bach walks from the works of earlier composers,
from Arnstadt to Lübeck—a Luther placed particular such as the keyboard variations of
distance of 235 miles (378 km) emphasis on congregational the Dutch organist Jan Pieterszoon
to meet and hear Buxtehude. participation and on the use of the
vernacular, so that everyone could [I wanted] to comprehend
1726 J.S. Bach completes understand what they were hearing one thing and another
the final chorales in his and singing. The chorale—a about his art.
Orgelbüchlein (“Little Organ congregational hymn—was key J.S. Bach
Book”), his largest collection to this. Luther himself composed
of chorale preludes. many of the earliest chorales, of
which perhaps the most famous is
1830 Felix Mendelssohn his Ein feste Burg, based on Psalm
bases the finale of his 46—“A mighty fortress is our God,
“Reformation” Symphony a tower of strength never failing.”
(No. 5) on Luther’s Ein
feste Burg. By the Baroque period, chorale
melodies formed the basis for
many different genres of music in
the Lutheran church. One of these
was the chorale prelude, a short

BAROQUE 1600–1750 79

See also: Plainchant 22–23 ■ Magnus liber organi 28–31 ■ Great Service 52–53 ■ Pièces de clavecin 82–83 ■
St. Matthew Passion 98–105 ■ The Art of Fugue 108–111 ■ Elijah 170–173

An Allegory of Friendship by Dutch them, or is presented as the first them imitatively, while at other
artist Johannes Voorhout shows (and “strongest-sounding”) of a times opting for a chordal approach.
Buxtehude leaning on his elbow. collection of four notes. In this manner the tune is
Among the other musicians is the presented once from beginning
harpsichordist Johann Adam Reincken. The accompaniment in the to end. This particular style of
left hand and pedals is generally setting influenced J.S. Bach,
Sweelinck (1562–1621) and his pupil in two- or three-part harmony, who followed a similar model
Samuel Scheidt (1587–1654), but sometimes using motifs from the in his Chorale Preludes. ■
while Scheidt often presented chorale melody and interweaving
the tune of the chorale in slower, position of organist at St. Mary’s
unornamented notes and wove the Dieterich Buxtehude in Lübeck. Tradition held that
variations around it, Buxtehude new organists should marry a
made the chorale melody itself the It is uncertain exactly when daughter of their predecessor,
clearest and most ornamented line, and where Dieterich Buxtehude an obligation that Buxtehude
with the variations being simpler. was born, but by his early fulfilled within weeks of taking
childhood, his family was living up office. He retained his role as
Buxtehude’s prelude on Ein feste in Helsingborg (in modern-day organist of Lübeck until his
Burg ist unser Gott, composed Sweden), from where they later death in 1707.
around 1690, is a perfect example moved to Helsingør in Denmark.
of this approach. The right hand It was there that Buxtehude Other key works
presents a spontaneous-sounding learned his musical craft from
solo melody that follows the contour his organist father. 1680 Membra Jesu Nostri
of the chorale tune. The chorale c.1680 Praeludium in C major
itself is made clearer by the fact After working at his father’s 1694 Trio Sonatas, Op. 1
that each of its notes is either former church in Helsingborg
held for longer than the decorative, and then at St. Mary’s church in
improvisatory notes that connect Helsingør, in 1668 Buxtehude
accepted the prestigious

80

OTHFEONUERWTIOMREPSHEUS

CONCERTI GROSSI, OP. 6 (1714),
ARCANGELO CORELLI

IN CONTEXT T he Italian term “concerto” the modest setup of a small
was initially used to group of soloists and a string
FOCUS describe any music for ensemble with continuo (bass
The concerto grosso voices and added instruments, with line), as developed by the Italian
a distinction evolving in the early composer Arcangelo Corelli around
BEFORE 17th century between concerti the turn of the 18th century.
1610 The publication of ecclesiastici (church music) and
Giovanni Cima’s Sonate concerti di camera (chamber Corelli’s early Concerti Grossi were
a Tre for violin, cornet, and music). By the late 18th century it premiered in Rome’s Palazzo Pamphilj,
continuo—an early example had evolved into the much grander a dazzling example of Italian Baroque
of secular Italian chamber showcase for virtuosity that is architecture that reflected the order
music for three instruments. familiar today, but its roots lie in and playfulness of the music.

1675 The first performance
of Alessandro Stradella’s
Sonata di Viole No. 25, which
contrasts a soloist with an
ensemble. Corelli is likely
to have heard this during
his time in Rome.

AFTER
1721 J.S. Bach puts together
his Brandenburg Concertos,
several of which experiment
with the instrumentation of
both solo and ensemble groups.

1741 Handel’s Twelve Concerti
Grossi, Op. 6, are published,
in direct homage to Corelli’s
Concerti Grossi.

BAROQUE 1600–1750 81

See also: The Four Seasons 92–97 ■ Musique de table 106 ■ Saint-Saëns’ Piano
Concerto No. 2 in G minor 179

It is wonderful to observe The music ranges from serene Arcangelo Corelli
what a scratching of Corelli adagios (in slow time) wrought
there is everywhere—nothing with exquisite suspensions, to Born into a prosperous family
allegros (fast time), peppered in the small Italian town of
will relish but Corelli. with quickfire exchanges between Fusignano, in 1653, Corelli
Roger North the large and small ensembles. was accepted into Bologna’s
Corelli’s use of harmony in these Accademia Filarmonica
Writer and musician concerti was in keeping with a orchestra at the age of 17.
(1653–1734) more general shift in Italian His mastery of the violin,
Baroque music away from the combined with the rigor
Corelli’s masterful Op. 6, Concerti myriad lines of Renaissance of his teaching methods and
Grossi, published posthumously polyphony toward the use of his many pupils, who included
as a set of 12, epitomize the form. chord sequences and cadences Antonio Vivaldi and Francesco
to create a stable tonal center. Geminiani, caused his
Each of Corelli’s concerti reputation to grow.
consists of four to six movements, Corelli’s work immediately
played by a trio concertino—three attracted the admiration of patrons In the mid-1670s, Corelli
soloists comprising two violins and fellow musicians. Among the moved to Rome, where he
and a cello continuo—and the Op. 6 concerti, No. 8 in G minor, entered the service of Queen
ripieno, a larger string ensemble subtitled “Fatto per la Notte di Christina of Sweden, who
with harpsichord accompaniment. Natale,” was commissioned by his had a home in Rome, and later
Confusingly, Corelli often expanded patron of the 1690s, Cardinal Pietro served as Music Director to
the concertino section to four Ottoboni. Known as the Christmas Cardinal Pamphili. His last
musicians. The basso continuo Concerto, the work has enjoyed patron was Cardinal Pietro
(cello and harpsichord) provided long-lasting popularity. Ottoboni, who was himself
a continuous musical framework, a musician and librettist.
or foundation, over which the Harmony and balance
melody and harmony of both the Although Corelli had previously Corelli died in 1713. Despite
soloists and the accompanying written for the concertino his relatively modest output,
group, or ripieno, were constructed. combination of instruments in his most active composing
his 48 trio sonatas, it is impossible years coincided with a boom
Dynamic expression to dismiss the Concerti Grossi in music publishing at the
By employing these contrasting as a mere inflation of these turn of the 18th century. As
instrumental forces, Corelli small-scale chamber works. a result, his influence spread
explored the possibilities for Some performances involved as across Europe, even during
dynamic expression, enlivening many as 80 musicians—a huge his lifetime.
the exchanges between the number, especially in Corelli’s day,
sections through dramatic when orchestras more usually Other key works
juxtapositions—often enhanced numbered around 20 musicians.
when the concertino ensemble 1694 12 Trio Sonatas, Op. 4
joins in with the ripieno sections. In 1789, more than 70 years 1700 12 Violin Sonatas, Op. 5
after Corelli’s death, the English
musician, composer, and music
historian Dr. Charles Burney
wrote of the Concerti Grossi:
“The effect of the whole … [is]
so majestic, solemn, and sublime
that they preclude all criticism.”
Even today, their melodies
continue to resonate. ■

82

FSTTRHHTEEEYNLPUCEENSHRITFMAIENNUCDGSTTIOITOFCANRLTOIEHAAFENTMEUSIC

PIÈCES DE CLAVECIN (1713), FRANÇOIS COUPERIN

IN CONTEXT U ntil François Couperin’s technical virtuosity and the formal
Ordres, or suites, French modulation of melodies, rather than
FOCUS keyboard music had largely changes of mood and feeling.
French Baroque taken the form of Baroque popular
harpsichord music dances, such as the allemande, Ornamental flourishes
courante, and sarabande. However, Although he used the sonata
BEFORE in part due to his connections at structure in his music, Couperin
1670 Jacques Champion de the French court, Couperin was concentrated on grace and gesture,
Chambonnières publishes also familiar with Italian music, swayed by the prevailing French
Les pièces de clavessin (“Pieces including the sonata, a piece in view of music as a sophisticated,
for Harpsichord”), the first major several movements for a small elegant, and even frivolous pastime.
French work on harpsichords. group of instruments, which Many of his works have descriptive
involved no dancing or singing. titles, which he claimed were ideas
1677 Nicholas-Antoine that occurred to him as he was
Lebègue writes Les pièces Sonatas of this period usually writing. The careful balance he
de clavessin, the first dance had a two-part structure, with each struck between the lighthearted
suites published in France. half repeated. As seen in the more French sensibility and the more
than 500 sonatas of Domenico formal, structured Italian approach
AFTER Scarlatti, they tended to focus on gave his work wide appeal.
1725 J.S. Bach includes
Les bergeries (from Sixième I like better what The keyboard works were
Ordre 1717) in his Notebook touches me than written entirely for harpsichord or
for Anna Magdalena under what surprises me. spinet. On these instruments, the
the title of Rondeau. François Couperin player has no control of volume.
Couperin incorporated subtle
1753 C.P.E. Bach pens volume Pièces de clavecin (1713) embellishments into his music to
1 of Versuch über die wahre control its flow and intensity and,
Art das Clavier zu spielen, unusually for the period, expected
a treatise influenced by performers not to add to, or
Couperin’s L’art de toucher le improvise around, what he had
clavecin (“The Art of Playing written. Furthermore, he published
the Harpsichord”). detailed instructions for these
“ornaments,” marking the notes
precisely as they should be played,
thereby codifying such signs for

See also: Micrologus 24–25 ■ Scarlatti’s Sonata in D minor 90–91 ■ BAROQUE 1600–1750 83
Musique de table 106 ■ Clementi’s Piano Sonata in F-sharp minor 132–133
François Couperin
later generations. His style was a complete course, but advice for
not to everyone’s taste—while J.S. the player on body postures and Even within the dynasty of
Bach arranged some of Couperin’s technical issues. It included a great musicians into which
works, he is said to have found series of eight preludes for study he was born in 1668, François
them overly fussy. and fingerings for some of Couperin was extraordinary.
Couperin’s published pieces. Appointed on the death of
Such reliance on ornamentation his father, Charles, to take
tends to mean that Couperin’s Particularly forward-looking over the role of organist at
music translates less well onto the are his suggestions that children St. Gervais Church in Paris
modern piano, which, with its fuller should master a few pieces before at the tender age of 11, he
and more sustained sound, makes learning to read music and that went on to become one
the decoration too prominent. This, practice should be supervised. of the most sought-after
coupled with his dislike of overt These ideas anticipated some performers and teachers in
virtuosity and harmonic daring modern approaches to music France. In 1693, Couperin
(such as sudden key changes or education, such as the Suzuki was appointed by Louis XIV
clashing notes), may explain why method in the mid-20th century. ■ as organist at the Royal
his music has been eclipsed by Chapel. He became court
Scarlatti’s in the concert hall. A young girl learns to play the harpsichordist to Louis XV in
harpsichord in The Music Lesson 1717 and composed works for
Although not the first treatise on by Jean-Honoré Fragonard. François the royal family. He died in
keyboard playing, Couperin’s L’art Couperin taught music to Louis XIV’s Paris in 1733.
de toucher le clavecin was one of children at Versailles.
the most important, offering not Couperin’s series of
Ordres for keyboard are
considered some of the most
significant contributions to
Baroque harpsichord music.
Players of the instrument
today still study L’art de
toucher le clavecin in order
to inform their performances.

Other key works

1713–1730 24 Ordres (in
four books)
1714–1715 Les concerts
royaux (The Royal Concerts)
1724–1725 Apothéoses

LIKE ISWHAT THE ENGLISH

BSOEMAETTHINTGIMTHEEYTCAON

WGEAOTRERGEMFURSIIDCE,RHIWCVHA3N4D8–EL350 (1717),



86 AN INTERNATIONAL STYLE

IN CONTEXT U ntil the late 19th century, Handel is the greatest
England was often known composer that ever lived …
FOCUS as the land without music.
An international style Even though London had a thriving I would uncover my
concert life, with the earliest head and kneel down
BEFORE tradition of public concerts in
1660s Following the Europe, the fashion was to promote on his tomb.
restoration of the monarchy in foreign composers and performers Ludwig van Beethoven
England, Charles II reinstates rather than native musicians. Both
music to the English court. Handel and Johann Christian Bach of some of the florid excesses of
He favors the French style (known as the English Bach) moved High Baroque counterpoint that
and particularly promotes to London to make the most of its were favored by Bach.
dancing, a passion he acquired opportunities, and composers
during his exile in France. such as Mozart and Haydn often Handel was soon appointed
visited the city as well-paid and director of music to the Duke of
1670s A group of professional feted musicians. Chandos, who introduced him to
musicians called the Music other members of the English
Meeting open a concert hall Music as pleasure aristocracy. While employed by the
near Charing Cross, London. When Handel arrived in London in duke, Handel honed a new, more
1711, he already had a distinctive forthright style, which can be heard
AFTER style that was rooted in his North in his Chandos Anthems and the
1727 Handel composes the German upbringing and influenced masque Acis and Galatea. It was
anthem Zadok the Priest for by his time in Italy. He had met also at this time that he wrote
George II’s coronation. Arcangelo Corelli and Domenico Esther, the first of his English
Scarlatti in Italy and achieved oratorios, a genre for which he
1800s Composers turn away success with Italian operas and would become renowned.
from an international style to religious works there. He was also
highlight the individuality of familiar with the work of Jean-
nations, finding inspiration Baptiste Lully, who dominated
in folk dance rhythms and French music, and England’s Henry
nationalist themes. Purcell. This cosmopolitanism
appealed to London concert-goers,
who welcomed Handel’s avoidance

George Frideric Handel Born in Halle, in northeastern there for the rest of his life.
Germany, in 1685, Handel received He later found fame with his
his earliest musical training from oratorios, especially Messiah,
a local organist. While still a and set a seal on his career with
teenager, he moved to Hamburg the Music for the Royal Fireworks
to work as a composer and from in 1749. Handel died a wealthy
there went to Italy. He developed man and was buried with the
his dramatic talent in the comic great and the good in London’s
operas Rodrigo (1707) and Westminster Abbey.
Agrippina (1709) and the psalm
setting Dixit Dominus (1707). Other key works

Returning to Hanover in 1725 Rodelinda, HWV 19
1710, Handel became Kapellmeister 1742 Messiah, HWV 56
(music director) to the Elector of 1749 The Music for the Royal
Hanover (later George I of Great Fireworks, HWV 351
Britain and Ireland). He relocated 1751 Jephtha, HWV 70
to London a year later and lived

BAROQUE 1600–1750 87

See also: Gabrieli’s Sonata pian’ e forte 55 ■ Euridice 62–63 ■ The Four Seasons 92–97 ■ The Magic Flute 134–137 ■
Elijah 170–173 ■ La traviata 174–175 ■ The Ring Cycle 180–187 ■ Tosca 194–197

Handel presents Water Music to very different from the hunting founded a century later) under
George I in a painting by the Belgian horns familiar to English audiences. a charter from the King. It was a
artist Edouard Hamman. According to Along with bassoons and trumpets, commercial venture, formed as
newspaper reports, the whole river was these helped the music carry in a joint-stock corporation, with
filled with small boats and barges. the open air. the aim of commissioning and
performing new Italian operas in
In 1717, George I asked Handel Essentially, Water Music is a Britain. Handel was one of its three
to compose the music for a barge blend of popular European styles. composers as well as its musical ❯❯
trip down the Thames. The music It starts with an overture in the
needed to be sensational: the uneven rhythms of the French style, I should be sorry if I only
King wanted to make a big public incorporates dances that were entertained them. I wish to
statement to draw attention away fashionable across Europe at the
from his son, the Prince of Wales, time, and includes the most English make them better.
who was forming an opposing of music—the hornpipe—which George Frideric Handel
political faction. Handel had to became the signature tune of
balance a desire for novelty with the work.
the need for broad popular appeal.
While a concert in a barge with Opera in London
some 50 performers was a novelty In 1719, the Duke of Chandos and
in itself, Handel added to the his friends, taking advantage of
occasion by importing Bohemian the growing interest in opera in
horn players, whose elegant England, inaugurated the Royal
fanfares would have sounded Academy of Music (unrelated to
the conservatoire of the same name

88 AN INTERNATIONAL STYLE

Public music and director. He traveled to Europe He saw men and women
concert-going to engage the finest orchestral where others have seen only
musicians and the most celebrated
London was the first city to singers, including the Italian historical-mythical busts.
establish public concerts with castrato Senesino, and the Paul Henry Lang
paying audiences. The trend soprano Francesca Cuzzoni.
began around 1672, when the Music critic
violinist and composer John Handel understood the
Banister organized a paying audience’s continual hunger for was unusual at the time. He also
concert in his own house. By novelty. When London audiences understood the importance of
the time Handel arrived in became used to these artists, spectacle, and a number of his
London, there were purpose- he brought in another soprano, operas required elaborate stage
built venues for chamber Faustina Bordoni, who built a rival machinery. In Alcina, which was
music concerts. In addition, fan base among the audience, written for the new opera house
theatres in Drury Lane and reinvigorating interest in the opera at Covent Garden, the stage
the Haymarket offered Italian for a few more seasons. The high directions include “with lightning
and, later, English opera to fees paid to such luminaries may and thunder, the mountain
London’s beau monde. have been part of the reason that crumbles, revealing Alcina’s
the company went out of business delightful palace.” Such stage
From around 1740, pleasure in 1728 with debts of around effects attracted audiences just
gardens sprang up across the £20,000 (over $5.5 million today). as much as the music.
capital, most famously in
Vauxhall. Here visitors Master of stagecraft A new direction
would stroll, dine, and be Handel wrote a series of 13 operas When Italian opera went out
entertained by live music from for the Royal Academy of Music, of fashion in London after the
wind bands and orchestras. which had 235 performances in his extraordinary success in 1728
A rehearsal of Handel’s Music lifetime. Masterpieces in the Italian of John Gay’s The Beggar’s
for the Royal Fireworks in style, they included Giulio Cesare Opera, which satirized the form,
Vauxhall Gardens, in 1749, in Egitto (“Julius Caesar in Egypt”, Handel used his skills to create
attracted some 12,000 people, 1724) and Alcina (1735). Although and popularize oratorios in English.
each paying two shillings he used the operatic conventions of Starting with Deborah (1733),
and sixpence, and causing the day—recitatives and arias—to these thrillingly dramatic works for
a three-hour traffic jam on unfold the narrative, he gave the solo singers, chorus, and orchestra
London Bridge. operas a dramatic structure that told biblical stories with English-
language librettos, but were
The band plays music from Handel understands performed unstaged in theatres. To
an illuminated bandstand in effect better than some extent influenced by operatic
London’s Vauxhall Gardens, UK, traditions, and even Greek tragedy,
while visitors stroll and dance any of us—when he Handel developed a directness of
in the open air. chooses, he strikes like style and a new kind of robustness
that appealed to British audiences.
a thunderbolt. The public flocked to hear works
Wolfgang Amadeus such as Messiah (1742), Samson

Mozart

BAROQUE 1600–1750 89

Some of the dances in Water Music

Minuet English hornpipe Bourrée
French court dance in Bouncy, moderately paced A lively French dance
dance in duple time (two
triple (waltz) time. with folk roots.
beats to the bar).

Gigue Sarabande
A lively Baroque A slow stately dance
dance (jig) of Italian or
French origin. of Spanish origin.

Handel knew how to please an audience.
Water Music contains popular dance forms
from different parts of Europe.

(1743), and Belshazzar (1745). Lenten period, when its depiction Louis François Roubiliac’s memorial
Messiah was so popular that men of adultery caused consternation. to Handel stands above his tomb in
were asked to attend performances Works such as this were essentially Westminster Abbey, UK. Just three
without their swords to create more operas in English and are usually days before his death, Handel said
room for the audience. performed as such today. that he wished to be buried there.

Handel often presented these National yet international
works himself, renting theatres and During a period when music was
hiring performers, and often netting considered ephemeral and works
a good profit. When a rival company were seldom heard in the years
provided stiff competition, Handel after their first performances,
wrote a number of organ concertos Handel was considered a major
which he performed as interludes composer in his lifetime. He was
during the performances. Unusual probably the first composer whose
as this was, it provided a rare work did not suffer a fall in popularity
opportunity to hear his great after his death. In England, he
keyboard virtuosity in public helped to broaden interest in
and was therefore something music beyond the confines of the
of a marketing masterstroke. aristocracy and created a national
musical identity in an international
The Handelian oratorio became style that lasted until Edward
so popular that Handel wrote Elgar in the late 19th century. His
secular works in the same style. anthem Zadok the Priest, composed
He designated Semele (1744), for the coronation of George II, is
which was based on classical still used in the crowning of British
mythology, as a musical drama monarchs today. ■
“after the manner of an oratorio”
and even presented it during the

90

PBDJREUOSOTNTFROIONATUTGENHWXDEPRIIETNCAHTNTEANAIRNTNTGIYOENN,IOUS

SONATA IN D MINOR, K. 9 “PASTORALE” (1738),
DOMENICO SCARLATTI

IN CONTEXT T he Italian virtuoso originality of their content belies
harpsichord player and their seemingly mundane and
FOCUS composer Domenico practical purpose.
Italian Baroque sonata Scarlatti published his first edition
of Essercizi per gravicembalo A contemporary of both J.S.
BEFORE (“Exercises for Harpsichord”) in 1738. Bach and George Frideric Handel,
1701 Baroque composer As the title of the collection suggests, Scarlatti’s dazzling skills on the
Arcangelo Corelli publishes the 30 sonatas were intended to
his Violin Sonatas, Op. 5— be études (studies) for students A family poses with their harpsichord
an early example of solo of the harpsichord—although by in a 1739 work by Cornelis Troost. The
instrumental writing. Scarlatti’s own admission, the instrument’s popularity would soon
wane in favor of the piano.
1709 Antonio Vivaldi
publishes Twelve Sonatas for
Violin and Basso Continuo,
Op. 2, again showcasing
the virtuosic abilities of a
solo instrument.

AFTER
1784 Mozart publishes Piano
Sonata No. 1, K279, following
in Scarlatti’s footsteps with his
focus on solo keyboard writing.

1795 Beethoven publishes
Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 2,
continuing Scarlatti’s
experimentation with
the genre.

BAROQUE 1600–1750 91

See also: Pièces de clavecin 82–83 ■ Musique de table 106 ■ Clementi’s Piano
Sonata in F-sharp minor, Op. 25, No. 5 132–133 ■ “Eroica” Symphony 138–141

For bold playing of the their sonatas tended to consist Domenico Scarlatti
harpsichord … [s]how yourself of three to four movements of
more human than critical, and contrasting moods. However, The son of the prolific
Scarlatti’s sonatas for the solo opera composer, Alessandro
thus increase your own harpsichord—at that point, a Scarlatti, Domenico Scarlatti
pleasure. … LIVE HAPPILY. relatively neglected instrument— was born in Naples in 1685.
typically follow a two-part, single- A talented musician himself,
Domenico Scarlatti movement structure, often pivoting he followed his father into a
around a central “crux,” or pause, musical career of wide-ranging
and tending to be of shorter commissions and royal
proportions, lasting only around patronage. At 16 he became
three to four minutes in total. composer and organist to the
royal chapel in Naples before
keyboard were legendary, his The Pastorale going on to serve the exiled
dancing fingers described by one Although he was influenced by Polish queen, Maria Casimira,
astonished British observer as the sarabandes and courantes in Rome. He later became
resembling “a thousand devils.” (both courtly dances) of his maestro di cappella (music
Scarlatti allegedly once had a contemporaries, Scarlatti’s music director) at St. Peter’s.
public contest of keyboard skills of this era is unique in its use of
with Handel, a musical duel that, folk idioms taken from his Iberian In 1721, Scarlatti joined
by all accounts, ended in a draw. surroundings. The Sonata K9 in the Portuguese court in
Scarlatti put his talents to use at D minor is nicknamed the Pastorale Lisbon, where he gave music
the highest level of royal service, (Pastoral). This is in part due to the lessons to Princess Maria
tutoring Maria Barbara when she deceptive simplicity of its melody Barbara. When the princess
was both princess of Portugal and but also owing to the traditional married Fernando VI of Spain,
later queen of Spain. It was her music it evoked, including elements she summoned Scarlatti to
aptitude for the instrument and her of Spanish folk dance music such be her music tutor. He served
continuous employment of Scarlatti as the strumming, percussive the queen until his death in
that provided the conditions for his effects of Spanish guitar. This Madrid in 1757. Scarlatti is
groundbreaking Essercizi. addition of country stylings to the mainly known for his 555
formal courtly influences was to keyboard sonatas, although
Scarlatti’s sonata style continue to define Scarlatti’s music. he also produced a huge
The term “sonata” derives from the He broke down the expectations of quantity of chamber and
Italian verb suonare, meaning “to Baroque chamber music convention, sacred vocal music.
sound,” and generally denotes solo experimenting with dissonance
instrumental music—that is, music and syncopation in his later sonatas. Other key works
which is “sounded” as opposed
to sung (or “cantata”). In the early It is such playful “jesting with 1724 Stabat Mater for
18th century, Italian composers art” that places Scarlatti as a 10 voices
such as Arcangelo Corelli, Antonio master of both Baroque music 1757 Salve Regina
Vivaldi, and Tomaso Albinoni and the evolving classical style.
had written widely for solo Scarlatti helped pave the way
instruments—the violin being a for the still more radical sonata
particularly popular choice—but experiments of Mozart and
Beethoven that followed and that
further emphasized the importance
of freestyle, expressive melody lines
over the more formal structure of
Baroque music. ■

SPRING

IT GAIETYHAS COME, AND WITH

THE FOUR SEASONS (1725),
ANTONIO VIVALDI



94 ITALIAN BAROQUE SOLO CONCERTO

IN CONTEXT

FOCUS
Italian Baroque solo
concerto

BEFORE
1692 Giuseppe Torelli, based
in Bologna, publishes the first
of three collections of concertos
that give a new prominence to
the solo violinist.

1707 Concertos published by
the Venetian Tomaso Albinoni
use the three-movement
(fast–slow–fast) structure that
will become the standard.

1721 J.S. Bach’s six
Brandenburg Concertos use
the structure and principles
standardized by Vivaldi in
his concertos.

AFTER
1773 Mozart composes his
first violin concerto using the
three-movement structure.

I n Italy, in the 1720s, Vivaldi fluidly to describe works written The Ospedale della Pietà, a
was best known as a composer for combined ensembles, whether foundling hospital on the Grand Canal
of operas, but in northern of voices and instruments or in Venice, where Vivaldi became violin
Europe—as well as after the comprising different groups of master in 1703. The ospedale had an
composer’s death—his fame instruments. In Rome, for example, all-female choir and orchestra.
rested on his concertos, a form he Arcangelo Corelli wrote concerti
shaped, developed, and made his grossi for an ensemble of two violinist and composer Giuseppe
own, perhaps most famously in violins and keyboard. These Torelli wrote works for solo violin
Le quattro stagioni (The Four instruments could be joined by a and a larger instrumental ensemble,
Seasons) of 1725. larger string ensemble, the role of while in Venice, wealthy amateur
which was more to augment than Tomaso Albinoni composed
Since Vivaldi’s day, the word to stand in musical contrast to the beautiful oboe concertos. Written
“concerto” has found a clear smaller group. for one or two oboes and a larger
meaning as a piece for one or ensemble, they were among the
more instrumental soloists and The concerto develops first notable solo works written
an orchestra: a solo concerto It was in Northern Italy, and Venice for the instrument.
showcases one musician; a in particular, that the concerto
concerto grosso (“big concerto”) started to take the form that Vivaldi In the works of both Torelli and
has two or more. Before Vivaldi, would come to use. In Bologna, Albinoni, a contrast was starting to
however, the term was used more emerge between the solo sections

BAROQUE 1600–1750 95

See also: C.P.E. Bach’s Flute Concerto in A major 120–121 ■ Saint-Saëns’ Piano Concerto No. 2 in G minor 179 ■
Ravel’s Piano Concerto in D for the Left Hand 266–267

and the parts played by the larger helped to change the course of He can compose a
ensemble, as if two voices were musical history. Yet he was never concerto more quickly
being heard simultaneously within a revolutionary. Instead, he took than a copyist can write.
the same piece. These were the existing trends and modified them, Charles de Brosses
foundations upon which Vivaldi creating a new musical language
built his body of work. that exhilarated both musicians French scholar and politician
and contemporary audiences. Many
Slightly younger than Albinoni, of his borrowings were from opera, or musical idea played, repeated,
his fellow Venetian, Vivaldi wrote his another genre that found new life in and modified over the course of
first known concertos when he was the Baroque period and with which the movement by the orchestra.
in his mid-20s. Overall, during the Vivaldi was heavily involved as a
next 40 or so years, he would write composer. Following in Albinoni’s Typically in Vivaldi’s work,
around 500 concertos, many of footsteps, he took the basic fast- a fast movement starts with the
which were published in collections slow-fast structure of the operatic orchestra making a full statement
such as Il cimento dell’armonia e overture and transformed it into of the ritornello. This gives way to a
dell’inventione. Others were sold the standard three-movement solo section, in which the musician
in manuscript—a form that the structure of the concerto: a fast merely receives background
commercially minded Vivaldi found first movement, filled with musical accompaniment from the orchestra.
was more profitable. Of these action as solo and ensemble The full orchestra then returns,
concertos, more than 200 were for sections alternate with one another, restating part of the ritornello in
solo violin; Vivaldi himself was a followed by a slow, more meditative a new key. Ritornello and solo
renowned and flamboyant violinist. middle movement, succeeded by sections then alternate, typically ❯❯
Others were for solo bassoon, cello, a renewed burst of activity in the
flute, oboe, mandolin, and recorder. final movement.

Vivali wrote nearly 50 double The ritornello
concertos (composed for two solo Within the fast movements, Vivaldi
instruments), along with other borrowed the key structuring
variations, including one concerto device from opera—he used the
that included solo parts for 16 ritornello (“little return”), a refrain
different instruments. Through
his astonishing oeuvre, Vivaldi

Antonio Vivaldi Vivaldi was born in 1678, the son other concertos, as well as
of a violinist in the orchestra of some 50 operas and numerous
St. Mark’s in Venice. He initially religious vocal works, sonatas,
trained for the priesthood and and cantatas. His popularity
was ordained in 1703, but he soon had declined by the late 1730s.
ceased to practice as a priest. His He died in Vienna in 1741,
break as a musician came when while trying to restore his
he was appointed violin master fortunes, and was buried in
at Venice’s Ospedale della Pietà. a pauper’s grave.

Vivaldi’s first published Other key works
collection of concertos, L’estro
armonico (“Harmonic Inspiration”), 1711 L’estro armonico, Op. 3
printed in 1711, made his name 1714 La stravaganza, Op. 4
internationally known, especially 1725 Il cimento dell’armonia e
in Germany, where the young J.S. dell’inventione, Op. 8
Bach was one of its admirers. He 1727 La cetra, Op. 9
went on to compose hundreds of

96 ITALIAN BAROQUE SOLO CONCERTO

The concerto four to six times, culminating in The score of “Spring” from The
a final orchestral restatement of Four Seasons, part of L’estro armonico
The main attraction of the the ritornello. (Harmonic Inspiration), a collection of
concerto for composers 12 concertos whose lively flamboyance
and musicians is the sheer The solo sections, meanwhile, transformed the stately form.
dramatic potential of the can also be seen in opera. Baroque
form, as soloist and orchestra operas gave new prominence to the moods and states of mind, as
alternately compete and aria, which allowed singers to show their titles made clear—for
collaborate with one another. off the power, range, and expressive example, Il piacere (Pleasure),
Many composers have been nature of their voices. Similarly, L’inquietudine (Anxiety), L’amoroso
inspired to write concertos the solo sections of concertos (The Lover), and Il riposo (Rest).
by the talents of particular allowed instrumental soloists to Le quattro stagioni, however, along
performers, such as the display their virtuoso skills. In an with a cycle of three concertos
cellist Antonín Kraft, for age characterized by theatricality, called La Notte (Night), took this
whom Haydn wrote his Vivaldi brought a dose of dramatic a step further, and used the music
Cello Concerto No. 2 in D virtuosity to the concerto. to relate a simple musical narrative
and Beethoven his Triple known as a “programme,” a form
Concerto. Mozart wrote his Four Seasons that was taken up by many
famous Horn Concertos for Vivaldi allowed his theatricality composers in the Romantic era.
the horn player Joseph free rein in The Four Seasons, first
Leutgeb. Concertos soon published in Amsterdam in 1725. In the published version, Vivaldi
became a showcase for Earlier versions of the pieces had made the programme explicit by
virtuoso performers, such been circulating for a number of including four sonnets of unknown
as the violinist Paganini and years in manuscript form, and were authorship, often theorized to have
the pianists Liszt and Chopin. already widely known and admired. been written by Vivaldi himself.
Around the turn of the 20th These sonnets each tell the story
century, Rachmaninov wrote Le quattro stagioni represented of one of the four seasons. The
his piano concertos—and the first four in a collection of 12 sonnet for spring, for example,
Dvorak and Elgar their much- violin concertos entitled Il cimento starts by describing how birds
loved cello concertos. Later, dell’armonia e dell’inventione (“The salute the new season “with joyous
fans of the concerto grosso Contest of Harmony and Invention”), song” and how brooks fanned by
included Michael Tippett in all written between 1723 and 1725. soft breezes flow “with sweet
his Fantasia Concertante on Many of Vivaldi’s concertos sought murmurings.” All this Vivaldi
a Theme of Corelli. to evoke or describe particular

Violinist Nigel Kennedy records
The Four Seasons with the English
Chamber Orchestra in 1989. The
recording sold more than two
million copies.

BAROQUE 1600–1750 97

describes musically in the first Painting pictures with music
movement of the “Spring” concerto,
where the opening ritornello is a
dance representing the celebratory
joy of returning spring, succeeded
by three solo violins conveying
birdsong and other characteristics
of the season.

High praise Spring Summer
In Italy, Vivaldi’s popularity Three solo violins mimic chirruping Tranquil sounds speak of summer heat,
had waned by the end of his life birds and babbling brooks. An upbeat with buzzing insects, a cuckoo, and
due to rising interest in a new third movement suggests a spring a lark. Minor chords and dramatic
Neapolitan style of opera. North festival with dancing. undertones convey a summer storm.
of the Alps, however, Vivaldi’s
concertos, and Le quattro stagioni Autumn Winter
in particular, made him one of the The fast first movement captures Fast violins convey chattering
most famous composers of the the drama of a harvest festival. The teeth and stamping feet, and rapid
day. Vivaldi’s patrons included the orchestra is interrupted by a solo violin scales and dissonance suggest
Bohemian nobleman Count Wenzel representing a “swaying drunkard.” winter chills and gales.
von Morzin, to whom Vivaldi
dedicated Il cimento dell’armonia commanded a performance of to his earliest biographer, Johann
e dell’inventione, the collection the “Spring” concerto, played by Nikolaus Forkel, it was this
that contained Le quattro stagioni. an orchestra assembled entirely experience that taught him the
“I beg you not to be surprised,” of musically gifted nobles and importance of “order, coherence,
he wrote, “if among these few and courtiers. Another lover of the and proportion” in music.
feeble concertos Your Illustrious “Spring” concerto was philosopher
Grace should find the Four Seasons Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who According to modern scholars,
which, with your noble bounty, in 1775 arranged the piece for Forkel’s assessment may be
Your Illustrious Grace has so long unaccompanied flute. an exaggeration, but Vivaldi’s
regarded with indulgence.” influence on Bach is clearly evident
Influence on composers in, for example, Bach’s use of the
Another illustrious endorsement Most remarkable, however, was ritornello form. Equally evident is
came from King Louis XV of the legacy of Vivaldi’s concertos the fact that Vivaldi gave the three-
France, who in November 1730 to his fellow musicians. One movement (fast-slow-fast) concerto
notable devotee was J.S. Bach. a place among the most important
Vivaldi played a splendid His patron, the Duke of Saxe- music forms, inspiring countless
solo … Such playing has not Weimar, returned from a trip to the future composers from Bach,
been heard before and can Netherlands with a copy of Vivaldi’s Haydn, and Mozart to Beethoven
first concerto collection, the L’estro onward. Moreover, the concerto
never be equalled. armonico (“Harmonic Inspiration”), was a major influence on another
J.F.A. von Uffenbach published in Amsterdam. Bach emerging form, one that soon
transcribed six of the concertos became the supreme form of
German traveler for solo harpsichord, and according instrumental expression for
(1687–1769) composers—the symphony. ■

MUSICTHE END AND FINAL AIM OF ALL

GLORY OF GODSHOULD BE NONE OTHER THAN THE

ST. MATTHEW PASSION (1727),
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH