The Classical Music Book

100 HIGH BAROQUE RELIGIOUS CHORAL MUSIC

IN CONTEXT T the final development of the used it to control the flow of their
Baroque aesthetic known work by modulating between
FOCUS as the High Baroque was different keys. Increasingly complex
High Baroque religious underway by around 1680. The new counterpoint, combining distinct
choral music tonal system, in which music was melodic lines, one of the defining
built from notes forming major and characteristics of Baroque music,
BEFORE minor scales, was fixed by this was employed to create vivid
1471 The Flemish composer time, and High Baroque composers dramatic effects; coupled with
Jacob Obrecht writes a Passio such as Johann Sebastian Bach incisive rhythmic features, the
secundum Matthaeum music achieved an unprecedented
(Matthew Passion). The Crucifixion, often depicted in emotional power.
Renaissance art, as here by the German
1620s In Rome, Giacomo painter Lucas Cranach the Elder, In earlier periods, vocal art
Carissimi produces oratorios became a subject for composers, too, music had been preeminent; now
on Old Testament subjects to as music grew ever more descriptive. increasing interest in instrumental
satisfy the demand for operatic music offered composers another
entertainment during Lent.

1718 Handel composes
the first version of Esther,
about the Old Testament
queen. Eventually, in 1732,
this piece would be revised
into the first English oratorio.

AFTER
1829 Felix Mendelssohn
conducts the Berlin premier
of the St. Matthew Passion—a
key moment in the revival of
interest in Bach’s music.

1846 Mendelssohn premieres
his oratorio Elijah, depicting
the life of the Prophet Elijah.

1850 The Bach–Gesellschaft
is formed in Leipzig by Moritz
Hauptmann (Cantor of the
Thomaskirche), Otto Jahn
(a biographer of Mozart),
and the composer Robert
Schumann, in order to publish
the complete works of Bach.

1963–1966 Polish composer
Krzysztof Penderecki writes
the St. Luke Passion, an atonal
orchestral-choral setting of the
Passion story.

BAROQUE 1600–1750 101

See also: Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott 78–79 ■ The Art of Fugue 108–111 ■
Elijah 170–173 ■ The Dream of Gerontius 218–219

dramatic resource. Breaking the Many of the genres heard in choral Johann Sebastian Bach
bounds of pure accompaniment, music of this time are the same as
the ever-more prominent orchestra those found in secular music. As Born in Eisenach, Germany,
could play a far more varied and church composers were required in 1685, Bach was the most
expressive role, which helped to to write music for more than 60 prominent of a long line of
fuel the popularity of Baroque services a year, it was not unusual musicians. Taught music first
opera. This tended to flourish in for them to remodel secular pieces, by his father, then his brother,
mercantile centers, where wealthy as Johann Sebastian Bach did Bach was appointed as a court
individuals joined the nobility to (1685–1750) when writing his musician in Weimar on leaving
enjoy the spectacle, offering rich Christmas Oratorio (1734–1735). school in 1703. His reputation
opportunities for composers such as an outstanding keyboard
as George Frideric Handel. Most Evolving choral genres player quickly spread. He had
citizens, however, experienced the During the High Baroque period, soon written the first of more
new musical developments during the form of the Mass in north than 200 cantatas.
church services. Germany evolved from the
prima pratica (“first practice”), In 1717, Bach moved to
Dramatizing church music characterized by a polyphonic Köthen to take up a postion as
Composers soon realized that the setting of the most important Kapellmeister and wrote many
operatic techniques and music parts of the church service (Kyrie, instrumental works, including
that infused classical myths with Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei) the Brandenburg Concertos.
contemporary relevance could with a choir and an instrumental In 1723, he took up his last
serve liturgical purposes equally, accompaniment, into a much post as cantor of St. Thomas
bringing life to the biblical texts, grander entity. This was due Church in Leipzig, where he
which many in the congregation partly to the influence of Italian remained until his death in
could not themselves read. Since traditions, which, after 1712, Bach 1750 at the age of 65. During
operas were not permitted to be encountered through the music of this period, he became the
staged during the six weeks of Antonio Vivaldi. The orchestra preeminent composer of High
Lent, composers would present grew in size and, especially with Baroque music, with a skill
performances of oratorios on obbligato (essential, fully written) for counterpoint that has
biblical themes instead. accompaniments, made a much arguably never been equalled.
greater musical contribution. Solo
Not “brook” [in German: voices were also more common. Other key works
Bach], but “sea” should he
be called because of his Bach wrote five Masses, but 1723–1732 Six Motets,
infinite, inexhaustible richness the B minor Mass (1749) stands BWV 225–231
apart as one of the most important 1733 Magnificat, BWV 243
in tone combinations works in the Western music canon. 1749 Mass in B minor,
and harmonies. It was written at the end of his life BWV 232
and unperformed before his death.
Ludwig van Beethoven Unusually for the Lutheran tradition,
it presents a complete setting of
the Latin Ordinary in 25 separate
movements over some two hours.

Although on the wane by this
period, the motet (sacred verses set
to music) was still an important
choral genre, particularly in France,
where two distinct styles had
been established. The petits ❯❯

102 HIGH BAROQUE RELIGIOUS CHORAL MUSIC

Oratorio Oratorio versus Opera Opera
Plots are inspired by
Takes religious text as stirring myths, history,
its subject matter.
and literature.

Performed as a concert Performed as musical
piece without props. theatre, with sets,

scenery, and costumes.

Uses a singing narrator In later operas,
to advance the plot. characters advance

the plot.

Singers are static and Characters move and
characters do interact.
not interact.

motets were accompanied only The anthem was prevalent in and accompaniment continued to
by continuo, whereas the grands England, as a sectional dramatic be popular in the Baroque period.
motets, such as those of Jean- work placing instrumental sections The subtle word-painting that the
Baptist Lully, included soloists with solo passages, recitatives, and madrigal engendered influenced
and an increasing number of full choruses. Purcell was a gifted other genres and is found in many
instruments. They were less exponent of the form, and Handel sacred choral works of the period.
common in Germany; the best- took it to even greater heights. His
known examples today are by four ceremonial anthems include St. Matthew Passion
Heinrich Schütz and Bach. Bach’s the renowned Zadok the Priest, For a musician such as Bach who
motets, which strongly influenced written for the coronation of King was principally concerned with
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart George II in 1727. church music, the Passion, which
(1756–1791), were virtually the set the biblical events from the Last
only works of his to be regularly The Magnificat, sung at vespers Supper up to the Crucifixion, was
performed after his death until and evensong, is the canticle (hymn) an opportunity to use the dramatic
the Bach revival in the early of the Virgin Mary from Luke’s techniques of opera within a
19th century. Each was arranged Gospel, first set in the Renaissance. religious setting. Bach wrote at
for different sized choirs, and it is Monteverdi and Vivaldi produced least three such works (only two
unclear how they were used within important Baroque settings, but have survived); for its mastery of
church services, although some Bach’s Magnificat for five parts emotion, imagination, and power
were written for funerals. and orchestra is probably the best of expression make the St. Matthew
known today. Passion a towering monument of
Other choral forms of the High human creativity. It was written
Baroque period include the anthem, Although the madrigal is more to be performed either side of the
the Magnificat, and the madrigal. usually associated with earlier
periods, this secular form for voices

BAROQUE 1600–1750 103

sermon at the Good Friday service Cantatas and oratorios such as recitatives, arias, and
(in either 1727 or 1729). Bach also choruses, but the cantata tends
collaborated with the Leipzig poet The oratorio had traditionally to use them more subtly in
Picander to create a libretto, which been a concert piece for order to imply the drama.
both presented the biblical drama orchestra, choir, and soloists,
and offered contemplations upon depicting a biblical episode or By the High Baroque period,
the content. The St. Thomas Church the life of a saint. It differed from it is difficult to differentiate the
for which it was written added an opera only in being unstaged cantata from the oratorio. Bach’s
extra layer of drama to proceedings; and lacking interaction between Christmas Oratorio, for example,
by using its two organ lofts, Bach characters. The cantata often is actually a cantata. Bach,
was able to distribute his forces used similar forces but was whose cantatas are considered
as a double choir across the venue. performed in church before to be some of the most sublime
Although he had employed such and after the sermon and was religious music ever written,
techniques in other works, such as a series of reflections on the also wrote secular works in
the motets, its use here with the service’s biblical texts. Both the genre, such as the Coffee
addition of two orchestras and genres used operatic elements Cantata, which is essentially
organists allowed for the widest a short comic opera.
variety of dramatic textures. in four-part harmony, but three
are referenced as accompanying devastating pathos of abandonment.
In addition to the original elements in other movements. In However, in the hands of Bach, this
material, Bach also inserted a this way, Bach was able to mix the same absence of strings in the
number of Lutheran chorales. known with the new—essential for soprano aria “Aus Liebe will mein
When Martin Luther had started a congregation first experiencing Heiland sterben” (“Out of Love My
translating services into German, such an intense, large-scale work. Saviour Is Willing to Die”) suggests
new melodies had been required. a different, almost plaintive mood.
These formed well-known hymns Musical characterization
that became the mainstay of Rather like an opera, the key Throughout the work, Bach is
congregational worship. Bach roles in the St. Matthew Passion clearly aware of the need to use
harmonized many hundreds of are taken by soloists, but in the the orchestra to ensure that his
such melodies, regularly using absence of physical drama and congregation receives the full ❯❯
them as the basis of cantatas or costumes, Bach often gives them
chorale preludes. In the St. Matthew distinct musical characterizations. Bach played the organ and taught
Passion, the chorale melodies date The tenor Evangelist, the narrator, for 27 years at the St Thomas School
from between 1525 and 1656, and always uses recitative secco with in Leipzig, as shown here in an 1882
would therefore have been familiar continuo (speechlike solo singing engraving. He and his pupils supplied
to his audience. Most are presented with a sparse bass accompaniment) music for the city’s four main churches.
to deliver the Gospel texts. This
One who has completely allows the narrative to be strong,
forgotten Christianity clear, and unambiguous. The words
truly hears it here of Jesus, however, are recitatives
as Gospel. accompanied by the strings from
Friedrich Nietzsche the first orchestra. In playing
sustained notes and highlighting
key words, they add an unworldly
sound to the Vox Christi (voice of
Christ)—often likened to a halo.
Such characterization is perhaps
most strongly heard when, almost
operatically, Jesus utters his last
words without the accompaniment
of strings, resulting in the truly

104 HIGH BAROQUE RELIGIOUS CHORAL MUSIC

impact of the text. This attention two maids, although they are He demands that singers
to orchestration, which was far not usually all taken by different should be able to do with
more prevalent in stage works soloists. In many performances their throats whatever he
of the time (which were often of the minor soloists are also members can play on the keyboard.
similar length to the Passion), can of the choirs. With such a diverse
be seen in the use of the oboes da cast and discursive text, it was Johann Scheibe
caccia (a low oboe similar to the also possible for Bach to break from
cor anglais) to underpin the eerie the oratorio tradition of avoiding Critic and composer (1708–1776)
description of Golgotha in “Ach interaction between soloists; he
Golgotha.” No less vivid is the included duets and crowd scenes freedom of the prisoner Barrabas,
moment in “Buss und Reu” (“Guilt with passages that simulate they then embark on a series
and Pain”) where the alto describes simultaneous and interjecting of complex musical structures
his tears to the sound of flutes speakers. So, in “Weissage uns, notoriously difficult to perform.
playing staccato notes. Christie” (“Prophesy Christ”) the An earlier, particularly poignant
two choruses alternate in a style moment follows Jesus’s capture in
A large, varied cast known as cori spezzati, which was the garden, where after a sighing
The piece also has parts for Judas, first developed at St. Mark’s in orchestral introduction, the soprano
Peter, two priests, Pontius Pilate Venice, while in “Herr, wir haben
and his wife, two witnesses, and gedacht” (“Lord, We Thought”) they
sing simultaneously to represent
The St. Thomas Boys Choir, Leipzig, the power-hungry Pharisees.
still flourishing today, dates back more
than 800 years to 1212. With Bach as The real glory of the choruses is
Cantor (1723–1750), the church and city in the contrapuntal writing, notably
became the center of Protestant music. when, after singing in excruciating
dissonance as they call for the

BAROQUE 1600–1750 105

and alto bemoan Jesus’s fate betrayal of Jesus, as he repeats Bach and three of his sons pose for
in resigned tones. In contrast, the 17 words of the text with a portrait (1730) by Balthasar Denner.
the chorus demands his release, increasing anguish. Bach had 20 children, and from the early
creating an extraordinary tension 1500s to the late 1700s, his family
between the two moods. While the The St. Matthew Passion produced more than 70 musicians.
resignation continues, the chorus, received only a handful of
which may depict the disciples performances in Bach’s lifetime. Passion existed only in hand-
or the congregation, gets more The newer Classical style had copied examples within a very
agitated, and the orchestra drives begun to revolutionize musical small circle of admirers, some of
the music forward to a breathless composition and enjoyment, and whom had been his students.
conclusion. The ending of this the composer was considered to
section in the major key might be behind the times in writing It was through such a group that
seem surprising, underpinning as it contrapuntal music of this kind. Mendelssohn came to study Bach’s
does the words “murderous blood.” works in the early 19th century
It is suggested, however, that the and put on a performance of the
music might be reminding the St. Matthew Passion in 1829. This
listener that while the story is one performance, although a landmark
of suffering, without the capture of in the revival of Bach’s music, was
Jesus, his Crucifixion—and thereby neither complete nor authentic, but
salvation—is not possible. it did help to raise awareness of
Bach’s work. It was not long before
Elsewhere, many of the more societies were created to publish
contemplative texts, such as the and perform his work. Today, the
chorale “Ich bin’s ich sollte büssen” St. Matthew Passion is frequently
(“It is I who should suffer”) or the presented as a staged work; with
bass aria “Mache dich, mein Herze, its similarities to opera, it can have
rein” (“Make thyself clean my a powerful effect on audiences. ■
heart”), encourage listeners to feel
the emotion and identify with the
drama. The most striking example
is perhaps the aria “Erbarme dich,
mein Gott” (“Have mercy Lord, my
God”). The simplicity of the lilting
rhythm, accompanied by a
lamenting violin, underpins and
emphasizes the intensity of Peter’s
sense of horror and guilt at his

The most beautiful piece Bach’s legacy
of music ever written By the end of Bach’s life, his music
for the violin. was called “learned” in the most
Yehudi Menhuin pejorative sense; the music of his
son Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach was
Describing “Erbarme dich, mein Gott” better known. Very little of Bach’s
music was printed, although the
keyboard works were sometimes
studied; Ludwig van Beethoven
(1770–1827) often performed fugues
and preludes from Bach’s The Well-
Tempered Clavier. However, major
works such as the St. Matthew

106

TAELLLEPMRAANISNEIS ABOVE

MUSIQUE DE TABLE (1733),
GEORG PHILIPP TELEMANN

IN CONTEXT T he demand for Tafelmusik evening’s entertainment and
(table music)—background contains meticulously crafted
FOCUS music for banquets—grew music that is always memorably
Tafelmusik steadily from the mid-16th century melodious—even evoking popular
onward. Musique de table, a folk songs at times.
BEFORE collection of such music by Georg
1650 Joachim von Sandrart’s Philipp Telemann, a prolific Handel, who was among the
painting Das Friedensmahl German composer who relished collection’s 206 subscribers,
(“The peace meal”) depicts the assimilation and mastery appears to have borrowed some of
musicians performing of different musical styles, draws its musical ideas. Themes in his
Tafelmusik at a banquet for together a range of chamber genres oratorio The Arrival of the Queen of
a diplomatic conference. that lent themselves to Tafelmusik. Sheba bear resemblance to material
Telemann marketed the collection from the Concerto in the second
1680s Printed collections of as a prestige product that could be “production” of Musique de table. ■
Tafelmusik, mostly by German purchased by subscription.
composers of the day, become He [Telemann] could
more common. Telemann’s collection divides write a church piece in
into three “productions,” each one
AFTER containing an orchestral dance eight parts with the
1770s The genre of Tafelmusik suite, a concerto, a quartet, a trio same expedition another
is gradually replaced by other sonata, and solo sonata, finishing
types of “light” musical with an orchestral “conclusion.” would write a letter.
entertainment such as the Apart from the dance suites, George Frideric Handel
divertimento and serenade. considerable use is made of the
slow-fast-slow-fast four-movement
1820 An engraving by Johann pattern of the traditional Sonata da
Wunder depicts a performance Chiesa (a genre of instrumental
of Tafelmusik at a municipal chamber or orchestral music
banquet in “Krähwinkel”—an sometimes performed at church
invented place name intended services). Each “production”
to suggest old-fashioned, provides enough music for an
small-town parochialism.
See also: Corelli’s Concerti Grossi 80–81 ■ Water Music 84–89 ■ The Four
Seasons 92–97 ■ C.P.E. Bach’s Flute Concerto in A major 120–121

BAROQUE 1600–1750 107

HHAIINSSDHWSAHOROUPLLSEIWCHHEEROAERRDITN

HIPPOLYTE ET ARICIE (1733),
JEAN-PHILIPPE RAMEAU

IN CONTEXT G alant music was born US mezzo-soprano Jennifer Holloway
out of opposition to the plays Diane during a rehearsal of
FOCUS perceived complexity of Rameau’s Hippolyte et Aricie in the
The style galante Baroque music. While the latter Théâtre du Capitole, Toulouse, in 2009.
was often characterized by
BEFORE seriousness and grandeur, the The debate between Lullistes and
1607 Monteverdi’s L’Orfeo, style galante was elegant, light, Ramistes raged for several years,
the earliest opera still in the and immediate. during which Rameau released a
current repertoire, is premiered further four operas. In time,
in Mantua. One of the most lauded however, his music became more
advocates of this style was the accepted, and by the time of the
1673 The French operatic French composer Jean-Philippe Querelle des Bouffons in 1752, a
tradition was born with the Rameau, whose first opera, two-year dispute about the relative
premiere of Jean-Baptiste Hippolyte et Aricie, premiered in merits of French and Italian opera,
Lully’s Cadmus et Hermione, Paris in 1733. Rameau cast his Rameau’s music was considered
the first of Lully’s tragédies opera in the conventional five-act typically French. ■
en music (tragedy in music). form of a tragédie en musique that
was established by Jean-Baptiste
AFTER Lully. In every other way, however,
1752 A performance of he broke Lully’s mold, using daring
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi’s dissonances, longer phrase
opera buffa (comic opera) structures, and an ornate approach
La serva padrona (“The to melodic writing that came to
servant turned mistress”) typify the style galante.
ignites the Querelle des
Bouffons, a dispute between War of words
supporters of serious and Hippolyte et Aricie drew harsh
comic opera. criticism from so-called “Lullistes,”
who feared that Rameau’s Italianate
1774 Having reformed Italian music threatened the iconic status
opera, Christoph Willibald of Lully’s operas in French culture.
Gluck composes Iphigénie
en Aulide for the Paris stage. See also: Le bourgeois gentilhomme 70–71 ■ Orfeo ed Euridice 118–119 ■
The Magic Flute 134–137 ■ The Barber of Seville 148 ■ La traviata 174–175

108 IN CONTEXT

BFWAISANOCTDNHRSDOIETSNRHOLFEMIUKMELEROSASWTNTAHROS… FOCUS
Baroque counterpoint
THE ART OF FUGUE (1751),
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH BEFORE
c.1606–1621 Sweelinck
composes the Fantasia
chromatica, one of the first
works to demonstrate
contrapuntal development
of a single subject.

1725 Fux publishes Gradus
ad Parnassum (“Steps to
Parnassus”), which includes
exercises in how to write
fugues. Mozart later studied
this work.

AFTER
1837 Mendelssohn publishes
Six Preludes and Fugues,
Op. 35, demonstrating the fugue
as a viable Romantic genre.

1910 Busoni publishes the
Fantasia contrappuntistica, a
homage to The Art of Fugue
which includes a postmodern
completion of its last fugue.

I n contrast to later music that
frequently depended on a
single melody line over a series
of harmonies, Baroque music was
often constructed by combining
a number of independent and
interlacing melody lines, or
voices. This technique, known as
counterpoint, allowed composers
to create works of overwhelming
complexity and drama, reflecting
the richness of other contemporary
art forms. However, it also required
consummate skill to compose long
spans of music with sufficient
variety and interest.

The rise of the Classical style,
and its emphasis on simplicity and
preference for more slowly changing

BAROQUE 1600–1750 109

See also: Missa l’homme armé 42 ■ Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott 78–79 ■ St. Matthew Passion 98–105 ■ Elijah 170–173 ■
Fauré’s Requiem 210–211 ■ The Dream of Gerontius 218–219

The second fugue of Bach’s The
Well-tempered Clavier is in C minor.
Both sets of 24 preludes and fugues are
arranged in the 12 major and minor
keys between C and the B above it.

harmony, reduced the need then transferred to the other parts experience a satisfying musical
for musicians to master such (or “voices” as they are known, performance. While these works
complex techniques. However, even in instrumental music) while abide by the strict Baroque rules
Bach, the preeminent practitioner the first part continues with a that govern dissonance when
of counterpoint in the Baroque complementary melody. it is permitted (for instance, on
period, considered the skill to be passing notes on weak beats),
so vital that he attempted toward For the performer, the difficulty their structure is relatively free.
the end of his life to organize and of such works is not just to be able
display the results of his knowledge to play the often swiftly flowing Building a fugue
in works such as The Art of Fugue, parts with ease but also to be able Bach was best known for his
a cycle of some 20 fugues. to balance the relative importance fugues, which follow the same
of the voices, so that the listener principles but organize them ❯❯
Principles of counterpoint can appreciate the interplay and
Much earlier, Bach had published
didactic works to teach keyboard
players counterpoint. These
included two collections of special
significance—the 15 Inventions
in two parts and the 15 Sinfonias in
three parts. In each of the pieces,
a simple opening melody is
presented unaccompanied and

Preludes, fugues, and well-tempered tuning

Bach’s two books entitled The Frequency ratios between other When tuning a piano, such as this
Well-Tempered Clavier each notes are more complex, so Schimmel concert instrument from
contained 24 preludes and tuning to a C major scale, Germany, the tuner uses a tuning
fugues in all the major and keeping all the intervals pure, fork or an electronic device to adjust
minor keys. These provided would make other scales sound the strings to the required pitch.
models that keyboard players out of tune to slightly different
could use to develop their degrees. The mean-tone system,
proficiency and also celebrated used from c.1570 and based on a
the range of keys that could be pure third interval, worked well
employed using the tuning only for 10–15 of 24 keys. The
methods of his time. well-tempered system was a
compromise, tuning to intervals
Tuning, or “temperament,” sufficiently equidistant to allow
was always a tricky issue. for performances in all keys. The
A note one octave apart from modern equal temperament
another sounds similar because system divides the octave into
the sound frequency can be equal, mostly impure intervals.
reduced to a simple 2:1 ratio.

110 BAROQUE COUNTERPOINT

Structure: The fugue

EXPOSITION EPISODE MIDDLE SECTION EPISODE FINAL SECTION CODA

Soprano S FP FP A FP S CS FP CS FP FP

Alto A CS FP S CS FP FP FP FP S FP FP

Bass S CS FP FP FP FP FP FP A FP FP S TP

In a fugue, a word derived from the Key
Latin for “flight,” each of three or more
voices enter one after the other, imitating S = Subject—The principal theme of the fugue.
and modifying the initial theme. The A = Answer—The subject, repeated a fifth (5 notes) higher.
structure illustrated here has many CS = Counter-Subject—A contrasting secondary theme.
other possible variants. FP = Free Part—Material based on the first theme.
TP = Tonic Pedal—Sustained final bass note.

within far more rigorous structures, same note in a different octave, although they are often performed
which allow for very rich listening while the second voice now in concert halls, they are not as
experiences. The basic structure of performs the counter-subject and powerful as his organ fugues or
a fugue requires a melody known the first voice will usually play free those found in his sacred music.
as the “subject” to be presented by material derived from the subject. However, they had a considerable
the first voice in the home key. The This continues in the same way influence on later composers, who
next voice then presents the same until all the voices have entered, dubbed them the “Old Testament”
melody but starting on the fifth creating an exposition that of music (the Beethoven sonatas
note of the scale being used, and moves rapidly from simplicity to were the New Testament) and paid
this is known as the “answer.” complexity, while using limited tribute to them; Shostakovich, for
When replying to this, the original musical material. instance, composed 24 Preludes
voice plays a “counter-subject,” and Fugues. Even now, pianists
which may be very contrasting. The fugue will then progress study Bach’s The Well-Tempered
The third voice then enters with by adding mood-changing Clavier as part of their training.
the “subject”again, starting on the “episodes,” again often derived
from the opening material. The Bach’s fascination with
Ceaseless work, analysis, middle section, in turn, presents counterpoint did not merely focus
reflection, writing much, the subject in different keys and on the fugue. His suites of dance
endless self-correction, formats until the work returns to movements rely on an understanding
the opening key. However, further of counterpoint for their inner
that is my secret. variants heighten this journey, such energy; even when the music is for
Johann Sebastian Bach as the “stretto,” where subjects and solo violin or cello, it often hints at
answers enter before the previous what the other voices would play
ones have been resolved. if there were more instruments by
injecting notes and phrases in
Teaching tools different registers.
In writing the 48 fugues of The
Well-Tempered Clavier, Bach offered Bach was similarly attracted
a compendium of techniques to be to canons, where one voice follows
studied by both keyboard players the exact melodic contour of the
and composers. These were other but slightly later (the round,
designed as teaching tools, and “London’s Burning” is an example
of this). His use of this technique is

BAROQUE 1600–1750 111

particularly evident in the Goldberg In The Musical Offering, his last It’s the most difficult thing
Variations, a set of 30 keyboard major keyboard work, written for I’ve ever approached. You’ve
variations published in 1741, which the newly invented piano, Bach
were, he said, for “connoisseurs to wrote a collection of 14 canons got to keep it going; how
refresh their spirits.” and fugues based on a theme do you do that? … There’s
purportedly composed by the King never been anything more
Based on a repeating base of Prussia, Frederick II. Rather than beautiful in all of music.
line, Bach composed every third always writing out the music in full,
variation as a canon, but with one here Bach presents some musical Glenn Gould
extra dimension. The first canon conundrums that have come to be
begins with both voices starting called “riddle fugues.” In these, he Pianist (1932–1982)
on the same note. In the next canon, writes out only the main melody,
however, although the second voice sometimes as an acrostic, and presented The Art of Fugue in the
is playing the same tune as the then, in Latin, briefly states what same way, perhaps to suggest that
first, it plays it one note higher; here kind of canon it should be and in it was pure music without being
incredible skill is required to create how many voices. The performer tied to any particular instrument.
melodic material that works and has to work out how to play the
sounds pleasing to the listener’s piece. He even includes a so-called Unfinished legacy
ear. The next canon presents the “crab canon” where the theme is The Art of Fugue is the culmination
second voice two notes higher, played backward and forward at of Bach’s contrapuntal interests.
and this continues until, in the last the same time. Interestingly, the Written as 14 fugues and four
canon, the voices are nine notes six-part fugue from this work, canons, each one uses the same
apart. Apparently not content with known as the “Ricercar a 6” is principal theme in some way
this plethora of canons, Bach had written on six staves—one staff to generate music of extraordinary
14 more sketched out in his copy per voice—rather than in an subtlety and variety. The last
of Goldberg Variations, built on the arrangement for two hands. Bach fugue, or “contrapunctus” as he
first eight notes of the bass line. calls them, presents a series of
three different subjects, each
worked out in four voices before
moving to the next. The final one
presents one of the most poignant
moments in the history of music.
Bach introduces a four-note theme
that spells out his name (in German
notation B = B-flat and H = B, so
BACH = B-flat A C B), but before
he finishes working it out, the
manuscript trails off. ■

Glenn Gould, a brilliant 20th-century
Canadian pianist, seen here recording
Bach’s keyboard music, was noted for
his skill in clearly articulating the
texture of the preludes and fugues.

CLASSI

1750–1820

CAL

114 INTRODUCTION Italian composer The opera Doktor
Domenico Scarlatti und Apotheker, a
The court composer publishes 30 Essercizi Singspiel (“sing-play”)
of Frederick of Prussia, (“Exercises”) as part of by Carl Ditters von
Carl Philipp Emanuel more than 500 sonatas Dittersdorf opens
written for keyboard.
Bach composes in Vienna.
his Flute Concerto

in A major.

1753 1758 1786
1755 1762 1787

Johann Stamitz’s In Vienna, Christoph Antonio Salieri
Symphony in E-flat major Willibald Gluck’s Orfeo ed premieres his
transforms the symphony
Euridice overturns the Tarare, a tragédie
form with its sudden conventions of Italian opera, en musique, set to
changes in dynamics and creating a more dramatic and a French libretto,
integrated entertainment.
new fourth movement. in Paris.

T he 18th century was the was so influential that the term artificial nature of Baroque opera,
“Age of Enlightenment” “classical music” is widely used to began a series of “reform operas,”
in Europe, a time when refer to long-established musical simplifying the music and aiming
the old political order was giving traditions in general. Among the for a more realistic drama.
way to a new, more inclusive first to adopt the new style were
society. The aristocratic courts two of J.S. Bach’s sons: Carl Philipp The Viennese scene
continued to provide patronage Emmanuel, a court musician who As the Classical style became
for the arts, but the rise of an bridged the gap between Baroque established, composers and
urban middle class created a and Classical styles of music, and performers tended to gravitate
new concert- and operagoing his brother Johann Christian, who toward Vienna, which was
audience with different tastes. made his name in London, staging becoming the cultural as well as
The music of the period also public concerts and popularizing geographical center of Europe,
reflected Enlightenment values the newly invented piano. Some with a prosperous population
of rationalism and humanism that of the most exciting developments, eager to hear new music. Three
looked to the aesthetic ideals of however, were happening in composers stood out from the
Ancient Greece, rejecting the Mannheim, Germany, where the others: Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang
extravagant counterpoint of the court orchestra enabled composers Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig
Baroque era in favor of a more such as Johann Stamitz to explore van Beethoven.
detached style that emphasized new musical forms, including the
elegance and proportion. symphony and concerto. Haydn, although a central figure
in the formation of this Viennese
The Classical period in music Opera was undergoing a similar musical scene, was not initially a
history began around 1750. It lasted transformation. Christoph Willibald part of it. He took a conventional
not much more than 50 years yet Gluck, dissatisfied with the stilted, job as Kapellmeister (musical

Inventor of the string Muzio Clementi CLASSICAL 1750–1820 115
quartet, Joseph Haydn publishes his Piano
composes his Opus 54, Sonata in F-Sharp In London, the Czech
minor, Op. 25, No. 5, piano virtuoso and
three string quartets introducing innovations
whose originality to the sonata form. composer Jan Ladislav
Dussek publishes an
transforms chamber music. influential treatise on
piano playing.

1788 1790 1793

1788 1791 1803

Wolfgang Amadeus Singspiel reaches Beethoven releases his
Mozart composes its zenith with “Eroica” Symphony to
Symphony No. 40 in widespread acclaim,
the highly successful paving the way for
G minor, the high point premiere of Mozart’s the music of the
of the symphony in the Romantic period.
The Magic Flute
Classical period. in Vienna.

director) at the Esterházy family’s style as he toured Europe. Realizing did not make it as a child prodigy,
rural estate in Hungary, producing he was not suited to life as a court at the age of 13 he got a job as a
music for twice-weekly concerts. musician, he decided to try to earn a court musician in Bonn and then
Isolated from the wider musical living as a freelance composer—one became a freelance composer,
world, Haydn developed his own of the first to do so—in Vienna. Here performer, and teacher in Vienna.
particular style. He had a staff of he met Haydn on one of his trips to He settled there in 1792, too late
talented musicians (who referred the capital from Esterházy, and the to meet his hero, Mozart, who had
to him as “Papa Haydn”) and was two became friends. Mozart was died the year before, but he took
able to both hone his skills and inspired to develop his symphonies lessons in composition from Haydn.
refine musical forms, such as the and string quartets along the same
symphony, string quartet, sonata, lines as Haydn had, but he also Beethoven’s early compositions,
and solo concerto. Despite the made a living—and a reputation— symphonies, piano sonatas,
remoteness of the Esterházy estate, as a composer and performer of and chamber music were in the
news of his music spread to Vienna piano music. He later became style established by Haydn and
and beyond, once it was published. known as the foremost opera Mozart but showed signs of a
composer of the period. more passionate temperament
As Haydn was starting his that differed from the Classicism
career as a court musician, a young Enter Beethoven of his elders. In 1803, Beethoven’s
musical prodigy from Salzburg was While Haydn and Mozart were Third Symphony, the “Eroica,”
being paraded around the courts at the height of their fame in the extended the form of the symphony,
and concert halls by his ambitious 1770s, another ambitious father developing and expanding
father. A precocious genius, had aspirations for his gifted son. expressive musical language and
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart learned Although Ludwig van Beethoven heralding the beginning of a new
the elements of the new Classical period of musical history. ■

116

IILATTIKSSCAECFTOTRAHRERUSTANECCDETISNERD,O

SYMPHONY IN E FLAT MAJOR, OP. 11, NO. 3,
(1754–1755), JOHANN STAMITZ

IN CONTEXT I n 1741, the composer Johann Stamitz’s musical home Mannheim,
Stamitz moved from his home seen here in an engraving of 1788
FOCUS in Bohemia (now the Czech showing the Elector's castle, court
Expanding the scope Republic) to Mannheim, capital church (Hofkirche), and armoury
of the orchestra of the Electoral Palatinate, a became a center of music innovation.
German territory. There he became
BEFORE court violinist and, in 1745, was group, not from the keyboard, as had
1720s Composers of appointed concertmaster of the previously been the norm, but from
Neapolitan operas, such orchestra. Stamitz raised the his desk at the head of the violin
as Leonardo Vinci, write standards of orchestral playing, section, using his bow to signal the
“sinfonie” (symphonies) in hiring talented musicians, some start of the piece and to indicate
three movements as preludes of whom were also composers rhythm and tempo. Under Stamitz,
to their dramatic works. in their own right, and extended the Mannheim orchestra became
the orchestra by adding wind renowned for the superb quality
1732 Italian composer instruments, such as oboes and and precision of its playing and for
Giovanni Battista Sammartini horns. He directed this diverse the new soundscape that it created.
begins to write a series of
three-movement symphonies.

AFTER
1766 In Paris, Mozart
befriends the Mannheim
composer and conductor
Christian Cannabich, a pupil
and follower of Stamitz.

1772 Haydn, in his Sturm
und Drang (“Storm and Stress”)
symphonies, further explores
the emotive style of orchestral
music pioneered by the
Mannheim composers.

CLASSICAL 1750–1820 117

See also: Mozart’s Symphony No. 40 in G minor 128–131 ■ Symphonie fantastique
162–163 ■ Schumann’s Symphony No. 1 166–169 ■ Faust Symphony 176–177

The wind instruments could with the first movement concluding Johann Stamitz
not be used to better on a recapitulation of the second
theme, this time in the home key. Born in Neˇ mecký Brod (now
advantage; they lift and carry, This sonata form (usually with a Havlícˇku˚ v Brod), Bohemia, in
they reinforce and give life to recapitulation of the first theme) 1717, Stamitz learned music
became the template for symphonic from his father, an organist
the storm of the violins. writing in the Classical period, and choirmaster, before
C.F.D. Schubart particularly in first movements. attending a Jesuit school in
Jihlava and university in
Poet, organist, and composer Musical fireworks Prague. He probably worked
An even more striking feature of as a violinist before arriving
Many of the works played by Stamitz’s symphonies, including in Mannheim in the early
Stamitz’s Mannheim orchestra the E-flat—and of the Mannheim 1740s, rising rapidly to the
were symphonies, a form that had school in general—was the use court post of director of
originated in Italy as the prelude, of strong, dynamic contrasts. orchestral music in 1750.
or overture, to operas but had now Sometimes a sudden fortissimo
become part of the Baroque concert appears in a passage of soft music, Stamitz lived most of his
repertoire. These works usually sometimes a dramatic crescendo, working life in Mannheim,
consisted of three movements: in which the orchestra’s sound although he also spent a year
one slow between two fast. gets gradually louder and louder, in Paris, in 1754–1755, where
to exhilarating effect. Another he was already celebrated as a
The symphony reinvented favorite mannerism was the composer and performed in
In the Symphony in E-flat, and other “Mannheim rocket,” a rapidly rising a series of successful concerts.
works, Stamitz took hold of the melody or phrase accompanied by Stamitz wrote church music
symphony form and transformed a crescendo. Combined with the and many chamber works,
it, creating many of the features Mannheim orchestra’s varied but he is best remembered for
that distinguish its musical style. instrumental palette of strings and his orchestral pieces, which
He added an extra movement: a wind instruments, symphonies like include violin concertos and
minuet with a contrasting section, those of Stamitz thrilled audiences many symphonies, of which
called a “trio” because it was and pointed the way to a more 58 survive. He returned from
originally meant to be played by dramatic, emotional music. Paris to Mannheim in 1755
three musicians. He also adopted and died there in 1757.
the sonata form, used in the The E-flat symphony was one
opening movement of the E-flat of Stamitz’s last orchestral works, Other key works
symphony, in which the first but his legacy lived on through
theme, played in the home key his two composer sons, Carl and c.1745 Three Mannheim
(E-flat) by the full orchestra is Anton. They and others, such as Symphonies (in G major,
contrasted with a second theme, Christian Cannabich (1731–1798), A major, and B-flat major)
here played by the oboes, in the who led the Mannheim orchestra c.1750 Mass in D major
dominant key (B-flat). This is after Stamitz’s death, developed 1754 Flute concerto in C major
followed by a development section, his style, and soon court composers
all over Europe were writing new
symphonies to entertain their
employers. The Mannheim
composers impressed the young
Mozart, who admired their
orchestra and adopted some of
Stamitz’s compositional techniques
in his own music. ■

118

MTAHLOLEVIOMNFOGOSAPTCETRIAN

ORFEO ED EURIDICE (1762),
CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD GLUCK

IN CONTEXT T he opera Orfeo ed Euridice involving and more real. He also
by Christoph Willibald humanized his characters and
FOCUS Gluck was first performed their arias by making them
Classical opera seria in Vienna in 1762. It is based express emotions more directly.
on a familiar tale from classical
BEFORE mythology, the story of Orpheus’s Opera seria
1690 Composers such as journey to the underworld to In the mid-18th century, the most
Alessandro Scarlatti create a rescue his wife, Eurydice. Unlike fashionable type of opera was
new style of opera derived from the original myth, but in line with what is now called opera seria
Baroque vocal works—the contemporary taste, Gluck’s opera (serious opera). This type of opera
Neapolitan School—rapidly has a happy ending. features recitative—passages sung
popularizing the genre. in the rhythm of speech with many
Even if the opera’s story was syllables on the same note that are
1748 Gluck’s fame is largely familiar, Gluck’s style was usually accompanied only by
enhanced when his opera quite new. He transformed opera continuo instruments (typically
La Semiramide riconosciuta to integrate the music and drama harpsichord and cello alone),
(“Semiramis Revealed”) is more fully than before, streamlining playing an improvised added bass
performed in Vienna for the distracting elements that slowed up line—and arias, accompanied by
birthday of Habsburg empress the action, making the work more full orchestra. The arias have a
Maria Theresa. distinct structure, called da capo
There is no musical (“from the top”), with three sections,
1752 Gluck and librettist rule that I have not the third being a repeat of the first,
Pietro Metastasio produce willingly sacrificed with ornamentation to show off the
the highly successful opera, to dramatic effect. singer’s ability. In between, the
La clemenza di Tito (The Christoph W. Gluck second section introduces a new
Clemency of Titus). melody or develops the initial tune.
Meanwhile, features such as rich
AFTER and varied stage sets and elaborate
1781 Mozart’s opera ballets, often enliven the event.
Idomeneo premieres. It
shows the influence of Gluck believed that the lavish
Gluck, particularly in the spectacles and the long showy
accompanied recitatives. arias tended to get in the way of
the drama and that the difference
in musical texture between the

CLASSICAL 1750–1820 119

See also: Euridice 62–63 ■ St. Matthew Passion 98–105 ■ The Magic
Flute 134–137 ■ Der Freischütz 149

arias and recitatives interrupted This improved the flow and made Christoph
the flow. Gluck and his librettist, the music more expressive of Willibald Gluck
Ranieri de’ Calzabigi, wanted to character and emotion. In the
reform opera by putting the drama Act One aria in which Orfeo The son of a forester, Gluck
center stage, sweeping away sings of his grief, the composer was born in Erasbach, Bavaria,
absurdities of plot and making the inserts moving recitatives before in 1714. Largely self-taught,
music serve the action. Musically each verse, further integrating he traveled widely, learning
this meant doing away with the the elements. the organ and cello in Prague.
repeats in the da capo arias and He studied with the composer
developing a simpler, clearer style. Outcomes and effects Giuseppe Sammartini in Milan,
A good example is Orfeo’s Act III The effect of these changes was before heading to London in
aria “Che farò senza Euridice” to make operas more focused on the 1740s, where he composed
(“What shall I do without Eurydice”), character and action—in other operas for the King’s Theatre.
an aria in rondo form in which the words, if not fully realistic, more There, he met Handel, who
opening theme returns at the end real and more emotionally moving. famously stated that his own
but without the direct da capo The plots tended to be more cook (bass singer Gustavus
repetition. Gluck also integrated coherent and the characters and Waltz) knew more about
the arias and recitatives, using the situations—even when drawn from counterpoint than Gluck.
whole orchestra to accompany mythology—more credible. At
the latter as well as the former. the same time, there were fewer Gluck eventually settled in
opportunities for singers to make Vienna, where he worked with
Gluck’s opera Il Parnasso confuso the sort of virtuosic displays that librettist Ranieri de’ Calzabigi.
premiered in 1765 at the marriage could interrupt the action. Later The pair aimed to “reform”
of Emperor Joseph II. Johann Franz composers, especially Mozart, opera by integrating the music
Greipel’s painting shows Archduke further developed these ideas to and the action. They made
Leopold on the harpsichord. produce operatic masterpieces. ■ operas inspired by classical
mythology, including Orfeo
ed Euridice (1762) and Alceste
(1767). Gluck’s fame grew
with further works, including
French versions of Orfeo and
some of his other operas. He
retired after suffering a stroke
in 1779 and died in 1787.

Other key works

1767 Alceste
1777 Armide
1779 Iphigénie en Tauride

120

WTTRHEEAMISNUOESUDTLB,PINRLODATYSLFIRKOEM

FLUTE CONCERTO IN A MAJOR, WQ 168 (1753),
CARL PHILIPP EMANUEL BACH

IN CONTEXT I n 1738, the young C.P.E., or status of servants, and had to write
Emanuel, Bach was appointed and play music that suited their
FOCUS court harpsichordist in the employer’s tastes.
A new freedom household of the Crown Prince
of expression Frederick of Prussia. Two years later The king calls the tune
the prince acceded to the throne Frederick was an accomplished
BEFORE and became known as Frederick flautist. Emanuel was therefore
1750 C.P.E. Bach writes a the Great as his power increased. junior to the much better paid court
setting of the Magnificat in flautist Johann Joachim Quantz
a style like that of J.S. Bach, Emanuel, as Bach was known, and had the task of accompanying
possibly in a bid to secure his traveled with the court to Berlin, the king in court concerts. He was
father’s former job as cantor of where he lived as a court musician also expected to compose music for
the Thomasschule in Leipzig. for 28 years. The best keyboard Frederick to play—pieces such as
player of his generation, he his Flute Concerto in A major. To
AFTER attracted widespread admiration save time, Emanuel took concertos
1772 Joseph Haydn writes his but never felt truly valued. Court that he had written for another
Symphony No. 44, the “Trauer” musicians of the time had the
(Mourning) symphony, a
masterpiece of the portrayal of Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach
emotion in orchestral music.
The second keyboard instruments. He is,
1777 Johann Christian Bach, surviving son however, best known for the
Emanuel’s younger brother, of Johann symphonies and concertos in a
publishes his Op. 13 Keyboard Sebastian highly personal and emotional
Concertos, almost the musical Bach, Emanuel style that were written later
opposite of Emanuel’s was born in in his career. Emanuel died in
dramatic, emotional music. Weimar, Germany, in 1714. His Hamburg in 1788, aged 74.
father nurtured his son’s gift
1779 C.P.E. Bach begins to for the harpsichord. Other key works
publish his series of rondos Emanuel studied law before
and other solo keyboard works devoting all his time to music. 1749 Magnificat in D, Wq 215
that mark the high point of his In the service of Frederick the 1775–1776 Symphonies, Wq 183
“emotional” musical style. Great from 1740, he composed 1783–1787 Keyboard Sonatas,
works for the court musicians Fantasias and Rondos, Wq 58,
and wrote a treatise on playing 59, 61

CLASSICAL 1750–1820 121

See also: Great Service 52–53 ■ Water Music 84–89 ■ Musique de table 106 ■ Hippolyte et Aricie 107 ■
The Art of Fugue 108–111 ■ Beethoven’s String Quartet No. 14 in C-sharp minor 156–161

Patronage during the 18th century

Grand Prince The Esterházy Habsburg ruler Diplomat Baron
Ferdinando de’ Medici family of Hungary Emperor Joseph II Gottfried van Swieten

(1663–1713) (from 1761) (1741–1790) (1733–1803)

Invites Employs
Domenico Helps Salieri Sponsors Commissions Mozart on
Scarlatti to Commissions Employs Commissions become Mozart’s Die C.P.E. Bach’s various
his court in Handel ’s Haydn Beethoven’s six symphonies musical
Florence in for life from Opus 1 Piano director of Entführung for string projects
opera Rodrigo 1761 trios (1795) the Italian aus dem Serail orchestra (1773) (1782–1790)
1702 (1707) opera in 1774 (1788)

A small circle of noble patrons supported composers in
the 1700s. As music became more popular, musicians gained
a greater independence, but patronage still played a crucial role.

instrument and transcribed them emotion. In this he was following a principal churches. He still had to
for the flute—like others, the A fashion known as Empfindsamkeit write to order, but he had time
major concerto began life as a (sensibility) that was a reaction to compose the music he wanted to
harpsichord concerto. against the rationalism of write, either to perform himself or
Enlightenment philosophy. In his for patrons who were willing to give
Although Emanuel Bach studied bid to create expressive music, full rein to his emotional style. Later
composition with his father, Johann Emanuel developed a distinctive composers such as Mozart and
Sebastian, their styles are very style that featured sudden,dramatic Beethoven worked increasingly
different. The father’s music was changes in harmony, dynamics, in this freelance way, carving out
based on counterpoint, while his and rhythm, giving his works a role that was less like that of
son was interested in conveying (especially in the fast movements) servant and creating music that
a spontaneous quality; he also was more personal. ■
Keyboardists whose chief created affecting, melodic slow
asset is mere technique … movements. Some strong rhythmic A musician … must feel all
and dynamic contrasts appear in the emotions that he hopes
overwhelm our hearing the outer movements of the A major to arouse in his audience.
without satisfying it and stun Flute Concerto, and Emanuel would
the mind without moving it. no doubt have heightened the C.P.E. Bach
drama had he not had to consider
C.P.E. Bach what Frederick would want to play.

Seeking independence
The king did not like Emanuel’s
more dramatic, unpredictable
pieces; he preferred simpler works.
In 1768, Emanuel left to become
music director of Hamburg’s five

IOTWORABISGEFICONORCAMELED

STRING QUARTET IN C MAJOR, OP. 54
NO. 2, HOBOKEN III:57 (1788–1790),
JOSEPH HAYDN



124 DEVELOPMENT OF THE STRING QUARTET

IN CONTEXT J oseph Haydn invented the Rugeri, and the Guarneri family.
string quartet. Why he More responsive violins, violas,
FOCUS settled on the combination and cellos were exciting both to
Development of the of two violins, viola, and cello is not composers and players. Haydn was
string quartet certain, but it may be that their also interested in the advances in
individual pitch registers closely bow-making. Earlier bows had to
BEFORE reflect the voices in a choir. The stay close to the string, releasing
1198 Pérotin’s motet instruments, and the musicians to sounds in a sustained manner; by
Viderunt omnes establishes play them, would also have been “bouncing” the new bow off the
the practice of composing readily available at the Hungarian string, a quick, almost percussive
for four voices—the basis court of the Esterházy family, where sound could be produced, as Haydn
of the string quartet. Haydn was composer-in-residence. shows in the finale of his Op. 33, C
major quartet (1781).
16th–17th centuries Early The standard chamber music
pieces for string quartets grouping before Haydn was the The sound-carrying qualities
include Gregorio Allegri’s trio sonata, in which a keyboard of these new instruments and
four-part Sinfonia and instrument was joined by two high- techniques eventually spurred the
Alessandro Scarlatti’s Sonate a melody instruments (violin or flute), composition of chamber music that
quattro, but the standard form with a continuo instrument, such could be performed in large concert
of chamber music was the trio as a cello, doubling the bass line of halls and not just in private salons.
sonata, usually for two violins the keyboard. Haydn’s inspired use
and basso continuo. of four instruments of the string Original, emotive works
family effectively modernized an The emotional expressiveness of
AFTER older tradition that Henry Purcell Haydn’s mature work links it to the
1890s Inspired by Haydn, had developed a century earlier German Sturm und Drang (Storm
London concert promoter with his String Fantasias for up to and Stress) artistic movement.
Johann Peter Salomon brought six voices, performed on viols. For Haydn, the string quartet was
string quartets out of private the perfect vehicle for extreme
drawing rooms and into public Enhanced sound emotional contrasts designed to
concert halls. Haydn benefited from the great shock the audience. His early
strides that had been made in accomplished quartets include
instrument-making, epitomized Op. 9, which he later declared
in Italy by the Amati family, was the true starting point of
Antonio Stradivari, Francesco his quartet compositions, and

Joseph Haydn Spanning the Baroque and capitals, most notably to London
Classical periods, Joseph where his compositions were in
Haydn was a key figure in great demand. After the London
the development of the Classical Symphonies (93–104), Haydn
style. Born in Lower Austria in wrote only six Masses and two
1732 to parents of modest means, oratorios. In his last public
he was a musically gifted child appearance, he conducted The
and attended a cathedral choir Seven Last Words in December
school in Vienna from the age of 1803. He died quietly at home
eight. His early music, including in Vienna in 1809.
some string quartets, was first
published in Paris in 1764. Other key works

Haydn’s employment from 1768 Symphony No. 49
1761 to 1790 at Esterházy 1795 Piano trio No. 24 in D major
Palace, in Hungary, cemented 1797–1798 The Creation
his reputation as a composer. He 1798 Nelson Mass
later traveled to many musical

CLASSICAL 1750–1820 125

See also: Corelli’s Concerti Grossi 80–81 ■ C.P.E. Bach’s Flute Concerto in A major 120–121 ■ Clementi’s Piano Sonata
in F-sharp minor 132–133 ■ Die schöne Müllerin 150–155 ■ Beethoven’s String Quartet No. 14 in C-sharp minor 156–161

Op. 20, in which the gradual the Austrian Carl Ditters von At the Esterházy Palace, shown
liberation of the four parts into Dittersdorf on first violin, and the here in an 18th-century image, Haydn
solo voices within the quartet Czech Johann Baptist Vanhal on had a secure but onerous post—not
framework marked a new cello, the four composers would only composing, but also managing
development of the genre. often play quartets together and musicians, manuscripts, and events.
experiment with each other’s
Op. 20, No. 2 is particularly compositions. This led Mozart to quartets. He experimented with
interesting, as it reverses the more dedicate his first six mature string almost all possible tonalities
usual form of a quartet, in which quartets to Haydn. (changes in pitch, and major and
the first violin dominates, by minor modes), as well as Classical
casting the cello as top voice, the As the demand for Haydn’s forms (sonata, fugue, variations,
second violin and viola below it, music spread through Europe, his minuet, scherzo, and rondo).
while the first violin is initially quartets were performed in concert There are quartets that are more
silent. The minuet third movement halls as well as in private salons, consistently virtuosic and more
of Op. 20, No. 4, is also innovative. and he adjusted their style brilliantly projected, and there
The standard pulse for minuets is accordingly. By making the first are also earlier compositions,
three, but here accents make it violin parts ever more brilliant, such as the slow movement of
sound as though it is in the rhythm with higher notes and displays of his Op. 20, No. 1, that perhaps
of two. Likewise, in three of the virtuosity, he naturally made the better convey the perfect intimate
finales (Op. 20, Nos. 2, 5, and 6), lower three voices more athletic, sound of a quartet, but the extreme
Haydn uses a well-established too. The performers also had to contrasts between the movements
form, a fugue, to develop new ideas, learn to project their sound. of Op. 54, No. 2, as well as Haydn’s
such as interrupting long stretches inspired and brave decision to
of sotto voce (very soft) playing by A memorable, daring work end with a slow movement, single
sudden bursts of forte (loud). Haydn’s Op. 54, No. 2 in C major, this out as a truly memorable
composed in 1788, is one of his piece of music. ❯❯
European acclaim many exceptionally inventive
Haydn is thought to have first met
Mozart in the early 1780s, and they
became close friends. With Haydn
on second violin, Mozart on viola,

When we invoke the name
Haydn, we mean one of

our greatest men … Every
harmonic artifice is at
his command.

Ernst Ludwig Gerber

Organist and composer
(1746–1819)

126 DEVELOPMENT OF THE STRING QUARTET Viola
Plays notes in the
Second violin mellow middle range
Often plays in corresponding with
harmony with the first
violin, but sometimes the alto voice.
with the viola.

First violin Cello
Often leads and Plays the bass line,
plays the highest the foundation for
notes and the most
difficult parts.  the high-melody
instruments.

Anatomy of a string quartet

The Op. 54, No. 2 quartet was turn in the development section, creation of what appears to be a
among those that Johann Tost, a while the recapitulation is marked quintet, when the lower three play
violinist much admired by Haydn by the cello’s exuberant arpeggio on with occasional double stops,
and a wily merchant, took to Paris and interjections from the first freeing up the first violin to present
to promote and sell. Its brilliantly violin. When the movement should a lament that sounds as if it is
soloistic writing for first violin was head to its conclusion, Haydn—like totally improvised. The freedom
aimed at a musical audience that other great Classical composers, of Haydn’s notation gives every
preferred the quatuor concertant, a such as Mozart, Beethoven, and violinist an opportunity to present
string quartet genre fashionable in Schubert—ignores compositional an individual and uninhibited
the French capital from around 1775 conventions by ending with a interpretation of this passage,
to the French Revolution of 1789. It huge climax. With both violins at which Brahms emulates in the
must also have suited Tost’s talent their loudest, the viola and cello slow movement of his Clarinet
for playing in very high registers. join in before the movement ends Quintet Op. 115.
almost reflectively but for its final
An exuberant opening two upright chords. The sadness of the ending—
The key of C major that Haydn on a quiet chord—is deliberately
chose for the quartet is traditionally Surprising contrasts unresolved. Instead of the normal
an indication of happy, optimistic The ensuing adagio (slow) in break (and even the tuning of
music. The piece begins with C minor is highly introspective instruments between movements
bright and brilliant opening in mood. A sad gypsy melody is that often occurred), the piece
bars and a fast and vivaciously pitched in the lowest registers of all moves straight on into the minuet,
improvised melody in celebratory four instruments. The miracle of which starts hesitatingly and then
mood. Each instrument leads in this movement is the imperceptible gradually emulates the optimism
of the first movement. In the

CLASSICAL 1750–1820 127

It can safely be reassuring melody. Yet even here Chamber groups
suggested that there is the cello behaves unusually,
no more original Haydn climbing into the pitch of the first In the 18th century, as
quartet [Op. 54 No. 2], nor violin. After a fast interlude, the education widened and the
any that contains more quartet ends peacefully. middle class expanded,
prophetic innovations. appreciation of music spread
Haydn’s legacy beyond the court and church.
Hans Keller It is not known how well the The number of amateur
quartet was received, and indeed, musicians with money and
contrasting trio sections, this all the much less imaginative works leisure time rapidly increased,
changes as a dissonant A-flat note of a fellow Austrian, Ignace Joseph and musical friends would
is repeatedly accented on a weak Pleyel, were more popular in Paris get together in a “chamber,”
beat, sounding like screams of at the time. However, less than 20 or room, to make music at
anguish. The conventional repeat years later, when Beethoven home. This created a market
of the minuet plays a critical role produced his Op. 18 quartets in for musical compositions
in restoring an optimistic mood. 1800, a revival of Haydn’s quartets suited to an intimate setting,
occurred. The style of Haydn’s especially for strings, which
The finale, however, produces 83 quartets had revolutionized blended harmoniously and
the biggest surprise. Instead of the chamber music. Schumann studied were more affordable and
conventional fast movement, Haydn them before embarking on his three widely available, following
presents an adagio with a calm and Op. 41 quartets, and all future improvements in the
composers of quartets would take manufacture of instruments.
inspiration from Haydn. ■
While string quartets were
Haydn often visited Vienna as part the most popular form of
of Prince Esterházy’s retinue. In this chamber ensemble during
19th-century painting, he is shown (in the Classical and Romantic
light blue) directing a quartet from his periods, composers also wrote
preferred second violin position. for quintets, with an extra
viola, cello, or the addition
of a double bass, and
eventually works featuring
other “fifth” instruments,
such as the clarinet, creating
a richer sound. Work for
woodwind quintets (flute,
oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and
horn) also appeared.

As many middle-class
households acquired a piano
in the late 18th century,
composers produced chamber
music for the piano—the piano
trio (piano, violin, and cello),
quartet (piano trio and viola),
and quintet (string quartet
with piano). The piano duet for
two players at one instrument
also became popular for
domestic and concert
performances, and a number
of composers wrote works for
four hands, including Mozart
and Schubert.

128 IN CONTEXT

RTTAHRBAIEEOSMVMEEEDONASMDLTOOLUZMASARGSTETNEIRUSS FOCUS
Innovation in the Classical
SYMPHONY NO. 40 IN G MINOR, K. 550 (1788), symphony
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART
BEFORE
1759–1795 Joseph Haydn
composes more than 100
symphonies in the four-
movement format.

1764 Aged eight, Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart composes
his First Symphony in E-flat
major, K.16.

AFTER
1803 Ludwig van Beethoven
completes his stormy, political
“Eroica” symphony.

1824 Beethoven finishes his
symphonic project with the
Ninth Symphony, including a
final movement featuring vocal
soloists and chorus.

B y the beginning of the
1780s, Mozart had written
more than 30 symphonies.
These works were influenced by
both musical and extra-musical
factors, including his work in the
archbishop’s court in his home city
of Salzburg, his tours of Italy’s
musical centers, his search for
employment in Munich and Paris,
and his visits to Mannheim, the
capital of the symphony during
the 18th century.

Classical zenith
After he settled in Vienna in
1781, Mozart wrote relatively few
symphonies, focusing instead on
piano concertos, chamber music,
and works for the theatre. Yet in
the summer of 1788, he wrote his

CLASSICAL 1750–1820 129

See also: Stamitz’s Symphony in E-flat major 116–117 ■ The Magic Flute 134–137 ■
“Eroica” Symphony 138–141 ■ Der Freischütz 149 ■ The Ring Cycle 180–187

final three symphonies, Nos. 39–41, minor keys, syncopated rhythms, Wolfgang Amadeus
including the Symphony No. 40 in melodic leaps, and other flourishes, Mozart
G minor, K.550, possibly composed all of which characterize Mozart’s
for a projected concert series in “Little” G minor symphony (No. 25, Born in Salzburg, then part
a central Viennese casino. These K. 183/173dB), completed in 1773. of the Holy Roman Empire,
works represent the culmination in 1756, Mozart followed in
of the symphonic genre during This moody music often went the footsteps of his father,
the Classical period—though they hand in hand with the virtuoso Leopold, a musician and
also look ahead to the music of playing associated with the city composer in the archbishop’s
the 19th century, with its emphasis of Mannheim in Germany, which court. Yet Mozart’s brilliance
on a broad range of harmonies, Mozart visited in both 1763, as a violinist, pianist, and
along with concert programs when he was seven years old, composer meant that Salzburg
ascribing distinct narratives and and again in 1777–1778, at age 21. often seemed stifling, even
themes to musical pieces. Mannheim’s instrumentalists provincial, and he tried to
were famous for creating dynamic find employment elsewhere.
Expressive forces shifts and thrilling crescendoes.
As a young man, Mozart had been But it was not just the style of the In 1781, he settled in the
influenced by the Sturm und Drang Mannheim symphony that was city of Vienna, the seat of
(“storm and stress”) movement that new. Its structure also differed from Habsburg pomp and power.
emphasized emotion and creative its counterparts, consisting of four Working as a freelance
individuality. This style, which rather than three movements. The composer, he perfected genres
took its lead from contemporary symphony’s previously dancing ❯❯ such as the symphony, the
literature, is also evident in works concerto, and the string
by the pioneering and prolific Mozart often composed music quartet, and wrote a handful
“father of the symphony,” Joseph in segments before fleshing them of highly successful operas.
Haydn. In music, Sturm und Drang out as finished manuscripts, such Mozart died of mysterious
found expression in the use of as the one below of his Symphony causes in late 1791, at the age
No. 40 in G minor. of 35, leaving behind some
600 musical works and an
extraordinary legacy for the
generation that followed.

Other key works

1773 Symphony No. 25
in G minor
1779 Krönungsmesse
1786 The Marriage of Figaro
1790 Cosi fan tutte
1791 Requiem (incomplete)

130 INNOVATION IN THE CLASSICAL SYMPHONY

(and somewhat frivolous) finales of this was designed to impress Mozart created a second version
were also given greater weight by the worldly Viennese, as were the of Symphony No. 40 that included
these court composers, further audacious tonal choices that clarinets, which had only recently been
revolutionizing the genre. Mozart made across all four invented. These were created by the
movements. These often require 18th-century craftsman Jacob Denner.
The 40th symphony feats of musical ingenuity across
While several of Mozart’s early the scale, particularly at the first movement, which starts as if
works flaunt these Mannheim- beginning of the development in mid-flow. Equally complex—and
influenced, dramatic musical section of the energetic finale. sometimes quite confrontational—
characteristics—for example, Here, Mozart uses 11 out of the is the orchestral texture. Although
juxtaposing the woodwind and 12 notes of the chromatic scale it never breaks out into a full fugue,
string sections to powerful (leaving out only G, the tonic—or as in the final movement of
effect—his later “Great” Symphony, central note—of the symphony), Mozart’s “Jupiter” Symphony
No. 40 in G minor is characterized creating a complex and sometimes
by a more integrated instrumental dissonant sound. It is little wonder
palette. This style is typical of that Arnold Schoenberg, known for
works from Vienna, which along employing all 12 notes in a scale,
with Mannheim was the city most would later be drawn to this work
strongly associated with the in particular.
symphony as a genre in the 18th
century. While ostensibly more The home key, G minor, is also
subdued, harmonic color and an important component of the
melodic drama are in plentiful work. It was, for Mozart, the
supply here as well. musical channel through which
he frequently expressed pain or
Beginning with a sighing figure tragedy, not just in complete works
in the strings, Symphony No. 40 but also in arias such as Pamina’s
in G minor features a number of “Ach, ich fühl’s” (“Oh, I feel it”) in
bold, stormy passages, as well The Magic Flute. In addition to
as virtuoso writing for the entire Symphony No. 40’s harmonic twists
orchestra. Indeed, the whole work and turns, its feeling of emotional
has the feeling of an unspoken, unpredictability stems from the
tragic drama and often echoes varying lengths of its musical
Mozart’s music for the stage. All phrases, as at the beginning of the

A musical hub Schubert (who was born in
Vienna), the Strauss family,
As capital of the Habsburg Brahms, Bruckner, Mahler,
Empire, Vienna was the center Schoenberg, and Webern.
of European music for two
centuries. It was home to many As the public interest in
of the great Classical composers, music expanded, new theatres
including Mozart, Haydn, and and concert halls were built to
Beethoven. They converged on cater for them. Empress Maria
the city in search of patronage Theresa built the Burgtheater
and audiences, the first in a close to the royal palace in 1741,
long list of composers, including and in 1833, the composer and
conductor Franz Lachner
The Burgtheater on Michaelerplatz, founded the Künstlerverein,
Vienna, was operated by the Habsburg the forerunner of the Vienna
court. A number of Mozart’s operas Philharmonic Orchestra, rival to
were premiered here. the Berlin Philharmonic for the
title of world’s top orchestra.

CLASSICAL 1750–1820 131

in C major (No. 41) that followed, mold with radically different works,
counterpoint—alternate melodic such as “Eroica” in 1804, and the
lines played above or below the Ninth Symphony of 1824.
main melody—is apparent
throughout. Even the minuet Mozart’s music is so Romantic developments
and trio of the symphony’s third pure and beautiful that The tonally (and expressively)
movement, normally an exercise I see it as a reflection diverse music of Beethoven’s
in pleasant repetition, prove rather of the inner workings contemporary Franz Schubert
heated, more in the manner of a also found its model in Mozart’s
quarrel than a courtly dance. of the universe. final works. Those who followed
Albert Einstein these Viennese masters, such as
Together, the symphony’s four Hector Berlioz and Franz Liszt,
movements move us far beyond After Mozart’s death, his final three continued to adapt the Classical
the balance and poise of Mozart’s symphonies, a magnificent triptych symphony to their own Romantic
earlier works—as well as those with the G minor at its heart, were ends, introducing new dramatic
of his contemporaries. They look repeatedly held up as the pinnacle effects and elements, such as
ahead to the more turbulent of the Classical symphony. These program notes to help the audience
music of the Romantic period. works—along with Haydn’s own interpret the music, as in Berlioz’s
great body of symphonies—no Symphonie fantastique and
Mozart’s legacy doubt provided the benchmark for Liszt’s symphonic poems.
It is not clear if Symphony No. 40 the young Ludwig van Beethoven.
was premiered during Mozart’s Born in Bonn, Beethoven arrived Collectively, these gave the
lifetime, and many commentators in Vienna the year after Mozart’s symphony an even greater sense
claimed that it was not written death and became one of Haydn’s of theater and formed the basis
for Vienna at all, but for posterity. pupils, initially emulating the for Richard Wagner’s “symphonic”
However, the presence of a second music of both his teacher and his operas, with their emphasis on
version of the score, including idol Mozart. Eventually, however, recurrent motifs and the changing
parts for two clarinets, probably Beethoven would break their role of the orchestra—Wagner was
written for Mozart’s friends, the first to place the orchestra out
the clarinetists and basset horn of sight of the audience, focusing
players Anton and Johann Stadler, attention on the stage. The roots of
indicates that Mozart must have such bold innovations are found in
heard at least one performance the symphonic works Mozart wrote
before he died in 1791. toward the end of his short life. ■

The first movement of a The second
symphony presents several themes and movement presents lyrical
develops the sections in different keys, ending melodies. It usually has a ternary form,
with three sections, the third
in the main key, usually in a fast-pace
sonata-allegro form. repeating the first.

The fourth movement is Two brisk minuets separated by a
fairly fast and often in a rondo form, in contrasting trio section in ternary form
which the first section is repeated and there
make up the third movement.
is a different new section between
each repetition.

132

POWTIHNAHEENOOOPLEBEIRSJOFETROCOCRTHMSOEUEFSBRTTSRFHTOAEITRUATE

PIANO SONATA IN F-SHARP MINOR, OP. 25, NO. 5
(1790), MUZIO CLEMENTI

IN CONTEXT T he development of the became commonplace. Composers
instrumental sonata also began structuring their music
FOCUS mirrored a change in the into large-scale arcs called sonatas,
The instrumental sonata function of music in the Classical which allowed the audience to
period. Music was no longer an experience a more varied musical
BEFORE accompaniment to dance or prayer journey. Anglo-Italian composer
1758 Domenico Scarlatti but a focus in its own right, and Muzio Clementi was an important
publishes his 30 Essercizi per composers thus worked to find innovator in this evolving structure,
Gravicembalo, which form new ways to engage the audience. his Sonata in F-sharp minor being
part of his more than 500 With the rise in popularity of the a prime example of the form.
sonatas for keyboard. newly invented piano, one way
of achieving this was through the A Clementi & Co. square piano
1771 Joseph Haydn drama of juxtaposing loud and soft from London, where Clementi’s
specifically names a piano passages, which had not been piano manufacturing company
piece a “sonata” rather than possible on the harpsichord. This flourished in the early 18th century.
a divertimento.

AFTER
1818 Beethoven completes
his Hammerklavier Sonata,
Op. 106, which takes the
sonata to new heights of
complexity and virtuosity.

1853 Franz Liszt writes his
piano Sonata in B minor and
redefines the genre for the
Romantic age.

CLASSICAL 1750–1820 133

See also: Scarlatti’s Sonata in D minor 90–91 ■ Haydn’s String Quartet in
C major, Op. 5, No. 2 122–127 ■ “Eroica” Symphony 138–141 ■ Préludes 164–165

Generally, sonatas were formed of The Sonata Principle Muzio Clementi
three or four movements, the first
of which was structured according Exposition Born in Rome in 1752, Muzio
to what is now called the Sonata Two themes are presented Clementi came to the notice
Principle. This was usually the in two different keys. The first of the English patron, Sir Peter
longest and most dramatic of the Beckford, at the age of 14.
movements and the one in which theme is in the tonic key. Taking Clementi to his estate
the composer was expected to in Dorset, England, Beckford
demonstrate his dexterity in Development sponsored Clementi’s musical
musical discourse to move and grip The themes are education for the next seven
the audience. Usually a fast, driving manipulated, fragmented, years. At his debut, Clementi
movement, the first movement of extended, and transformed. was possibly the most
Clementi’s Sonata in F-sharp minor accomplished keyboard player
is unusual in that it portrayed a Recapitulation in the world, and he was the
slower, more meditative mood of Both themes are replayed, first true piano virtuoso.
considerable pathos, distinguishing now both in the tonic key.
it from other works of the time. In 1780, Clementi began
Coda a two-year tour of Europe,
A sonata’s second movement Rounds off the movement. during which he met Mozart
was usually slower, giving the in Vienna. (While Clementi
composer a chance to demonstrate The sonata principle was impressed by Mozart’s
his finer sensibilities, and often had creates a musical “spirit and grace,” Mozart in
songlike sections. In his F-sharp turn called him a “charlatan.”)
minor sonata, Clementi goes one argument that creates Back in London, Clementi
step further: sometimes the treble tension and resolution. became a celebrated composer
has a single line, resembling a and teacher. He was also a
singer’s aria, accompanied by the audience and often great acclaim very successful publisher and
light repeated chords found in for the performers. In this sonata, piano manufacturer, and he
operatic string writing. By using Clementi enjoyed showing off his helped to found the Royal
such a technique, Clementi was technique of playing two passages Philharmonic Society. He
perhaps attempting to steal a little a third apart with one hand—a skill died in 1832 and is buried
limelight from the opera—the most for which he was famous. This was in Westminster Abbey.
public forum for music at the time. beyond the ability of amateurs (and
most performers), thereby setting a Other key works
Minuet/trio and finale seal on this work as a piece worthy
In four-movement sonatas, it was of the concert hall. ■ Before 1781 Piano Sonata
then traditional to include a minuet in B-flat minor, Op. 24 No. 2.
and trio as a throwback to the 1800 12 Waltzes for Piano,
Baroque dance suites, and this Triangle, and Tambourine
provided a kind of respite amid the 1826 Gradus ad Parnassum
stronger movements—although
Beethoven would soon exchange
this respite for a vigorous “scherzo”
(Italian for “to joke”), whose mood
might range from irony to terror.

The finale was usually lighter in
substance but far more brilliant in
terms of technical display, thus
allowing a satisfying ending for an

134 IN CONTEXT

IDPWNOEEWAJTOWEHYRA’STLOHKDFR,ABOMRYUUKGTSNHHICIEG,HT FOCUS
Opera in German
THE MAGIC FLUTE (1791),
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART BEFORE
1770 Johann Adam Hiller’s
comic opera Die Jagd (“The
Hunt”), one of the most popular
18th-century singspiels opens.

1789 The premiere of Oberon,
König der Elfen (Oberon, King
of the Elves) by Czech Paul
Wranitzky sets a trend for
Zauberoper (“magic opera”).

AFTER
1805 Beethoven’s only opera,
Fidelio, a singspiel, has its
first performance in Vienna.

1816 E.T.A. Hoffmann’s
Undine, a Zauberoper about
a water spirit, opens in Berlin.

1821 Carl Maria von
Weber’s Der Freischütz
(“The Marksman”), a Romantic
singspiel with a supernatural
theme, premieres in Berlin.

M ozart’s The Magic Flute,
a two-act opera first
performed in Vienna in
September 1791, marked the peak
of the development of singspiel
(“sing-play”), a uniquely German
opera genre that combined music
with spoken word.

Based on a libretto by Mozart’s
friend Emanuel Schikaneder, the
opera is set in ancient Egypt and
tells the story of a prince, Tamino,
who strays into the realm of the
mysterious Queen of the Night
where he is attacked by a serpent.
Rescued by the queen’s three
ladies-in-waiting, he falls in love
with a portrait they show him of
the queen’s daughter, Pamina, who

CLASSICAL 1750–1820 135

See also: Orfeo ed Euridice 118–119 ■ C.P.E. Bach’s Flute Concerto in A major 120–121 ■ Mozart’s Symphony No. 40 in G
minor 128–131 ■ The Barber of Seville 148 ■ Der Freischütz 149 ■ Tosca 194–197

Mozart’s The Magic Flute remains Mozart’s Idomeneo (1781) and La songs. John Gay’s The Beggar’s
hugely popular. The opera drew more clemenza di Tito (1791)—often drew Opera (1728) was the most famous
than 400,000 spectators at Austria’s its stories from the mythology and ballad opera, but it was Gay’s
Bregenz Festival during a two-year history of ancient Greece and Irish contemporary Charles Coffey
run in 2013 and 2014. Rome. Opera buffa was comic, who had the greatest impact in
with Mozart’s The Marriage of 18th-century Germany. His ballad ❯❯
has been abducted by Sarastro, Figaro (1786) an outstanding
high priest of the gods Isis and example of the genre. I’ve just got back from the
Osiris. Tamino vows to rescue opera; it was as full as ever …
Pamina. He, his comic companion, Singspiel had its roots in early you can see [it] continuing to
Papageno (the queen’s bird- 18th-century Vienna, where the
catcher), and Pamina undergo a imposing Theater am Kärntnertor rise in people’s estimation.
series of ordeals, armed only with specialized in popular musical Wolfgang
a magic flute and magic chimes. dramas. Unlike the Italian operas
Light eventually triumphs over performed for the court and nobility, Amadeus Mozart
darkness, bringing a happy ending. these entertainments were for
Viennese of all social backgrounds.
Popular appeal From Vienna, singspiels spread to
Mozart wrote 20 operas in all, in Germany, where in the mid-century
three genres: opera seria, opera they gained in popularity due to
buffa (both sung throughout), and the influence of French opéra
singspiel. Opera seria, the grandest comique and English ballad opera.
form of opera—a style that includes Both these genres mingled spoken
dialogue, often satirical, with

136 OPERA IN GERMAN

Freemasons swear in a new Mozart and Freemasonry many attractions—it offered a
member in a colored copper free-thinking and enlightened
engraving of c.1750. Mozart was On December 14, 1784, Mozart approach to religion; espoused
similarly initiated into Vienna’s was admitted to one of Vienna’s the virtue of justice, which for
“Beneficence” lodge in 1784. eight Freemason lodges. The city many Masons meant active
at that time had more than 700 opposition to abuses of state
Masons, including “brethren”— and clerical power; and provided
then, as now, only men could be a place where men of different
Masons—drawn from the highest status could mix on terms
nobility, officialdom, and even of relative equality. Mozart
clergy, but also from the ranks remained a devoted Mason
of the middle classes: doctors, the rest of his life and wrote
merchants, booksellers, and several pieces for performance
musicians, including Mozart’s at Masonic occasions, notably
librettist for The Magic Flute, 1785’s Masonic Funeral Music in
Emanuel Schikaneder. For men C Minor in memory of two of his
like Mozart, Freemasonry had recently passed brethren.

opera The Devil to Pay, a huge numbers added for atmosphere and Vienna’s Burgtheater in 1778.
success in Britain, became a to convey character. In works such as One of its biggest successes was
success in translation in Berlin, in Hiller’s Die Jagd (“The Hunt”) (1770) Mozart’s The Abduction from the
the 1740s. Two adaptations of other and Benda’s Walder (1776) and Seraglio (1782).
operas by Coffey inspired the Romeo und Julie (1776), the singing
Leipzig-based Johann Adam Hiller, parts became the dramatic core of In the spring of 1791, Emanuel
regarded as the father of singspiel, the piece. Official recognition Schikaneder commissioned Mozart
to begin his career in the 1760s. of such works as examples of a to write another singspiel—this
popular and distinctively German time for the Theatre auf der Wieden
National genre genre, to be encouraged in the face in Vienna, where Schikaneder was
In the hands of composers such as of the all-dominant Italian opera, the director. Oberon, the King of
Hiller, Georg Anton Benda, Karl came when Habsburg Emperor the Elves, with music by Mozart’s
Ditters von Dittersdorf, and Ignaz Joseph II, a lover and patron of the friend Paul Wranitzky, was a recent
Umlauf, singspiels were no longer arts, established a short-lived hit for Schikaneder’s company
simply spoken dramas with musical National-Singspiel company at and an example of a new breed
of singspiel, sometimes called

The Magic Flute’s characters expressed through music

The Queen of the Night Papageno (bird-catcher) Tamino and Pamina Sarastro (high priest)
Soprano, whose vocal Baritone, who sings upbeat Tenor and soprano, Bass, whose slow and dignified
dexterity culminates and bouncy folk melodies respectively, whose performance, with speechlike
in a staccato aria that with prominent use of pan romantic and deeply felt delivery in parts and heightened
represents instability, pipes, suggesting his arias represent enlightened by grand orchestral flourishes,
greed, and duplicity. happy-go-lucky nature. principles of light and joy. suggests justice and wisdom.

CLASSICAL 1750–1820 137

Zauberoper (“magic opera”), which
mingled comedy with supernatural
elements and impressive spectacle.
Keen to repeat the success of
Wranitzky’s work, Schikaneder
himself wrote the libretto for the
new opera, although it is likely that
Mozart collaborated as well. The
two men took a fairy tale by August
Jacob Liebeskind, Lulu, oder die
Zauberflöte (Lulu, or The Magic
Flute), as their starting point but
transformed it almost beyond
recognition. Among other things,
they added Masonic elements
(Wranitzky, Schikaneder, and
Mozart were Freemasons), such
as in the initiatory ordeals that
the protagonists endure.

The Magic Flute Night to the touching comedy of Opera-goers in London watch from a
Mozart died in 1791, just two the duet, “Pa-pa-pa-Papagena,” box in a 1796 painting by an unknown
months after The Magic Flute in which Papageno and his mate artist. Opera became fashionable in
premiered. It was not only his last Papagena imagine a blissful future the early 18th century, with new operas
major completed work but also one together. Only such a perfect commissioned for each season.
of his most sublime. In all Mozart’s command of musical expression
operas, he showed an unsurpassed enabled Mozart to hold together The Magic Flute’s influence on
gift for creating the right music to convincingly the often unsettling the development of singspiel and
fit each character, situation, or ambivalences and reversals of the German Romantic opera was
emotion. In The Magic Flute, this opera, such as the point when the fundamental. It carried singspiel
ranges from the deep solemnity of Queen of the Night unexpectedly into the 19th century, when the
the priest Sarastro’s songs and two turns from grieving mother to spite- genre developed in two directions.
powerful arias of the Queen of the filled ally of her daughter’s worst One strand led to Beethoven’s
enemy, Monostatos. opera Fidelio (1805), and—more
Salieri listened and watched formatively—to further “magic
with total attentiveness … The opera’s premiere on operas,” such as E.T.A. Hoffmann’s
there wasn’t a number that September 30, 1791, started badly Undine (1816) and Carl Maria von
didn’t call forth from him but ended well. During the first act, Weber’s Der Freischütz (1821) and
the audience was muted in its Oberon (1826). These were the
a “bravo” or a “bello.” response. Perhaps, despite the precursors of full-blown German
Wolfgang Amadeus recent success of Oberon, King of Romantic opera, best exemplified
the Elves, they were baffled by the in the works of Richard Wagner.
Mozart Zauberoper’s strangely magical The other strand of singspiel stayed
qualities. In the second act, true to its lighter-hearted origins,
however, the audience came leading to the Viennese operettas
alive and at the end called Mozart of Johann Strauss the younger
onto the stage to applaud him. (Die Fledermaus) and Franz Lehár
The Magic Flute has remained (The Merry Widow). ■
perennially popular ever since.

138 IN CONTEXT

IINLIMVYE NOONTLYES FOCUS
Breaking the mold of
SYMPHONY NO. 3 IN E-FLAT MAJOR, the classical sonata
“EROICA,” OP. 55 (1804), LUDWIG
VAN BEETHOVEN BEFORE
1759 Joseph Haydn writes
his First Symphony—in three
movements.

1793 The German theorist
Heinrich Christoph Koch
is the first to describe how
the sonata form works.

1800 Beethoven completes
his First Symphony.

AFTER
1810 Critic E.T.A. Hoffmann
describes Beethoven as
“a purely romantic composer”
in a review of Symphony No. 5.

1824 Beethoven’s Symphony
No. 9 amazes audiences by
adding voices to a previously
purely instrumental genre.

B eethoven’s “Eroica” broke
boundaries and audience
expectations on its public
premiere in 1805, representing a
radical reworking of what was
understood by a “symphony.” The
composer’s daring expansion of
sonata form, his rebalancing of
musical structure, and even his
ordering of the work’s movements,
met with puzzlement and outrage.

The seeds of the symphony
were sown, surprisingly, with a
dance. In March 1801, a new ballet,
Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus
(The Creatures of Prometheus) had
its first performance at the Vienna
Burgtheater. Beethoven provided
the music, which ended with a jolly
theme in E-flat major. The melody

CLASSICAL 1750–1820 139

See also: Stamitz’s Symphony in E-flat major 116–117 ■ Mozart’s Symphony
No. 40 in G minor 128–131 ■ Symphonie fantastique 162–163 ■ Schumann’s
Symphony No. 1 166–169 ■ Dvorˇák’s Symphony No. 9 212–215

I’ll give another with a dedication to Prince Franz
kreuzer if the thing Joseph (who paid Beethoven
handsomely for it) and given the
will only stop! subtitle “composed to celebrate
Audience member the memory of a great man.” The
most likely candidate for the
Public premiere of the “Eroica” (1805) “great man,” and the source of
the title “Eroica” (Italian for
“heroic”), is Louis Ferdinand, Ludwig van Beethoven
Prince of Prussia, who was killed
in battle against the French in The son of an obscure court
1806 and to whom Beethoven musician, Beethoven was born
had dedicated his Third Piano in Bonn in 1770. He moved to
Concerto, Op. 37, in 1803. Vienna in 1792 and studied
briefly with Haydn and
obviously appealed to him, as Tearing up the rule book Antonio Salieri. A prodigiously
around the same time he included Symphony No. 3 begins with talented pianist, he made his
it in a collection of 12 orchestral a movement that was stretched name first as a virtuoso and
Contredanses (country dances) and expanded far beyond anything acquired a number of wealthy
and Fifteen Variations and Fugue that Viennese audiences had noble admirers, who aided his
for solo piano, which would later heard before. Instead of the establishment as a composer.
form the basis of the “Eroica” finale. carefully balanced proportions of
the classical sonata form, where an In every musical genre he
A symphony takes shape “exposition” and “recapitulation” explored, Beethoven was a
Beethoven began to plan his Third match each other around a short radical innovator, constantly
Symphony in autumn 1802, had “development” section, with a surprising audiences. After
a complete piano score by October brief “coda” (“tail” in Italian) to ❯❯ Haydn’s death in 1809, he was
1803, and had an orchestrated the preeminent composer of
version by early summer 1804. The The herioc deeds of Napoleon his generation and a leading
work was first performed privately Bonaparte, depicted in Napoleon figure in the new Romantic
at the home of Prince Franz Joseph Crossing the Alps by Jacques-Louis age. In a cruel twist of fate,
von Lobkowitz, one of Beethoven’s David (1748–1825), inspired Beethoven Beethoven started to lose his
patrons and sponsors, and then to write the “Eroica” symphony. hearing in his late 20s, and by
given its public premiere at the 1818 he was nearly completely
Theater an der Wien, in Vienna. deaf. Nevertheless, after this
date, until his death in Vienna
The composer had intended in 1827, Beethoven wrote
to dedicate his work to Napoleon some of his most inventive
Bonaparte. But when the general and radical works.
declared himself the Emperor of
France, Beethoven crossed his Other key works
name from the manuscript.
Removing the dedication made 1808 Symphonies No. 5 and
political sense: once Napoleon’s No. 6, Op. 67 and Op. 68
invasion plans became clear, it 1818 Piano Sonata in B-flat,
would have been career suicide to Hammerklavier, Op. 106
celebrate him in a new symphony. 1824 Symphony No. 9 in D
The work was eventually printed minor, Op. 125

140 BREAKING THE MOLD OF THE CLASSICAL SONATA

The Lobkowitz Palace, in Vienna,
in a colored etching by Vincenz Reim
(1796–1858), was the site of the first
performance of Beethoven's Symphony
No. 3 in August 1804.

round off the movement, Beethoven Beyond the thematic manipulation, The third movement is lighter—a
composed a hugely extended the music of the first movement is lively scherzo (Italian for “joke”).
development, falling between a full of syncopations that distort Like most scherzo symphony
long exposition and recapitulation, the listener’s sense of the rhythm. movements, it includes a trio
and ending with a coda of more Also, strong dissonances—ugly middle section based on three
than 100 measures. to listeners in the early 1800s— instruments. Beethoven innovated
leap out, where major and minor here by using French horns more
Not only was the extreme seconds (notes two semitones and prominently in a symphony than
duration and balance of the first one semitone apart, respectively) ever before. These instruments had
movement unusual, but Beethoven grate against each other. no valves in the early 1800s, so they
also introduced an entirely new could play arpeggios only in a single
theme after the exposition (where Constant surprises key, which made them sound
all themes were traditionally first Beethoven followed the huge especially martial, like a battle call.
stated) had ended. This new theme structure of the first movement,
was in E major, a key very far from with its surprising tonal twists and The main theme of the scherzo
the home key of the piece. turns, with a slow movement, cast starts in an unexpected key. The
as a Marcia funebre, or funeral music has already changed key,
The shape of the opening theme march. It is an intensely dramatic from E-flat to B-flat, before the oboe
of the “Eroica” is also atypical. piece, with the minor-key opening finally begins the theme. Once
It includes a C-sharp, a rogue note theme eventually giving way to again, Beethoven was deliberately
that does not belong in the key of a blazing, more hopeful C major, catching his audience by surprise.
E-flat major, and so pulls the music before the opening theme returns
away from its home key and and is presented as a fugato—a The end and beyond
unsettles it. As a result, Beethoven short fuguelike piece, where the The finale of “Eroica” is a set of
had to rewrite this subject in the theme is imitated simultaneously variations on a theme. Although
recapitulation to get rid of the by different instruments as if they this was not the first symphony to
C-sharp and create a satisfactory are chasing each other. To have
resolution. This defied the rules such rich and intricate musical This strange and
of sonata form, in which the textures woven so extensively thundering work, the
recapitulation is meant to contain into more than one movement most extensive and
the work’s musical ideas in the was groundbreaking. richly artistic piece of
same form as they appeared in all those created by
the exposition. Beethoven’s original
and wondrous spirit.
Opening of a review

Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung
(February 18, 1807)

CLASSICAL 1750–1820 141

Expressive grandeur in Beethoven’s “Eroica”

Opens with two More developed first movement A second movement
powerful chords. than any symphony to date, that opens with a sombre
and longer than many funeral march in C minor.
entire symphonies.

Use of triadic “Eroica” is An energetic scherzo in
(three-note) themes. revolutionary the third movement.

Huge range Harmonic tensions
of keys. and surprises.

Prominent use
of brasses to

produce “heroic” end.

use a theme-and-variation form as subtly interlinked. He was to Symphony No. 3 was already known
its closing movement, Beethoven venture even further in his later as the “Eroica” by the time it was
broke with tradition by failing to symphonies, and by the time he published, as this frontispiece of
start with the theme itself. Instead, reached the Ninth, in 1824, what the first edition shows.
the movement begins with a bass had once been four separate units
line, from which Beethoven builds linked only by a common title,
the orchestral texture until we had become a musical narrative
finally reach the theme melody. He brilliantly interwoven across the
was turning the form on its head by old sonata structure.
effectively writing variations before
he had even got to the theme. Also, Those who witnessed the early
rather than the variations being performances of the “Eroica” found
based on a single melody, the whole it a difficult work to understand—it
orchestra is involved in exchanging was simply too far from their idea
and developing interweaving lines of how a symphony should work,
of material, ending in an elaborate both in terms of its length and its
fugato that brings the music firmly structure. But it was soon accepted
and finally to the home key. as a work of profound genius and
was to exert a huge influence on
Beethoven had created a four- later generations of symphonists,
movement journey through keys, from Schumann and Brahms to
themes, and ideas, cleverly and Bruckner and Mahler. ■

ROMA

1810–1920

NTIC

144 INTRODUCTION

Niccolò Paganini Franz Schubert’s In Paris, Hector Intended to convey a
composes the first of his song cycle Die schöne Berlioz premieres longing for springtime,
Symphonie fantastique,
24 Caprices for Solo Müllerin marks Robert Schumann
Violin, which are among the high point in one of the most writes his Symphony
the most difficult violin the German Lied influential works in the No. 1 over four days
programmatic genre.
pieces of all time. (song) form. in January.

1805 1824 1830 1841

1821 1826 1839 1846

Based on a German folk Epitomizing Frédéric Chopin’s The colorful
legend, Carl Maria Beethoven’s late style, cycle of 24 preludes, orchestration of Felix
von Weber’s opera Mendelssohn’s Elijah
Der Freischütz his String Quartet covering all major
explores German No. 14, Op. 131 abandons and minor keys, breathes new life
national identity. the quartet’s traditional defies conventional into the oratorio, a
thematic structure.
form and development. Baroque genre.

T he Romantic movement bohemian clothes replaced the wigs example, are in a more Classical
arose largely as a reaction and formal costumes of the Classical style. Yet Schubert was inspired by
to the rationalization and period, and the lifestyles of the the subjects of German Romantic
urbanization of European society Romantic composers were often poetry in the songs, or Lieder, for
following the Industrial Revolution. as colorful as their music. which he is best known. This
From the end of the 18th century, aspect of Romanticism, especially
writers, artists, and composers Beethoven developed a more the love of nature, later inspired the
turned away from the formal personal style of music from 1803. work of Robert Schumann, whose
elegance of the Classical period In what is regarded as his “middle symphonies and piano pieces were
in favor of personal expression period,” he produced groundbreaking often programmatic (painting a
and a fascination with nature. In piano sonatas, string quartets, picture or telling a story in music),
music, this manifested itself in a other forms of chamber music, and, a genre begun by Beethoven’s
gradual expansion of the harmonic above all, symphonies. In his “late “Pastoral” Sixth Symphony, which
and instrumental palette to appeal period,” a final burst of creativity, depicts a series of rural scenes.
to the emotions rather than the when he was isolated from the
intellects of the audience. world by profound deafness, he Hector Berlioz relished the
produced work of extraordinary possibilities offered by a larger
The new style intensity, such as his last piano orchestra and extended harmonic
Beethoven fulfilled the stereotype sonatas, string quartets, and language. His operas, orchestral,
of the Romantic musician, as the Ninth Symphony, with its and choral works, all on a grand
did the violinist Niccolò Paganini innovative choral finale. scale with large orchestras, were
and some other virtuoso performer- expressive and highly personal. He
composers. Long unkempt hair and Not every composer joined the continued the drift away from the
Romantic tide. The instrumental abstract to the programmatic in his
works of Franz Schubert, for

ROMANTIC 1810–1920 145

The premiere of Johann Strauss II Johannes Brahms’s The brutal plot of Giacomo
Giuseppe Verdi’s writes The Blue First Symphony premieres Puccini’s opera Tosca
La traviata in Venice Danube, a waltz
shocks audiences by in Karlsruhe, Germany, typifies verismo (“realism”),
taking a fallen woman with a rich symphonic recalling the Classical a form of opera popular in
as its subject matter. sound that takes
Europe by storm. style of Beethoven. Italy and France.

1853 1867 1876 1900
1857 1876 1896 1908

Franz Liszt’s Faust The fourth part of Inspired by Nietzsche’s Gustav Mahler
Symphony, inspired by Richard Wagner’s Ring novel, Richard Strauss writes Das Lied
Johann Wolfgang von Cycle opens in Bayreuth, composes Also sprach von der Erde, a
Zarathustra, a symphonic contemplation on
Goethe’s play of the marking the end of his the inevitability
same name, premieres “total artwork,” composed poem that rejects
in Weimar, Germany. Romantic conventions. of death.
over 26 years.

symphonies, a trend that was Johann Strauss I and II, father and matter and aiming for a more
taken up later by many composers, son, played on this nostalgia with convincing form of dramatic
especially Franz Liszt, who their waltzes, but other composers representation. Others followed his
developed a form known as the also felt the lack of discipline in lead: Bizet in France, the giants of
symphonic poem, or tone poem. Romantic music. Foremost among Italian opera, Verdi and Puccini,
them was Johannes Brahms, who pursued a new kind of realism
Liszt was also famous as a who moderated expression within in opera, and in Germany, Richard
young man for his virtuosity when stricter Classical forms. Another Wagner, whose operas were on the
performing his own piano pieces, was Felix Mendelssohn, whose grandest of scales and stretched
and he gained a large and devoted oratorios harked back to the musical language. With his
following. These solo piano recitals Baroque period, reviving German innovatory harmonies, Wagner
were popular entertainment of the and English choral traditions laid challenged the idea of tonality,
period, especially when given by down by Handel and Bach. which had been the foundation
Romantic characters such as of musical form since the end of
Liszt or Frédéric Chopin, whose Romantic opera the Renaissance.
more delicate and lyrical style of Opera, with its combination of
composition appealed particularly literature and music, was ideally Wagner inspired what is now
to French audiences. suited to portraying Romantic known as the late Romantic style,
themes and ideas. Carl Maria von exemplified by composers such as
Exceptions to the rule Weber established the template Anton Bruckner, Gustav Mahler,
Despite the popularity of Romantic for Romantic opera by choosing and Richard Strauss. This heralded
music, some composers missed German folklore rather than the beginning of modern music in
the elegance of Classicism. In Classical mythology as his subject which the old rules of harmony no
fashionable Vienna, for example, longer applied. ■

146

PPTTHEIHGCEEEUNVRLOI,IOMAHLERAINNLLYOFISNHPTUO…IMESTATHNHAALTF

24 CAPRICES FOR SOLO VIOLIN, OP. 1 (1824),
NICCOLÒ PAGANINI

IN CONTEXT V iolinist-composer Niccolò that he had struck a deal with
Paganini’s career as an the devil in return for his gifts.
FOCUS international performer His greatest triumphs were
The rise of the virtuoso lasted just six years, from 1828 to in Paris, which was in thrall to
1834, but his influence on music grand spectacle, new technology,
BEFORE was immense. Setting out to and brilliance in every field.
1733 Pietro Locatelli publishes entertain, he introduced new
L’arte del violino, which inspires playing techniques and raised Technical innovations
Paganini’s own Caprices. the expectations of audiences, Paganini had studied and honed
performing feats no one had his art in Italy. It is thought that
1740 The violinist Giuseppe achieved before him. He owned he started composing his 24
Tartini, known for his fast and numerous violins, including a Caprices in the early 1800s, even
exciting playing, epitomized by handful by perhaps the greatest though he did not publish them
his violin sonata Devil’s Trill, maker of all, Antonio Stradivarius. until 1820. In these showpiece
makes a concert tour of Italy. works, and numerous others, he
Chronic illness, thought to be challenged every aspect of existing
AFTER Marfan syndrome, left Paganini violin technique and introduced
1834 Hector Berlioz completes looking gaunt. This led to rumors new ideas designed to showcase
Harold en Italie, a symphony the performer’s skills. The pieces
featuring a solo viola part Easter Sunday; in the are peppered with breakneck
composed for Paganini. evening I heard Paganini. passage work, double- or even
What ecstasy! In his hands triple-stopping (bowing two or
1838 Franz Liszt publishes the driest exercises flame up three strings at the same time), as
an early form of his technically like bithium pronouncements. well as new tricks such as left-hand
demanding Études d’exécution pizzicato (using the fingers of the
transcendante d’après Robert Schumann left hand to pluck the strings) and
Paganini (“Transcendental ricochet (bouncing bowing).
studies after Paganini”), in
which he transcribed six of Inspired by Paganini
Paganini’s violin caprices for As a 19-year-old, in 1831, the
solo piano. Hungarian composer Franz Liszt
heard Paganini in Paris and was
inspired to achieve the same level
of virtuosity on the piano and to

ROMANTIC 1810–1920 147

See also: The Four Seasons 92–97 ■ Faust Symphony 176–177

cultivate an equally dramatic Paganini’s and Liszt’s talent Niccolò Paganini
persona. His career coincided pushed the boundaries of existing
with technical advances in piano techniques for both violin and Born in the Italian port town
manufacturing that made the piano. The concerto became a of Genoa in October 1782,
instrument reliable, versatile, and stage for soloists to excel on these Paganini learned the violin
loud enough to fill the large concert instruments, while the theme and and guitar from his father,
halls that catered for the growing variations form, in which a simple, who was an outstanding
middle classes. Liszt was the most often well-known melody would amateur musician. The young
highly gifted of a new breed of be submitted to increasingly Paganini supplemented his
composer-pianists who competed impressive reworkings, became training with a strict regimen
for prominence—sometimes in popular among concert-goers of practice, later claiming
piano-playing duels. His celebrity and composers. The theme of he became a virtuoso after
status helped establish the piano Paganini’s Caprice No. 24 inspired hearing a performance by the
recital in its present form, thereby works by Liszt, Johannes Brahms, Polish-born French violinist
benefiting other composers. and Sergei Rachmaninoff. August Duranowski.

The First Triumph of Paganini, Later virtuosos included the In 1809, Paganini left a
by Annibale Gatti, c.1890, possibly Belgian composer-violinist Henri court appointment in Lucca
depicts a performance at the court Vieuxtemps and composer-pianists to pursue a solo career. He
at Lucca, where Paganini built his Louis Moreau Gottschalk in the US, traveled in Italy, composing
reputation during the early 1800s. Leopold Godowsky in Poland, and and performing works that
Rachmaninoff in Russia. ■ displayed his skills. Health
problems, including syphilis,
delayed him until 1828, after
which he went first to Austria,
Bohemia, and Germany and
then, in 1831, to Paris, where
his 10 concerts at the Opéra
caused a sensation. In 1834,
continuing ill health forced
him into semi-retirement in
Italy, where he died in 1840.

Other key works

1813 Le Streghe (The Witches)
1816 Violin Concerto No. 1
1819 Sonata “a Preghiera”
1826 Violin Concerto No. 2
in B minor

148

LGSIIESVTTE,ITMANETDOAIMLWAUUSILNICLDRY

THE BARBER OF SEVILLE (1816),
GIOACHIN0 ROSSINI

IN CONTEXT S urviving a disastrous first marry her himself. Central to
night in Rome in 1816, the plot is the barber Figaro, a
FOCUS Il barbiere di Siviglia (The “fixer” in Seville. Its songs include
Italian opera buffa Barber of Seville) by Gioachino Figaros’s “Largo al factotum della
Rossini quickly won universal città” (“Make way for the factotum
BEFORE acclaim. Rossini had already of the city”) and Rosina’s “Una voce
1782 An earlier operatic written 16 operas, but this was his poco fa” (“A voice has just”).
version of Il barbiere di Siviglia first opera buffa (“comic opera”) as
(The Barber of Seville) by the opposed to an opera seria (“serious Operatic realism
Italian composer Giovanni opera”). It relates the attempts of The low-life settings and street
Paisiello is performed for the the Count Almaviva to win the language of the opera buffa brought
first time in St. Petersburg. beautiful Rosina, ward of the much fresh realism to musical drama, and
older Dr. Bartolo, who intends to its popularity spread throughout
1786 Mozart’s The Marriage Europe. Mozart’s The Marriage of
of Figaro receives its first Dear God, here it is finished, Figaro and Così fan tutte are other
performance in Vienna. this poor little Mass. Is this examples of the comic opera genre.
sacred music … or music of
AFTER the devil? I was born for opera Beethoven admired The Barber
1843 Gaetano Donizetti’s of Seville, as did Verdi and Wagner.
comic opera Don Pasquale is buffa, as you well know. Yet, apart from a one-act farce,
performed for the first time at Gioachino Rossini Rossini wrote no other comedies.
the Théâtre Italien in Paris. In the 1820s, he became director
of the Théâtre Italien, in Paris,
1850 Crispino e la comare where he wrote five more operas,
(“The cobbler and the fairy”) culminating in Guillaume Tell
by the brothers Luigi and (William Tell) in 1829. After this,
Federico Ricci is one of the last his output declined. One of his few
examples of true opera buffa. large-scale pieces in the last three
decades of his life was his Petite
messe solennelle (“small solemn
mass”) of 1863. ■

See also: Le bourgeois gentilhomme 70–71 ■ The Magic Flute 134–137 ■
La traviata 174–175 ■ Tosca 194–197