Ancient Greece - An Illustrated History

ANCIENT GREECE

This 18th-century- the situation, preferred to recognize the logographers are counted among Attica’s
CE drawing of an new government. best-known orators, even though they
ancient Greek bust never spoke during Athenian legal ses-
depicts the Athenian The orators sions; not being citizens of Athens, they
orator Lysias. He were not allowed to do so. One of the
was an adversary of After democracy was restored in Athens most famous litigators of the late fifth
the Thirty Tyrants, in 403 BCE, the city saw a period in century BCE was Lysias (c. 459–380
who ruled Athens which great orators became highly influ- BCE), who was a metic, or foreigner
after the end of the ential in meetings of the public assembly. residing in Athens.
Peloponnesian War. These orators were for the most part
legal experts who were accustomed to Lysias was a native of Syracuse. His
arguing a case in the law courts. Because, father acquired such fame as a manufac-
in theory, anyone accused of a crime in turer of armor and shields that Pericles
Athens had to argue his own defense, invited him to settle in Athens. After
many orators made money by writing their father’s death, Lysias and his elder
speeches for their clients to read in court. brother moved to Thurii, the Athenian
colony in southern Italy, where Lysias
Orators who wrote speeches for learned the art of rhetoric and eloquence
other public speakers were known as from a distinguished orator. After the
logographers or storywriters. Several failure of the Athenian campaign in
Sicily, the brothers returned to Athens,
where they earned a fortune from the
sale of weapons before the end of the
Peloponnesian War.

Following the defeat of Athens and
the installation of the Thirty Tyrants, the
new government instituted a ruthless
purge of anyone suspected of democrat-
ic sympathies. Scores of people were sent
into exile or condemned to death.
Lysias’s brother was executed, but Lysias
himself managed to escape from the city
and join the conspirators who were plan-
ning to restore democracy. After the
Thirty Tyrants were defeated, Lysias
returned to Athens. In a major trial, he
prosecuted Eratosthenes, one of the
Thirty who had survived, for the murder
of his brother. Due to the trial’s political
background, it attracted a large audience.

In his speech, Lysias outlined the
crimes that Eratosthenes had committed,
together with his role in the Thirty
Tyrants’ reign of terror. Lysias’s words
touched on matters that were fresh in the
memory of everyone. His indictment of
the oligarchs’ crimes aided the recovery
process that saw democracy reestablish
itself in Athens.

150

THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR

Spartan imperialism effect, this meant that Athenian imperial- Agesilaus II, shown
ism, as manifested in its domination of on the right in this
Although Athens had won back its free- the Delian League and its demands for 18th-century-CE
dom, Sparta remained the overlord of all annual tribute, had simply been replaced illustration, was king
Greece, which had some catastrophic by Spartan imperialism. of Sparta in the
consequences. Sparta’s victory in the fourth century BCE.
Peloponnesian War had been achieved In 399 BCE, a new king was chosen He conducted
with the help of Persian financial aid, and in Sparta. Agesilaus II (c. 444–360 BCE) several successful
in return, the Ionian Greek cities in distinguished himself by his forthright- campaigns against
Anatolia had to cede their autonomy to ness and piety and proved to be a major the Persians.
Persia once more. Sparta made other statesman and general. One of his first
cities protectorates and forced them to projects after becoming king was to go
pay large sums of money in tribute. In to the aid of the pro-Sparta Greek cities

151

ANCIENT GREECE

In 387 BCE, Persia switched sides
and signed its own peace treaty with
Sparta. Under the terms of this settle-
ment, which was called the Peace of
Antalcidas (or the King’s Peace), all the
Greek cities in Anatolia were ceded to
Persia, while the city-states of mainland
Greece and the Aegean islands became
autonomous. This treaty put an end to
Spartan imperialist ambitions and left

Athens free to develop its position as a
commercial and cultural center.

The Athenian orator in Anatolia.They were being harassed by The rise of Thebes
Demosthenes, Persian forces, so in 396 BCE, he took a
depicted in this bust, large force to the coast of Anatolia to halt The early fourth century BCE
warned his fellow Persian raids. He campaigned around the saw a new power arise.
Athenians of the Bosporus and the Meander River for the Thebes, a large city on the
threat posed by following two years. His success on the plain of Boeotia in central
Philip II. battlefield was an indication of the Greece, was known for the
decline of the Persian Empire. excellence of its army.
Under the strong leadership
The Corinthian War of the charismatic and ambi-

On the mainland, a new threat to Sparta’s tious Epaminondas (c. 410–362
dominance was looming. In 395 BCE, BCE),Thebes was to achieve pre-
the cities of Athens, Argos, Corinth, and eminence in Greece for at least a
Thebes formed, with Persian support, an short time.
alliance against Sparta. Several battles In 382 BCE, despite the terms of the
were fought between Sparta and the King’s Peace, Sparta attacked and occu-
coalition before Agesilaus was recalled pied Thebes.Thebes sought and received
from Anatolia to help deal with the situ- the support of Athens, and in 379 BCE,
ation.The conflict, called the Corinthian the Spartans were driven out. However, a
War, lasted eight years. full-scale war had started. Epaminondas
was appointed army commander in 371
BCE. He introduced new infantry tactics
that brought spectacular results at the
Battle of Leuctra, fought the same year. It
was traditional for hoplite commanders
to put their strongest and most experi-
enced soldiers on the right of their for-
mations (to stop phalanxes from drifting
to the right as soldiers sought protection
behind their comrades’ shields). At
Leuctra, Epaminondas attacked in mass
on the left. This surprise move allowed
him to overwhelm the opposition.
After annihilating the Spartans at
Leuctra, Epaminondas invaded the
Peloponnese and annexed the regions of

152

Arcadia and Messenia, freeing them from This coin bears the THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
the yoke of Sparta. At a stroke, Thebes features of the
ended Sparta’s dominance in Greece and Macedonian king die? No, he is merely ill.And his illness is
took first place among the Greek city- Philip II. Philip’s of no account, because even if Philip
states. However, the time of triumph for victory over a should die, your sluggishness would
Thebes was short-lived. Alarmed by the combined Greek cause another Philip to rise up.” In
emergence of this new rival, Sparta and army at Chaeronea spite of the fact that the advancing
Athens joined forces against the com- changed the Macedonian armies were uncomfortably
mon enemy in 369 BCE. The new Mediterranean close to the borders of Attica, the Greek
alliance engaged with the Theban army world. city-states did not react.
at the Battle of Mantinea in 362 BCE.
Although the battle was indecisive, Demosthenes’ opponent was the ora-
Epaminondas was killed, which put tor Aeschines, who was acting as the
an end to the decade of glory spokesman for the pro-Macedonian
enjoyed by Thebes. party in the assembly. This party was

Macedonia in favor of a negotiated settlement
with Philip. However, although
During the decade of Aeschines twice visited the
Theban dominance Macedonian court, he had
(371–362 BCE), two no success. In the end,
Macedonian princes Demosthenes succeed-
had been held as ed in marginalizing
hostages in Thebes. the pro-Macedonian
In 359 BCE, one of movement and then
these princes became pushed for an alliance
Philip II, king of with Thebes. How-
Macedon. Macedon ever, the alliance
lay just to the north of came too late, and
Thessaly, and during it was not strong
Philip’s reign, it became a enough to stop Philip
powerful state. The great and the Macedonian
Athenian orator Demosthenes army.
understood that there was great
danger lurking in the kingdom of Chaeronea
Macedon and the wild surrounding
region, and he incessantly warned the On August 7, 338 BCE, Philip
Athenian people of the threat of Philip. of Macedon, with an army of
According to Demosthenes, Philip “was 30,000 foot soldiers and 2,000 cavalry,
willing to sacrifice everything to gain defeated the smaller army of the Greek
fame and glory.” allies near Chaeronea on the plain of
Boeotia. This battle gave Macedonia
In his now famous oratories against complete hegemony in Greece. Philip’s
Philip of Macedon (called the Philippics), young son Alexander played a key role in
Demosthenes spoke out with increasing the Macedonians’ victory. As Alexander
vehemence against the danger posed by the Great, he would later change the
this military usurper from the north. Greek world beyond all recognition.
When a rumor spread in Athens that
Philip was seriously ill, Demosthenes See also:
railed at his fellow citizens: “Did Philip The Age of Pericles (page 110) • The Birth
of Drama (page 88) • Macedon and Alexander
the Great (page 154) • Sparta and Athens
(page 52)

153

MACEDON AND
ALEXANDER THE GREAT

TIME LINE A lexander the Great was one of the greatest military leaders
that the world has ever known. Building on the great military
356 BCE successes of his father, Philip II, Alexander created an empire that
Alexander the Great covered the entire eastern Mediterranean world.
born in Pella,
Macedonia. The young Macedonian king Alexander goes on to describe how Alexander was
crossed the Dardanelles in 334 BCE. He an avid reader and would go to bed with
336 BCE was scarcely 22 years old, and his aim was a copy of the Iliad, which he would place
Alexander ascends to conquer Persia and the whole of Asia. next to his dagger under his headrest. On
to throne of By the time he succumbed to fever at age his Asian campaign, he ordered his treas-
Macedonia following 33, he had succeeded in moving the urer Harpalus to send him books.Among
assassination of frontier of his empire 3,000 miles (4,800 the works that he received were
father, Philip II. km) east to the borders of India, subdu- Philistus’s history of Sicily and the plays
ing tens of millions of people along the of Euripides, Sophocles, and Aeschylus.
334 BCE way. However, his empire was to be
Alexander crosses short-lived—within a few years of his Alexander was only 14 years old
Dardanelles to begin death, his generals had divided the vast when he got his first taste of power and
campaign of territory among themselves. command. When his father went away
conquest in on campaign and left him in charge of
Anatolia; defeats Early life Macedon, Alexander successfully fought
Persian army at off an attack by a tribe of Thracians.Two
Granicus River. Alexander was born in 356 BCE in Pella, years later, at the age of 16, he was given
the capital of Macedonia. He was the son a command at the Battle of Chaeronea,
332 BCE of Macedonia’s king Philip II (ruled where the Macedonians defeated the
City of Tyre finally 359–336 BCE) and Olympias, a princess Greek forces.
seized by Alexander of Epirus, whom Philip had met when he
after seven-month was being initiated into the local religious Ascent to the throne
siege; later that mysteries of the island of Samothrace.
year, Alexander When Alexander reached his teens, Philip Philip II was assassinated in the summer
founds city of sent for the Athenian philosopher of 336 BCE. The reason has never been
Alexandria near Aristotle to teach his son rhetoric, philos- clearly established.The Persians may have
Nile Delta ophy, literature, and science. Alexander been behind it, or even Alexander him-
in Egypt. seems to have been an attentive student, self, who was not on the best of terms
and he remained in touch with Aristotle with his father.Whatever the truth of the
326 BCE for the rest of his life. matter, Alexander ascended the throne
Macedonian army and had the alleged conspirators sum-
defeats Indian force According to the Greek biographer marily executed.
at Hydaspes to Plutarch, Alexander inherited a love of
expand Alexander’s medicine from his tutor.The king would Before his assassination, Philip had
empire to prescribe treatment and medication to been preparing to invade Anatolia (pres-
Indus Valley. his friends when they were ill. Plutarch ent-day Turkey) via the Dardanelles.
Alexander was anxious to continue this
323 BCE
Alexander dies
from fever.

154

MACEDON AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT

mission against the region’s Persian-held father), although he could not count on This statue depicts
cities, but before he could embark on the the support of the Greek city-states Alexander the
campaign, he had to deal with troubles south of Thermopylae. Great on horseback.
closer to home. In Thessaly, leaders of an Alexander’s
independence movement had taken over The following year,Alexander crossed Companion cavalry
the government. Alexander threw them the northern border to quell rebellious was a key
out and reasserted Macedonian rule. By Thracians.The successful campaign lasted component of
the end of the summer, Alexander had for five months and took him as far as the his army.
been elected leader of the Corinthian Danube River. On his return, he took
League (a military alliance created by his only a week to subdue yet another rebel-
lion, this time by the Illyrians.

155

ANCIENT GREECE

This medallion bears a depiction of Philip II

of Macedonia, the father of Alexander the

Great. Philip greatly enlarged his kingdom

through a series of military campaigns in the

early years of his reign.

After he put down the Illyrian rebel-
lion, Alexander was forced to confront
yet another insurrection, one by the city
of Thebes, located on the plain of
Boeotia.The revolt, supported by a num-
ber of other Greek cities, was incited by
the orator Demosthenes and funded by
Persian gold.The rebels spread the rumor
that Alexander was dead and then
attacked the Macedonian garrison occu-
pying the citadel. Hearing this news,
Alexander moved his army rapidly
southward in forced marches. One
morning, the Thebans were alarmed to
see that the king they had presumed dead
was outside their walls.The Macedonians
took the city by storm, razing it and spar-

PHILIP OF MACEDON

Philip of Macedon, the father of Alexander, was incorporated equipment for siege warfare, such
born around 382 BCE, the third son of King as catapults and siege towers.
Amyntas of Macedonia.When his brother
Perdiccas was killed in a battle against the With his revitalized army, Philip embarked on a
Illyrians in 359 BCE, Philip became king at 20-year campaign of warfare and diplomacy that
around the age of 23. Philip was a shrewd was to make him master of the Greek world. In
diplomat and an inspired military commander 357 BCE, he married Olympias, a princess of
who was to transform his hitherto insignificant Epirus, and a year later, she bore him a son
kingdom into the most powerful Greek state. whom they named Alexander. In 338 BCE, having
subjugated all his non-Greek neighbors, Philip
At that time, Macedon was beset by enemies, invaded mainland Greece and defeated the
and one of Philip’s priorities on acceding to the combined forces of Athens and Thebes at the
throne was to reorganize his army into a more Battle of Chaeronea. Once Greece was his,
efficient fighting force. He introduced rigorous Philip planned to invade Anatolia and conquer
new training and refined the phalanx formation. the Persian-held cities. However, before his
Under Philip, the soldiers that made up the preparations were much advanced, Philip was
phalanx were armed with metal-tipped pikes assassinated, leaving the throne of Macedon and
around 16 feet (4.9 m) long. He also the conquest of Persia to his son, Alexander.

156

MACEDON AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT

THE PHALANX

Much of the deadly efficiency of Alexander’s was effective only on level ground and was
army depended on the phalanx, which had vulnerable on its flanks, which had to be protect-
been restyled by his father, Philip II of Macedon. ed by cavalry or light infantry such as slingers. For
The phalanx was made up of around 9,000 this reason, the usual function of the phalanx was
infantrymen, often drawn up in 256-man squares, defensive—while it stood its ground as the enemy
16 men wide and 16 men deep.The weapon of attacked, the cavalry could harass their adver-
the phalanx was the sarissa, a long, heavy pike that saries on the flanks.
measured around 16 feet (4.9 m).These weapons
were held horizontally by the first few rows, The phalanx was a flexible unit that could, if
making a wall of sharp points that stretched 10 necessary, assume different shapes—such as a
feet (3 m) or more ahead of the advancing square, a rectangle, or even a wedge or arrow-
phalanx. Because the infantry of opposing armies head shape. Because the sarissa required both
tended to be armed with spears no more than hands to hold it, each soldier wore his circular
8 feet (2.4 m) long, the Macedonian phalanx had shield on a neckstrap.When in battle, the shield
an immediate advantage. was brought around to the front of the body.
Each soldier also wore a helmet and greaves.
An advancing phalanx presented a deadly wall of
metal spikes and was a formidable fighting force. This artist’s illustration depicts a Macedonian
While the sarissas of the leading rows were phalanx about to engage with the enemy.The front
inflicting damage on their opponents, casualties three rows of the square hold their pikes horizontally.
within the phalanx were immediately replaced by The soldiers in the rows farther back hold them at an
men from the rear. However, a moving phalanx angle, ready to replace any fallen comrades.

157

ANCIENT GREECE

THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT

THRACE Black Sea Ca

MACEDON The Dardanelles spian Sea BACTRIA
Pella SOGDIANA

Thermopylae Granicus Gordium Hydaspes

Thebes River

PHRYGIA
Sardis

ANATOLIA

Issus Gaugamela MEDIA PARTHIA

Mediterranean Sea SYRIA

Tyre Babylon

Alexandria Jerusalem Susa
Pasagardae
Gaza
Persepolis
EGYPT
Persian Gulf

Red Sea

KEY ing only the temples and the house of Macedonians among the infantry, but at
the famous Greek poet Pindar. Of the least half of the footsoldiers were merce-
Empire of surviving inhabitants, some 8,000 were naries drawn from the rest of the Greek
Alexander at its sold into slavery. The speed and severity world, from Thrace, and from regions
greatest extent of this retaliation left such an impression farther north.
Major battle on the other rebellious Greek cities that
they surrendered almost immediately Alexander was also surrounded by his
158 and were treated with comparative personal retinue, called the hetairoi, or
leniency by Alexander. Companions. This hetairoi squadron of
1,500 men was mainly drawn from the
Into Asia Macedonian aristocracy. They answered
directly to Alexander and, wherever he
Leaving his general Antipater as regent of was and whatever he did, his hetairoi were
Macedonia and Greece, Alexander was always near.The king regarded the mem-
free to embark on the long-delayed Asian bers as his friends and allowed them lib-
campaign. He set out with a formidable erties not granted to others.
army that comprised 30,000 foot soldiers
and some 5,000 horsemen.These cavalry Alexander did not have much diffi-
units were the core units of the force and culty in assembling his army. Since the
were composed mainly of Macedonians peace forged by him and his father in
and Thessalians. There were also many Greece, there had been a much reduced
demand for mercenaries. Serving as a

MACEDON AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT

mercenary was a popular occupation. Macedonians adapted it by using far Alexander (left, on
Although the soldier had to provide his longer spears than their predecessors. If horseback) leads his
own equipment, military service provid- the formation became confused, all was forces against those
ed pay and a share of any booty won. lost; it was impossible to restore the orig- of Darius III (in
Mercenaries were accustomed to serving inal order in the heat of battle. Generally, chariot) at the
on the side that offered the greatest the phalanx was able to resist a frontal Battle of Issus.This
reward. Many Greek soldiers had already attack by cavalry but not one from the Roman mosaic was
crossed the Aegean Sea to join Persian side. For this reason, the phalanx was found in the city
troop contingents. In every one of his always placed at the center of the battle of Pompeii and
battles against the Persians, Alexander formation, with the cavalry and more dates to the fourth
faced opposing Greek mercenaries. mobile infantry at its flanks. Alexander century BCE.
Many of them defected to his army—not exploited the flexibility of this army to
through patriotism, but because they great advantage, and it brought him vic-
expected higher earnings. tory after victory.

Alexander’s Companions, the army’s The Battle of Granicus River
elite horsemen, were highly skilled riders
and were armed with lances and short In the spring of 334 BCE, Alexander led
swords. They trained intensively so their his army of 35,000 Macedonians and
horses would be manageable in battle. Greeks across the Dardanelles and into
Alexander almost invariably led the Anatolia. At the Granicus River in
charge of his Companion cavalry him- northwestern Anatolia, he attacked an
self, and these attacks generally inflicted army of 40,000 Persians and Greeks.
great damage on the enemy. Alexander won the battle and reputedly
lost only 110 soldiers of his own. The
The main foot soldiers were used in a road to Anatolia lay open.
phalanx (see box, page 157), a formation
that had been in use long before the time The victory at Granicus River had a
of Philip and Alexander. However, the serious effect on Persian morale. When

ANCIENT GREECE

Alexander Cuts
the Gordian Knot,
by Jean-Simon
Berhtélemy, dates to
either the late 18th
or early 19th
century CE. An
ancient prophecy
foretold that anyone
who undid the knot
would rule Asia.

Alexander’s army approached the Persian legend. According to Greek mythology,
government center of Sardis, which had Gordius, a Phrygian peasant, had been
long been able to withstand attack, the made king because he fulfilled a prophe-
governor walked out through the gate to cy that said that the first person to enter
surrender. One by one, the Greek the town driving a wagon must be made
colonies of Ionia fell to Macedonian ruler. The grateful king dedicated his
hands, and it took Alexander barely a wagon to Zeus, tying it with a complex
year to subdue the whole of Anatolia. knot in a grove in the god’s temple. The
knot was so difficult that no one could
After the Persian king Xerxes died in undo it—it was said that anyone who
424 BCE, the kingdom of Persia had could untie it would rule all of Asia.
gone into decline. Under a succession of When he was told this story, Alexander
ineffective kings, the provincial gover- unsheathed his sword and simply sliced
nors had divided Persia into a large num- through the knot. This act gave rise to
ber of semi-independent principalities. the expression “cutting the Gordian
Artaxerxes, king of Persia from 358 to knot,” meaning to find a swift and imag-
338 BCE, had restored his authority in inative solution to a difficult problem.
the cities of Susa and Persepolis with For this act, Alexander was rewarded
brutal force, so it is possible that many with enough booty to cover his cam-
Persians regarded Alexander’s arrival as paign expenses.
a liberation.
Carrying on south to Syria, the
The Gordian knot Macedonians encountered a large
Persian army, commanded by King
On his route of conquest, Alexander Darius III himself. At the ensuing Battle
passed through Gordium (the capital of of Issus, the Persians outnumbered the
Phrygia), which was home to an ancient

160

MACEDON AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT

Macedonians by almost two to one, yet that he already had whatever Darius
the result was a catastrophic defeat for could offer and that he would marry his
the Persians. When Alexander and his daughter regardless of her father’s per-
cavalry penetrated the Persian infantry, mission. Alexander also said that he
Darius turned and fled, with much of his would come to take what he considered
army following. Alexander captured his, but not immediately.
Darius’s wife, mother, and children, who
had been left behind in the Persian Alexander continued down the
army’s camp. However, Alexander Mediterranean coast to the fortress at
ordered that they be treated with the Gaza, which also offered resistance. It took
respect normally accorded to royalty. He a long siege before the city was taken, and
was already beginning to make efforts because Alexander was injured in the
to placate conquered peoples in course of the siege, he exacted a terrible
order to build a socially inte-
grated empire. revenge. Jerusalem, however, surren-
dered without a single blow
Phoenicia This silver coin, being exchanged—the high
which bears a priest came out in full
After the Battle of portrait of regalia to welcome the
Issus, Alexander car- Alexander, was conqueror and his army.
ried on down the issued during the
coast of Syria and reign of Seleucus I, Egypt
Phoenicia. His object several decades
was to capture all after the death Later that same year,
of the ports of the of Alexander. 332 BCE, Alexander
eastern Mediterra- led his army across the
nean, thereby cutting Sinai Peninsula and
the Persians off from into Egypt, where the
their naval bases. Alex- Persian governor sur-
ander encountered little rendered without a fight.
resistance; only the well- Alexander was welcomed
fortified Phoenician seaport of everywhere as a liberator,
Tyre put up a fight. Although its and he was installed as the new
rulers were willing to acknowledge pharaoh. Alexander founded a new
Alexander as king, they were not pre- city on the coast next to the mouth of
pared to let him and his army enter the the Nile River. Named Alexandria, the
island on which the city lay. A prolonged city was destined to become the commer-
siege of seven months followed, but final- cial and cultural center of the Greek world
ly, in 332 BCE, Alexander seized the city (see box, page 162).
and razed it in a bloodbath. Any surviv- During the summer of 331 BCE,
ing citizens, including all the women and Alexander made a pilgrimage to the ora-
children, were sold into slavery. cle of Amon-Re, the Egyptian god of the
sun, at the Siwa Oasis in the Libyan
After the fall of Tyre, Darius offered desert. Around this time, Alexander had
all his lands up to the Euphrates River, begun to entertain the notion that he
his daughter in marriage, and a large was descended from the gods, and the
dowry in exchange for peace with Egyptians, who had made him their
Alexander. As a guarantee of his good pharaoh, did not attempt to dissuade him
intentions, Darius offered to send his son from the idea; all Egyptian pharaohs were
as a hostage. However, Alexander replied considered to be the sons of Amon-Re.
The oracle apparently confirmed his

161

ANCIENT GREECE

THE CITY OF ALEXANDRIA

Founded by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, harbors made it an important center for
Alexandria was designed to be a model city Mediterranean trade. Alexandria exported various
that would reflect the splendor of its founder. It products manufactured by Alexandrian craftspeo-
was probably originally conceived as a military ple, including linen, papyrus, and precious metal-
stronghold and naval base, but it rapidly became work. It was also an important transit port for
the trading and administrative center of Egypt Egyptian grain and wares from India, Arabia, and
under the Greeks. Situated on the Mediterranean even more distant countries.These wares arrived
coast just west of the Nile Delta, it extended for by way of the Red Sea and the caravan routes.
around 4 miles (6.5 km) along the coast and
around 1 to 2 miles (2–3 km) inland. Its streets Within 100 years of its founding, Alexandria had
were laid out in a grid pattern, with two wide become the leading city of the world and the
main avenues where many of the most important center of Greek cultural life. Its great library
commercial and cultural buildings were found. At housed hundreds of thousands of books and
its southern end, an isthmus projected into the attracted many scholars and poets, including
Mediterranean Sea and separated two great har- Theocritus, Apollonius, and Callimachus. Another
bors. In 280 BCE, a lighthouse around 460 feet great center of learning and research was the
(140 m) high was built at the mouth of one of the Museum, next to the royal palace of the
harbors. It has since disappeared, but in its time, Ptolemies.The Museum was both a temple of the
the lighthouse was counted as one of the seven Muses and a research institute where scholars
wonders of the world. and artists could devote themselves to learning at
the ruler’s expense.
After Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, the city came
under the control of the Egyptian Ptolemaic Alexandria, shown in this undated modern illustration,
dynasty and continued to flourish. Its two big was perfectly situated for trade.

162

MACEDON AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT

divine lineage, and
because the Greeks iden-
tified Amon-Re with
Zeus, Alexander pro-
claimed himself to be a
son of Zeus. The Greeks
had no difficulty with
this concept, involving as
it did a young king with
military achievements so
remarkable as to appear
superhuman. Divine or
not, Alexander was a
great man, and most
Greeks and Egyptians
were happy to treat him
as a god.

The Battle of Gaugamela This relief sculpture Susa (which held the treasury of the
depicts the Persian Persian Empire), the capital Persepolis,
Once he had secured the Mediterranean king Darius I. and Pasagardae. The splendid palace at
coast (he had also captured Cyrene, Darius’s great Persepolis, built by Darius I as a symbol
capital of the kingdom of Cyrenaica palace at Persepolis of the might and wealth of the Persian
on the north African coast), Alexander was destroyed Empire, was looted by the army and set
turned his attention north and east. by Alexander. on fire by Alexander, possibly in a fit of
In the late summer of 331 BCE, he drunkenness. It burned to the ground.
retraced his steps across the Sinai
Peninsula and then proceeded up Alexander was lord of all Persia—
through Palestine to Babylon. He had Darius had essentially forfeited the
with him an army of 40,000 infantry and
7,000 cavalry, and after crossing the A PORTRAIT OF ALEXANDER
Euphrates and Tigris rivers, Alexander
found Darius waiting for him with a far Alexander was of medium height, with fair hair and a
larger army. pale complexion. He grew up believing he would achieve
greatness (his mother encouraged him to believe he was
The two forces engaged near the not actually Philip’s son but a son of the god Zeus), and
town of Gaugamela in northern from an early age, he yearned to explore the world. He
Mesopotamia on October 1, 331 BCE. excelled at all martial skills but was not keen on any
In spite of the disparity in numbers, and other sports apart from hunting. He became a heavy
the fact that the Persian army included drinker and was capable of ungovernable rages and
an Indian contingent with elephants, the great cruelty. He had a lifelong passionate relationship
Macedonians were again victorious, with Hephaestion, a young Macedonian aristocrat, and
although they suffered heavy losses. when Hephaestion died of a fever in 324 BCE,
Once again, Darius fled from the battle- Alexander was prostrated with grief. He organized a
field, taking refuge in the mountains to stunningly expensive royal funeral in Babylon for his
the northeast. friend and built an extravagant monument to him.

Alexander turned south and entered
Babylon, which surrendered without a
fight. From there, he continued eastward
into Persia, conquering the royal city of

163

ANCIENT GREECE

Alexander the Great throne. In the summer of 330 BCE, Battle of Hydaspes was fought in torren-
and Hephaestion Darius was murdered at the instigation of tial monsoon rains, and Alexander was
hunt a lion in this a group of satraps (local governors). One once again victorious. He captured Porus
contemporary of them—Bessus—then proclaimed and made him the local governor under
mosaic from the himself king. Alexander branded the Macedonian rule.
Macedonian satraps as regicides and usurpers, but
palace at Pella. Bessus unleashed a popular war, forcing Despite their successes, Alexander’s
Hephaestion was a the Macedonians and the Persians into troops had begun to grow unhappy with
boyhood friend yet another conflict. Bessus was eventual- their lot. It was rumored that they still
of Alexander’s who ly betrayed, taken by Alexander, and exe- had far to go, even that Alexander’s aim
served with him on cuted as a traitor. was to conquer the whole world. In the
many of his fall of 326 BCE, the troops mutinied and
campaigns; he was Central Asia and India refused to proceed any further.They had
also possibly been on campaign for eight years and
his lover. In 329 BCE,Alexander set out on a new wanted to go home. Alexander was
campaign to complete his conquest of forced to compromise; he could not con-
the eastern Persian Empire, including the tinue without an army. He abandoned
provinces of western India. Over the fol- the idea of conquering the rest of India.
lowing two years, he broke the last traces Instead, he had a fleet built and sailed
of resistance in central Asia, extending his down the Indus River
realm to encompass Media and Parthia
(present-day Iran, Afghanistan, and Alexander reached the mouth of the
Baluchistan) and Bactria and Sogdiana river in 325 BCE. From there, the fleet
(present-day Turkmenistan). continued by sea to the Persian Gulf,
while Alexander and the army marched
In 327 BCE, Alexander led his army west by land along the arid coastline.The
over the dangerous pass through the fleet was supposed to sail parallel to the
Hindu Kush mountains to reach the army’s line of travel, to keep it supplied
Indus Valley. There, in 326 BCE, he with food and water, but because the
encountered the Indian king Porus, ships were unable to sail close to land
whose considerable army contained a against the prevailing winds, the army
mighty contingent of elephants. The was forced to forage for supplies. Because

the army needed a daily supply of
190,000 gallons (720,000 l) of water
and 250 tons (225 tonnes)
of cereals to survive,
many troops perished.
Alexander lost more
men on this march than
in he did in all his battles
combined.

Uniting the empire The so-called Final days
Alexander
In 324 BCE, Alexander re- sarcophagus is In the spring of 323 BCE, Alexander
turned to Susa to attend to decorated with transferred to Babylon, where he took
affairs of state. In an effort to scenes from the up his quarters in the palace of
reconcile the conquered and the emperor’s life, even Nebuchadnezzar. Soon after his arrival,
conquerors, he organized a funeral though it does not Alexander came down with a fever, an
for Darius (the last of the actually contain illness that was probably aggravated by
Achaemenids) so that he was his body.The heavy drinking. He died ten days later,
buried with his forefathers with sarcophagus was on June 10. He was 33 years old.
due ceremony. Alexander adopted made in the fourth Alexander bequeathed his empire “to the
Persian customs, wearing the vest- century BCE. strongest,” thereby setting off a power
ments and insignia of the “king of struggle that was to last for 50 years.
kings” on all ceremonial occasions.
He arranged a mass marriage See also:
ceremony of Macedonian men After Alexander (page 166) • The Greek
with Persian wives, at which Legacy (page 174)
he himself married Barsine,
the daughter of Darius.
He also appointed Persians
to important offices and
drafted thousands of young
Persians into his army.

These actions showed that Alexander
intended to create a mixed Macedonian-
Persian elite that would hold his empire
together, but they resulted in consider-
able tension between Alexander and his
Macedonian entourage, particularly his
hetairoi. When the new Persian troops
were called up at the same time that
Macedonian veterans were dismissed, the
veterans mutinied. However, Alexander
still had enough influence to effect a
reconciliation with the rebels. At a cele-
bratory banquet for the entire army,
he openly prayed to the gods for “unity
and equally shared rule” between
Macedonians and Persians.

165

AFTER
ALEXANDER

TIME LINE A fter the death of Alexander in 323 BCE, several empires rose
to prominence. The Ptolemaic dynasty took control of Egypt,
323 BCE the Antigonids rose to power in Macedonia, and the Seleucids took
Alexander the Great over the area that had formerly belonged to the Persians.
dies, leaving power
vacuum. When Alexander the Great died at age dered. After the 13-year-old Alexander
33 in 323 BCE, he left behind a power met a similar fate in 310 BCE, there was
322 BCE vacuum.The ensuing struggle among his no longer any lawful successor to stand
Antipater crushes generals was to result in the eventual in the way of the diadochs’ ambitions.
Aetolian rebels breakup of his mighty empire into three
at Battle of main kingdoms. Ptolemy and Egypt
Crannon.
The age of the diadochs One of the kingdoms that was to emerge
306 BCE from the breakup of Alexander’s empire
Antigonus and Alexander’s first wife, Roxana, did not was a new, Greek-influenced Egypt,
son Demetrius give birth to their son, also called ruled by the diadoch Ptolemy (c.
Poliorcetes declare Alexander, until four weeks after the 367–283 BCE). Ptolemy came from an
themselves joint king’s death.The only other person with aristocratic Macedonian family and had
kings and successors any claim to the throne was the 35-year- grown up in the court of Philip II,
of Alexander. old Aridaeus, an illegitimate son of Philip becoming a friend of the king’s young
II, who was rumored to suffer from both son, Alexander. When Alexander
305 BCE physical and mental illness. Nevertheless, embarked on his Asian campaign,
Ptolemy proclaims both the newborn Alexander and his Ptolemy accompanied him as a general
himself king uncle Aridaeus were immediately invest- in his army. Ptolemy was later appointed
of Egypt. ed with imperial titles—Alexander IV satrap (governor) of Egypt.
and Philip III. Since neither of them was
281 BCE in a position to exercise power, it fell into After Alexander’s death, Ptolemy was
Seleucus’s victory the hands of the imperial regent, confirmed as diadoch in charge of Egypt
at Battle of Perdiccas, who divided the empire and Libya, and he used the position as a
Corupedium secures among the commanders of Alexander’s power base. For almost 20 years, he bat-
him Anatolia. army. These commanders are known as tled the other diadochs, consolidating
the diadochoi (successors), or diadochs. and expanding his realm. He successfully
235 BCE fended off invasions of Egypt and the
Cleomenes III For a time, while each diadoch island of Rhodes and annexed Cyprus,
becomes king of attempted to secure for himself as much Palestine, and Cyrenaica. In 305 BCE, he
Sparta. land and wealth as possible, a precarious proclaimed himself king of Egypt, taking
unity was preserved in the empire, but the title Ptolemy I.
165 BCE the diadochs soon fell into open conflict.
Having recaptured Years of war ensued, many of them This Roman wall painting depicts Antigonus
Jerusalem from marked by the formation of fresh coali-
Seleucids, Judas tions. In 317 BCE, Aridaeus was mur- Gonatas, who helped establish the Antigonid
Maccabaeus restores
Jewish rites to dynasty in Macedonia.
temple.

166



ANCIENT GREECE

culture. The new king built a famous
library and museum that attracted and
supported Greek scholars and artists from
all over the Greek world.

Ptolemy I died around 283 BCE,
having established a dynasty that was to
rule Egypt until the arrival of the

Romans in 32 BCE.

This coin bears the Taking up residence in his capital city, Antigonus and son
portrait of Ptolemy I. Alexandria, Ptolemy set about expanding
A former general in the might and wealth of his kingdom. He Antigonus was another important
Alexander’s army, improved the administrative system and general in Alexander’s army. He
Ptolemy crowned established a system of land registration was nicknamed Monophthalmos
himself king of to simplify the collection of taxes. He (One-Eye), the result of his hav-
Egypt in 305 BCE. also expanded Alexandria itself, making ing lost an eye in battle. Antigonus
it the largest Greek settlement in the was already an old man—almost
known world. 60 years old—at the time of
Alexander’s death. For the previous
Ptolemy succeeded in having his 10 years, he had been governor of the
friend Alexander’s body brought to recently conquered Phrygia, ruling the
Egypt. Although it was known that territory while the king went on to
Alexander would have preferred the other conquests.
Siwa Oasis as his final resting place, the In 321 BCE, having been made
funeral took place in Alexandria. The commander in chief in Asia, Antigonus
body was placed in a golden coffin and joined forces with his son Demetrius
given divine honors. Poliorcetes (Taker of Cities), so-called for
his skill in laying sieges. Together they
In 285 BCE, Ptolemy abdicated in hoped to preserve the unity of the
favor of his son, Ptolemy II. It was empire, but they almost immediately
Ptolemy II who was to make Alexandria found themselves in conflict with the
an unparalleled center of learning and other diadochs. Initially, they were very
successful in battle, and in 306 BCE, they
proclaimed themselves joint kings as
Alexander’s successors, ruling a huge
region centered around western Asia
Five years later, in 301 BCE,
Antigonus and Demetrius were forced to
defend their territory against a coalition
of the other diadochs (now also calling
themselves kings) at the Battle of Ipsus.
Antigonus, now 80, was killed, but
Demetrius escaped to Greece. There, he
succeeded in conquering Macedonia and
much of mainland Greece, but in 286
BCE, while on a campaign in Anatolia,
he was captured and imprisoned by the
diadoch Seleucus. Demetrius died in
prison in 283 BCE.

168

AFTER ALEXANDER

THE HELLENISTIC WORLD IN 270 BCE

Black Sea Caspian Sea

MACEDON PARTHIA
Susa
Pergamum PHRYGIA ANATOLIA BACTRIA
Athens sian Gulf
Corupedium
Sparta
Sardis Ipsus

Mediterranean Sea Antioch

CYPRUS

Babylon

LIBYA Alexandria Jerusalem

EGYPT Per
Red Sea

Demetrius’s son, Antigonus Gonatas, young king on his Persian campaign and, KEY
regained possession of the Macedonian after Alexander’s death, was appointed
throne around 272 BCE, and his descen- governor of Babylon. Seleucid kingdom
dants—the Antigonids—remained in
power until the Romans put an end to Having secured Babylon and the Ptolemaic kingdom
their dynasty. regions farther east, Seleucus gradually
expanded his influence to the west. In Macedonian
The Seleucids Syria, he built himself a new capital city, kingdom
Antioch, which was to become the most
The Seleucid Empire was the largest of important metropolis in Asia. In 281 Major battle
the kingdoms that resulted from the divi- BCE, Seleucus met the diadoch
sion of Alexander’s domains. It was Lysimachus at the Battle of Corupedium
founded by Seleucus, one of the near Sardis and defeated him, thereby
diadochs who rose to power after securing Anatolia for himself. Because
Alexander’s death. Born around 358 Lysimachus (who was killed in the fight-
BCE, Seleucus was, like Ptolemy, the son ing) had been the king of Macedonia,
of a Macedonian aristocrat. He was Seleucus tried to secure that territory.
roughly the same age as Alexander and However, before he could achieve this
probably his friend. He accompanied the aim, he was assassinated.

169

ANCIENT GREECE

Pompey’s Pillar, built JUDAS MACCABAEUS
in the third century
CE, is one of the The most famous opponent of the with the order. In 167 BCE,
most famous Seleucids is probably the Jewish Mattathias fled to the mountains
monuments in guerrilla fighter Judas Maccabaeus. with a loyal band of Jews, initiating a
Alexandria. Palestine was seized from the lengthy revolt against the Seleucids.
Alexandria was Ptolemies by the Seleucid king After he died, his son Judas
the capital of Antiochus III in 198 BCE. In 168 Maccabaeus (The Hammer) took
Egypt during the BCE, Antiochus IV outlawed Judaism, command of the rebellion, defeating
Ptolemaic period. ordering the worship of Greek gods much larger Syrian armies in 166
and persecuting anyone who and 165 BCE and capturing
remained true to the Jewish religion Jerusalem. He restored Jewish rites
and culture. to the temple in Jerusalem in
December 165 BCE, an event that
Mattathias, patriarch of the priestly is commemorated by the Jewish
Hasmonaean family, objected to this festival of Hanukkah. For the next
edict and killed both a government 80 years, the Jews in Syria were
official and a Jew who had complied virtually an independent nation.

170

AFTER ALEXANDER

Seleucus had carved out an enor-
mous empire, one that almost rivaled
Alexander’s in size. He was succeeded by
his son, Antiochus I. The Seleucid
dynasty was to survive for more than two
hundred years.

The people who lived within the
boundaries of the Seleucid Empire spoke
many languages and adhered to many
different ways of life. The empire never
became truly integrated, and under
Seleucus’s successors, it gradually crum-
bled away. In central Asia, Bactria made
itself virtually independent, while in
northern Persia, the warlike Parthians
roamed at will, ultimately conquering
many of the eastern provinces. Other
usurpers set up their own kingdoms in
imperial territory. One such state was
Pergamum, on the Aegean coast, which
rebelled against Seleucid rule to become
the leading city of Anatolia and an
important hub of Greek culture.

Antipater and the Lamian War This bust depicts the Demosthenes, and the Athenian assem-
diadoch Seleucus I. bly condemned the rebels to death.
Antipater (c. 397–319 BCE) was a trust- In the decades Demosthenes managed to escape to the
ed friend of Philip II and Alexander the following Alexander island of Calauria, where he took poison
Great.When Alexander embarked on his the Great’s death, rather than surrender.
Persian campaign, Antipater was left Seleucus gained
behind to act as his regent in Macedonia control of much of Antipater’s next battle was with his
and Greece. As soon as news of the eastern part of own countryman, the Macedonian gen-
Alexander’s death reached Greece in 323 Alexander’s empire. eral Partakes, who challenged his author-
BCE, Athens and several other states ity. Antipater won this struggle easily—
rebelled.The insurrection was spurred on Partakes was killed in 321 BCE.Antipater
by the oratory of Demosthenes, who had was then confirmed as supreme regent of
long led Athenian opposition to Macedonia and charged with the care of
Macedonia. Antipater acted promptly to Alexander’s children. On Antipater’s
put down the revolt. death in 319 BCE, the regency passed to
Polypechon, but he was swiftly replaced
The conflict between Antipater and by Antipater’s son Cassander, who seized
the Greek states was called the Lamian control. Continued infighting between
War. The Athenians were backed by the the diadochs led eventually to Antigonus
Aetolian League, an alliance based in the
mountainous region of Aetolia. At first,
the rebels were successful, but Antipater
eventually crushed them at the Battle of
Crannon in 322 BCE.

Antipater demanded that the Athenians
hand over the rebel leaders, including

171

ANCIENT GREECE Judas Maccabaeus led a Jewish rebellion

Gonatas becoming the king of against the Seleucid Empire,
Macedon in 272 BCE. He
established a dynasty that capturing the city of Jerusalem.
was to last for more than a
hundred years. in the east in the period
between the death of
By the early third Alexander and the
century BCE, there- beginning of the
fore, Alexander’s en- Christian era.
tire empire had been Alexander had
broadly divided into founded cities as far
three much smaller away as Uzbekistan
empires. Macedonia and Kashmir, leaving
was ruled by the the new cities as
Antigonid dynasty, small, isolated islands
solidly established in
their homeland. Outside of Greek civilization in
Macedonia, their position an enormous sea of local
was less strong, but their culture. However, the new
sphere of influence extended Greek cities were not modeled
from present-day Bulgaria to the on the old idea of a city-state ruled by
Peloponnese. Egypt was ruled by the its citizens.That concept had no place in
Ptolemies, who gradually relinquished Alexander’s empire; these cities were
their possessions beyond its borders. The ruled by a distant king. Greek was gener-
Seleucid dynasty held the region that had ally used as the common language in
originally stretched from the Aegean Sea large parts of the Hellenistic empires,
in the west to the Indus River in the east. without wholly replacing Aramaic,
However, over the years, the eastern which had played a similar role in the
boundary was gradually eroded and Persian Empire. In spite of this unity of
receded westward. Although the diadoch language, Greek culture had little effect
dynasties lived in continual conflict, on the indigenous population. In most
no one empire was able to achieve cases, the Greeks and the native inhabi-
dominance. The division of power tants existed side by side, with little inter-
remained unsettled until the advent of action between them.
the Rome Empire. Although the old Greek gods were
worshipped in the new Greek cities, they
Hellenism faced fierce competition from the non-
Greek gods that surrounded them. Many
The campaigns of Alexander the Great of these other gods were messianic (sav-
had far-reaching consequences that were iors or deliverers) with cults of an ecstat-
not only political but also social and cul- ic nature. Similar Greek cults, especially
tural. In his epic progress of conquest Dionysiac cults, also flourished at this
across Asia, he had established many new time. The cult of the ruler derived
cities and populated them with Greek strength from the popularity of the mes-
veterans from his army. Those cities sianic gods: often, he too was regarded as
became oases of Greek language and cul- a savior or messiah.
ture in the middle of an Oriental culture, The Greeks did not automatically
which gave rise to the concept of adopt foreign gods—the gods first had to
Hellenism, a term used to describe the be adapted to Greek tastes, which was
unprecedented spread of Greek culture

172

AFTER ALEXANDER

This statue depicts done through a process of syncretism. zenship rights, and most of them were
the god Dionysus, Syncretism occurs when deities merge living below subsistence level. All the
who was widely by assuming one another’s characteris- wealth was in the hands of a select few.
worshipped in the tics. In this way, the Egyptian god Amon- In the last half of the third century
Hellenistic empires. Re and the Syrian god Baal became BCE, when the situation was ripe for
identified with Zeus. revolution, a reforming leader emerged:
Cleomenes.
Cleomenes
Cleomenes III became one of the
While changes were occurring in west- two kings of Sparta in 235 BCE. He was
ern Asia, social conditions were deterio- determined to introduce new policies to
rating on many parts of the Greek redress the inequalities in Spartan socie-
mainland. In Sparta, there were fewer ty. After ridding himself of his political
than 1,000 Spartans left with full citi- enemies, he took the radical course of
canceling all debts and dividing the land
into equal parcels, which he distributed
among the citizens. At the same time, he
granted full citizenship to several thou-
sand of the perioikoi (original inhabi-
tants). The revolutionary ideas of
Cleomenes spread, and in many Greek
states, a cry arose for debts to be canceled
and land to be redistributed.

Cleomenes also attempted to restore
Sparta’s military prestige by going to war
with the Achaean League, an alliance of
city-states under the leadership of Aratus
of Sicyon. Aratus was deeply opposed to
the revolutionary ideas fanned by
Cleomenes, and in order to ensure his
success in battle against the Spartans, he
called on the help of Macedon.
Cleomenes was defeated, and his reforms
were dismantled. The king fled to
Alexandria, where he died in 219 BCE.

Roughly 20 years later, the radical
ideas of Cleomenes resurfaced during
the brutal reign of the Spartan tyrant
Nabis (ruled 207-192 BCE). Nabis rein-
troduced Cleomenes’ system, even going
so far as to free the slaves, but his rule
came to an end when he was betrayed by
his allies during a war against Rome. His
death marked the end of Sparta’s days as
a major power.

See also:
Macedon and Alexander the Great (page 154)
• Sparta and Athens (page 52)

173

THE GREEK
LEGACY

TIME LINE The ancient Greeks made profound and far-reaching
contributions to the worlds of literature, science, and
332 BCE philosophy. Their discoveries and achievements became the
Alexander the Great building blocks for generations of later scholars and artists.
founds city of
Alexandria. Many of the cultural achievements asso- building. They were overseen by the
ciated with ancient Greece took place director and chief priest.
c. 308 BCE not in Greece itself but in the Greek out-
Zeno of Cyprus post of Alexandria in Egypt.The city was Under Ptolemy’s son, Ptolemy II
begins giving founded by Alexander the Great in 332 (ruled 285–246 BCE), Alexandria be-
lectures in BCE. When he left Egypt to go on a came renowned as a center of arts and a
Athens; his campaign, Alexander left one of his gen- magnet for scholars and poets, whom
teachings form erals, Ptolemy, in charge of the province. Ptolemy welcomed to his court. He
basis of school of On Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, increased his financial support for the
philosophy known Ptolemy effectively became the ruler of Museum, which became a research cen-
as Stoicism. Egypt. He crowned himself king of the ter for the natural sciences and mathe-
country in 305 BCE. matics as well as an academy for more lit-
c. 300 BCE erary pursuits.
Ptolemy I expands From the very beginning of his reign,
Temple of the Muses Ptolemy encouraged Greek scholars and Most of the writers working at the
in Alexandria to philosophers to congregate at his court Museum did not produce original work.
establish center in Alexandria. When Demetrius of Instead, they focused on collecting and
for arts and Phaleron was banished from Athens, he preserving the literary works of the past.
sciences; Euclid took refuge in Alexandria and suggested The versions of Homer’s epic poems the
writes Elements. that Ptolemy should establish a center of Iliad and the Odyssey that exist today
study dedicated to the Muses (see box, are essentially the work of Alexandrian
c. 275 BCE page 182).The center would allow schol- scholars. The Museum’s archivists col-
Aristarchus of ars to pursue their studies in all the arts lected manuscripts of literary texts attrib-
Samos suggests and sciences. Ptolemy happily agreed to uted to Homer and then compiled them
Earth orbits the idea. to produce new editions. Copies of these
around sun, texts were widely sold and greatly prized
instead of sun The first museum for their authenticity.
orbiting around
Earth; radical The Temple of the Muses was expanded The scholars also did invaluable work
theory rejected. to make it a true academy of literature in the area of textual criticism, a
and the sciences. The Greeks knew the discipline that had its beginnings in
c. 250 BCE temple as the Mouseion, although it is Alexandria.After scrutinizing all available
Aristotle studies now known as the Museum—the origin manuscripts of a text, the scholars would
at Museum in of the word used today.Those who were
Alexandria before appointed to work there became well- This 15th-century-CE painting by Joos
returning to native paid servants of the state and lived in the
Syracuse; he Van Gent depicts the astronomer Ptolemy
formulates concept
of specific gravity. of Alexandria.

174



ANCIENT GREECE

publish their own version of an ancient of an idealized pastoral life.The Arcadian
work, together with annotation. Crucial landscape depicted by Theocritus was
to this process of textual criticism were filled with amorous shepherds and shep-
the resources provided by the great herdesses who frolicked to the sound of
Library of Alexandria, which contained melodious music.This view of the coun-
many thousands of handwritten scrolls— tryside was in complete contrast to the
a unique collection during that period archaic tradition of Arcadia, in which the
of history. countryside was rugged and inhabited by
fearsome mythological beasts. This new
Theocritus view of Arcadia found favor with the
citizens of Alexandria who, oppressed by
The Museum also supported original the stench, noise, and crowds of city life,
writers producing new works. One of began to idealize life in the countryside.
these poets was the Greek Theocritus It is a view of Arcadia that was to be
(born c. 300 BCE), who became famous handed down from Theocritus to the
in the third century BCE for his sophis- Roman poet Virgil, and from him to the
ticated verses that extolled the pleasures

This vase illustration
shows the Greek
hero Odysseus
with the blind
soothsayer Tiresias.
The existing version
of Homer’s Odyssey
was written down by
scholars working
in Alexandria.

176

poets of the Renaissance period, includ- THE GREEK LEGACY
ing William Shakespeare.
Greeks did realize, however, was that the-
Theocritus also wrote comedies, one orems could be linked, and that geome-
of the very few genres in which the try was an integrated system that could
Hellenistic writers were noted for their be studied through the use of logic.
originality.The ancient comedy of Attica
had been a kind of satirical revue, often Mathematics was put to little practi-
politically based, and covered contempo- cal use. Only those with something to
rary issues. The comedies of the construct, such as temple architects,
Alexandrian poets, on the other hand, knew how to use mathematics to help
had tightly structured plots that owed them in their work. One reason that
nothing to the current political scene. applied mathematics was ignored was
Instead, they told stories of real life, albeit that technology was still in its infancy,
with highly stereotypical characters. and there was little incentive to develop
it. Since the sheer brute strength of ani-
One famous contemporary of these mals and slaves was enough to construct
Alexandrian comic writers was the play- buildings and turn mill wheels, society
wright Menander (c. 341–291 BCE). He
was very popular in Egypt, and several of 177
his plays have been discovered there on
papyrus scrolls. Many attempts were
made to persuade him to join the
Museum in Alexandria, but Menander
preferred to stay in his native Athens.

The pure sciences The playwright
Menander was
Study of the sciences also came into their popular in Egypt
own at Ptolemy’s academy. The Library in the late fourth
of Alexandria was filled with the output and early third
of the Museum’s scientists as well as its centuries BCE.
writers. One of the foremost mathemati-
cians in Alexandria around 300 BCE was
Euclid, who produced a major work—
the Elements, which was a compilation of
all mathematical knowledge that existed
at the time. The work was assembled in
13 books and had a particular emphasis
on geometry.This synthesis of everything
that had gone before was a typical prod-
uct of Hellenistic science. Euclid’s book
was an essential basis for all later mathe-
matical studies. The sections on plane
geometry were turned into a school
textbook that was used as late as the end
of the 19th century CE.

The discoveries of the Greek mathe-
maticians were not always original—
many had already been made by the
Egyptians or Babylonians. What the

ANCIENT GREECE

could keep going without it. Another
factor that worked against the develop-
ment of technology was the dismissive
attitude usually displayed by the Greek
elite toward practical matters. It was felt
that anything to do with manual
labor—and that included tech-
nology—was not worthy of
the attention of the learned.

One invention in par-
ticular could have had a
huge effect on the course of
history if its implications
had been recognized. The
scientist Hero of Alexandria
discovered the principle of
the steam turbine in the
first century CE and used it
to construct an amusing
little steam toy to entertain
his friends. The principle
was never put to further
use, however.

Archimedes This relief Eureka!
sculpture depicts
One ancient Greek citizen who the mathematician Another famous
did not ignore the opportunities Euclid. His book, myth tells the story of
offered by putting the sciences to practi- the Elements, was one of Archimedes’ most
cal use was the mathematician and one of the most famous discoveries, that of specif-
inventor Archimedes (c. 287–212 BCE). important works ic gravity.The king of Syracuse had asked
Archimedes studied at the Museum in produced in him to find out whether a supposedly
Alexandria before returning to his native Alexandria. golden crown was in fact pure gold. As
Syracuse. He made a particular study of water slopped out of the overfull bath
the characteristics of force. It was already when Archimedes got in, it came to him
known that heavy loads were easier to lift that the amount of water displaced by
with the help of pulleys and levers, but objects of different volumes would also
Archimedes discovered that even the be different. For this reason, the amount
heaviest weight could be lifted easily by of water displaced by the crown (if it was
using a long lever that moved around a adulterated) would be different from the
fixed point, or fulcrum. amount of water displaced by a lump of
pure gold that weighed the same as the
Archimedes applied this knowledge crown. Archimedes is reputed to have
to many applications, including military jumped out of the bath and run down
catapults. He is also said to have single- the street naked crying “Eureka!” (“I
handedly launched a massive ship with have found it!”).
the help of levers and pulleys. Legend has
it that he once boasted: “Give me a solid
place to stand in space, and I will move
the Earth.”

178

THE GREEK LEGACY

Astronomy universe), which was an error that made In this 19th-century-
the calculations very complicated. One CE woodcut, Hero
Rather than thinking that the stars were astronomer, Aristarchus of Samos (flour- of Alexandria shows
controlled by the gods, as earlier civiliza- ished c. 275 BCE), suggested that every- his steam engine,
tions had believed, the Greeks adopted a thing would be easier to explain if it was the aeolipile, to his
scientific approach to astronomical study. assumed that the sun was the central friends. Hero lived
They employed mathematics, particular- point of the universe, but his ideas were in the first century
ly geometry, to help explain the move- too revolutionary for their time; they CE.The first truly
ments of the heavenly bodies. The were dismissed in favor of the more pop- practical steam
Greeks were pioneers in making careful ular geocentric model. engine was not
observations of the heavens, and they invented until 1,600
noted that the stars remained in approx- The geocentric view of the universe years later.
imately the same place in relation to each was refined in the second century CE by
other throughout the year, while the Claudius Ptolemaeus (also known as
moon and five other bodies (Mercury, Ptolemy of Alexandria), who lived from
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) seemed 90 to 168 CE. He used geometric calcu-
to move around the sky. The Greeks lations to show that the sun, the moon,
called these heavenly bodies planates, after and the planets moved in small circular
the Greek word meaning “wanderer.” orbits (which he called epicycles) around
larger circles, like rings strung on a
In order to explain the movement of bracelet. To support his contention that
the planets, Greek astronomers put for- Earth was at the center of these circles,
ward the theory that the cosmos was he provided mathematical calculations
divided into concentric spheres, each that were accepted by other astronomers
one the path of a planet. They usually up to the 16th century CE.The calcula-
assumed Earth to be at the center of tions were then rejected by Polish
these spheres (a geocentric view of the

ANCIENT GREECE

great work Geography, he drew maps of
the known world that incorporated lines
of latitude and longitude. In spite of
being based on incomplete data, these
maps were used for centuries. He built a
device to study light and presented a
mathematical theory of its properties in
his treatise Optics. In Harmonica, he
offered an outline of music theory, while
in Tetrabiblos, he used his knowledge of
astronomy and astrology to make predic-
tions about the future.

Another Greek mathematician who
contributed a great deal to the knowl-
edge of astronomy was Eratosthenes of
Cyrene, who was director of the Library
of Alexandria from around 240 to 196
BCE. After distinguishing himself by
cataloging 675 stars, Eratosthenes set
about trying to calculate the circumfer-
ence of Earth. He discovered that at the
summer solstice a stick placed vertically
in the ground in Syene (now Aswan) in
Egypt would cast no shadow at noon,
while a similar stick in Alexandria would
cast a shadow one-fifth of its length.
Using this data, Eratosthenes calculated
the Earth’s circumference, with only 3.5
percent error.

The mathematician astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who Medical science
Archimedes is postulated a heliocentric (sun-centered)
famous for view of the cosmos that retained Great advances were made in medical
discovering the Ptolemy’s system of epicycles. science in Alexandria in the fourth cen-
concept of specific tury BCE. They were based on the
gravity while in Ptolemy also contributed to several rational approach to medicine pioneered
the bath.This other fields of knowledge. He added to by Hippocrates of Kos (c. 460–377
drawing is based on the understanding of trigonometry, using BCE), who is called the father of medi-
a 16th-century-CE this knowledge to make astrolabes cine. Previously, the practice of medicine
engraving. (instruments used for measuring the alti- had been bound up with religion and
tude of the stars) and sundials. In his magic. However, Hippocrates believed
that disease had natural causes. He con-
sidered medicine to be an art that people
could learn, diagnosing disease through
an examination of the patient.

Hippocrates was born on the Greek
island of Kos, where he eventually estab-
lished a school of medicine. His method
of clinical observation was to influence

180

THE GREEK LEGACY

all succeeding generations of doctors, salivary glands and pioneered research The Dance of
while his Regimen in Acute Diseases intro- on the blood vessels, learning that they Apollo with the
duced the concept of preventive medi- carried blood and not air, as even Muses, by
cine through healthy diet and lifestyle. Hippocrates had believed. Erasistratus Baldassare Peruzzi,
Hippocrates also suggested that the (born c. 275 BCE) also carried out many was painted in the
weather and drinking water can have an dissections at his school of anatomy in early 16th century
effect on public health. Alexandria and identified the pumping CE.The Temple
function of the heart, even though he did of the Muses in
The 70 works generally known as the not understand the concept of the circu- Alexandria was
Hippocratic Collection may not have lation of the blood. one of the most
been written by Hippocrates himself, but important centers
they originated from his school of med- Philosophy of the arts and
icine. Similarly, he probably was not the sciences in the
author of the Hippocratic Oath—the In addition to advances in literature, the ancient world.
oath to act ethically that is taken by all sciences, and medicine, the fourth and
doctors today on graduation. third centuries BCE saw the develop-
ment of several new philosophical move-
Herophilus, the personal physician to ments, including Skepticism, Stoicism,
Ptolemy I in the fourth century BCE, is and Epicureanism.
considered the father of the study of
human anatomy. Born in Chalcedon in By the fourth century BCE, a num-
Anatolia around 335 BCE, he spent most ber of Greek philosophical schools of
of his life in Alexandria. By dissecting thought had been established, including
dead bodies, he discovered that the brain that of Sophism. Traveling teachers of
is the center of the nervous system. He philosophy, politics, and rhetoric, the
also identified the separate functions of Sophists thought it was more important
the motor and sensory nerves. He stud- to be able to argue on either side of a
ied the liver, genitalia, eyes, pancreas, and question than to be morally right.

181

ANCIENT GREECE

Plato (428–348 BCE) and his student nature of things; therefore, the wise per-
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) objected to the son would suspend judgment. Pyrrhon
Sophists’ view that truth and morality never took sides, believing solely in the
were matters of opinion and countered value of observation—skepsis in Greek.
that view with the concept of idealism. His followers were called Skeptics, and
Plato maintained that the object of their questioning of everything, based on
knowledge (the “idea”) was fixed, per- the example of the questions and answers
manent, and unchangeable. He consid- of Socrates, gave rise to the modern con-
ered that only this “idea” was real and notation of the word skeptic.
rejected the view that knowledge was
based on the experience of the senses. Epicureanism

The Skeptics countered by saying Epicureanism was founded by the Greek
that all knowledge is questionable and philosopher Epicurus (341–270 BCE),
that inquiry itself is a process of doubt- who was born on the island of Samos.
ing. A philosophical school based on When he was 18, he had to go to Athens
these ideas was founded by Pyrrhon of to do his military service.When his serv-
Elis (c. 363– 272 BCE).The essence of its ice was completed, he traveled for 10
philosophy was the impossibility of years, studying and developing his own
obtaining certain knowledge. Pyrrhon philosophical ideas.Around 311 BCE, he
assumed that mankind primarily strives established a school of philosophy at
for happiness, and this is the sole reason Mytilene on the island of Lesbos. Later,
for the practice of philosophy. He said in 306 BCE, he settled in Athens, where
that no human could ever know the real he bought a house with a garden. He set
up a school in the garden, and many of
THE MUSES his followers from his travels in Anatolia
flocked there.
In Greek mythology, the Muses were nine goddesses
thought to inspire artists of all kinds, including Epicurus’s philosophy was based on a
philosophers, poets, and musicians.The Muses were all system of ethics and the belief that good
born of a union between Zeus, king of the gods, and and evil were to be perceived through
Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory. Each Muse the senses. To achieve a happy life, one
presided over a different art or science. Poetry was so should seek pleasure and avoid pain.
important that it had four separate Muses: Polyhymnia However, he also taught that a simple life
for sacred poetry, Calliope for epic poetry, Erato for was best, because any attempt to satisfy
love poetry, and Euterpe for lyric poetry.Terpsichore all desires would itself bring pain. So,
was the Muse in charge of choral singing and dance, although the goal of life was pleasure
while Thalia was the Muse for comedy, and Melpomene (and intellectual pleasure was to be pre-
was the Muse of tragedy. Clio presided over history, and ferred to sensual pleasure), moderation
Urania presided over astronomy. was the path to true happiness. He
described justice, honesty, and friendship
The companions to the Muses were Apollo, the god of as virtues, while politics was to be avoid-
music, and the Graces, who were the three goddesses ed because it produced only misery.
of beauty, joy, and charm.The Graces were also
daughters of Zeus, but by the nymph Eurynome.Thalia Epicurus subscribed to the atomic
was associated with good cheer, Aglaia with splendor, theory refined by Democritus in the fifth
and Euphrosyne with mirth. century BCE. According to this theory,
everything is composed of tiny
unchangeable atoms, which join togeth-
er to form material objects. Epicurus
maintained that the soul and the body

182

THE GREEK LEGACY

are composed of material atoms, and This bust depicts the linked by a divine force (Logos), which
when the body dies, the soul is also Greek philosopher they also called reason. Zeno consid-
dissipated and no longer exists. Epicurus, who gave ered that by living in conformity
Consequently, there can be no his name to a school with nature, mankind would live
afterlife, and there is nothing to of philosophy— in conformity with the Logos, and
fear from death. Epicureanism. this was the only way to attain
happiness. By calmly accepting
Epicurus did not deny the everything that life deals out,
existence of the gods, but he mankind can be freed from pas-
considered them irrelevant to sion, grief, and joy.
human affairs. He viewed them as Zeno believed that information
existing in empty space outside the received through the senses is based
cosmos and believed that they were on correct perceptions. If mistakes
too caught up in their own affairs to are made, they are due to inaccurate
be interested in the material world observation or faulty processing
of mortals. To fear or venerate of the information. The
them was as pointless as person who uses his reason
fearing life after death. to digest information will
come to a correct con-
Followers of Epicurus ception of things. Once
lived a comparatively aus- one has a correct con-
tere life in his school. ception of virtue, one
They consumed little can then gain virtue.
other than bread and
water and enjoyed few Equality for all
pleasures beyond those of
friendship and intellec- The Stoics believed that
tual pursuits. This mod- because all mankind is
est lifestyle, withdrawn animated by the Logos,
from the world, is in all men and women, rich
direct contrast to the or poor, free or slave, should be treated as
modern understanding of the word equals. This was a revolutionary idea in
epicurean, which has come to mean the the third century BCE.
pursuit of pleasure; an epicure is some- The Stoics considered possessions
one who indulges freely in the pleasures and wealth unimportant in human rela-
of food and wine. tionships and believed that people had a
responsibility to help one another. For
Stoicism this reason, they encouraged people to
enter public life because it allowed them
Around 308 BCE, the philosopher Zeno to improve the lot of their fellow citi-
of Cyprus began giving public lectures in zens. Stoicism, as first taught by Zeno
Athens under the painted colonnade and later refined by his follower
next to the agora. The colonnade was Cleanthes and his successor Chrysippus,
known as the Stoa Poikile in Greek, was destined to become a major influ-
which gave the name Stoicism to his ence in the Roman world.
teachings. Zeno had studied with the
Cynics, at Plato’s Academy, and at See also:
Aristotle’s Lyceum, but he developed his
own view of life and the universe. After Alexander (page 166) • The Great

The Stoics believed that everything Philosophers (page 122)
in the universe, including mankind, was

183

GLOSSARY

Achaemenids Persian 27th dynasty Arcadia mountainous region of the comedy originally, any play or literary
of Egypt (525–404 BCE); founded central Peloponnese, Greece. composition with a nontragic ending.
by Cambyses II of Persia and
named after his family, the archons magistrates in Athens, comos procession of Greek citizens
Achaemenids. Darius I was a beginning around the seventh century during which they wore masks and
member of this dynasty. BCE. Elected annually, their duties danced and sang; often part of festivals
comprised legislation, the dispensation in honor of Dionysus.
acropolis fortified part of an ancient of justice, the conduct of religion,
Greek city.The most famous such and military affairs. Corcyra ancient name for the Greek
fortress is the Acropolis in Athens, island of Corfu.
where various large temples were Artemisium, Battle of Persian naval
built, including the Parthenon. victory over the Greeks in 480 BCE. Corinth city of the Peloponnese,
around 50 miles (80 km) west of
Adonis in Greek mythology, a young Athens preeminent city-state of Athens.
mortal man of outstanding beauty; ancient Greece.
favorite of Aphrodite. Corinthian War conflict that lasted
Attica region of central Greece. Its from 395 to 387 BCE between Sparta
Aegean Sea part of the chief city was Athens. and an alliance among Thebes, Athens,
Mediterranean Sea that separates Corinth, and Argos, initially supported
mainland Greece from Asia Minor Babylon city in southern Meso- by Persia.
(part of modern Turkey). potamia that was the center of an
Amorite empire under Hammurabi. Corupedium, Battle of fought
Alcmaeonidae influential Athenian Later, Babylon continued as the in 281 BCE, the decisive final
political family during the lifetime cultural and political capital of the confrontation between the rival
of Peisistratus. region. From 612 to 539 BCE, successors to Alexander the Great.
Babylon was the capital of the Neo-
Alexandria greatest city of the Babylonian Empire. Council of 500 originally conceived
ancient world. It lies on the by Cleisthenes and fully realized by
Mediterranean Sea on the western Bacchiads aristocratic family that Solon, a political decision-making
edge of the delta of the Nile River ruled the city-state of Corinth in the body in Athens consisting of 10
and was founded in 332 BCE by seventh century BCE. groups, each of 50 men, chosen by lot.
Alexander the Great.
Bosporus strait, 19 miles (30 km) Crannon, Battle of military
Anatolia another name for Asia long, that joins the Black Sea and confrontation in 322 BCE in which
Minor (part of modern Turkey). the Sea of Marmara. Macedonian forces under Antipater
defeated rebellious Greek forces led
Antigonids descendants of Demetrius Byzantium ancient Greek city on the by the Athenians.
Poliorcetes; ruling dynasty of shore of the Bosporus; later known as
Macedonia from 306 to 168 BCE. Constantinople; modern Istanbul. crop rotation farming system in
which fields are divided into groups
Apollo Greek god of the sun, oracles, Chaeronea, Battle of conflict in (typically of three) in which a
music, poetry, and justice; son of which Philip II of Macedon defeated different one is left fallow every
Zeus.The god of medicine, Apollo Thebes and Athens in 338 BCE. year so that it may regenerate.
could also choose to inflict disease as
punishment. Chalcedon ancient port on the Croton Greek colony in southern
Bosporus; overshadowed by its Italy in which Pythagoras settled
Aramaic Semitic language that was proximity to Byzantium. around 530 BCE.
widely spoken in western Asia until
displaced by Greek after the conquests choregi Greek sponsors of theatrical Cynics from the Greek kunikoi.
of Alexander the Great. productions and competitions. Followers of Diogenes and

184

GLOSSARY

Antisthenes, they protested the of the Peloponnese and Crete between Hades god of the underworld and
material interests of established society. 1200 and 1000 BCE. brother of Zeus; also the name of
Holding virtue to be the only good, the underworld itself.
they stressed independence from ecclesia the tribal meeting of
worldly needs and pleasures and Athens open to all citizens that, Hanukkah Jewish midwinter festival
led austere lives. after Cleisthenes’ reforms, made that commemorates the restoration of
the final political decisions on Jewish rites in the temple at Jerusalem
Cyrenaica coastal district of southern internal and foreign affairs. by Judas Maccabaeus.
Mediterranean Sea; former Greek
colony; now part of Libya. Elea ancient town in Italy founded by hemlock poisonous herb; commonly
Greek refugees; famous for its school thought to have been the cause of
Delian League military alliance set of philosophy; modern Velia. Socrates’s death.
up in 477 BCE to protect the Greek
cities of Ionia (part of modern Turkey) Eleusis city on the Greek coast near Heracles greatest and strongest of
against attack by the Persians. Athens where mysteries were held Greek mythological heroes; also
between around 600 and 400 BCE. known as Hercules.
Delos one of the Cyclades, a group
of islands in the Aegean Sea. Ephesus Ionian city in ancient Hermes Greek god of travelers,
Anatolia (part of modern Turkey). shepherds, trade, and cunning.The
Delphi city in central Greece; site son of Zeus and the messenger
of an Apollo sanctuary and an oracle. Epicureanism philosophy founded by of the gods, he guided souls to
The utterances of Pythia, the priestess Epicurus (341–270 BCE). Its central the underworld.
of the oracle, had great influence on tenets were the pursuit of happiness
personal and political life. and the avoidance of pain. hoplites soldiers in the Greek heavy
infantry, armed with swords, lances,
democracy from the Greek demos Epidamnus colony on the Adriatic and the large round shields known
(people) and kratein (to rule); coast in part of what is now Albania; as hoplons.
government by the people, either founded in the fifth century BCE by
directly or through elected Greeks from Corcyra. Illyria ancient region of the Balkans;
representatives.This form of part of modern Albania.
government arose at the end of Epidaurus small but important city-
the sixth century BCE in Athens. state of ancient Greece; situated in the Indo-European languages common
northeastern Peloponnese. family of European and Asiatic
diadochs military commanders who (Indian) languages.
succeeded Alexander the Great. Eurymedon river in Asia Minor; site
of a major battle in 466 BCE between Ionia coastal region of southwestern
Dionysia Greek annual festival in the Persians and the Delian League. Anatolia (part of modern Turkey) that
honor of Dionysus; characterized by contained several Greek city-states.
processions, poetry competitions, and Gaugamela, Battle of military
theatrical performances. confrontation in 331 BCE in which Ishtar Semitic war goddess who
Alexander the Great defeated Darius merged with Inanna and became the
Dionysus Greek god of wine, ecstasy, III of Persia. goddess of love and fertility.
reproduction, life force, chaos, and
death. Gordian knot according to Greek isthmus narrow strip of land,
legend, a complex knot that could bordered on two sides by water, that
dithyramb ancient Greek hymn of only be untied by the man destined joins two larger land masses.
praise to the god Dionysus. to become king of Asia.The young
Alexander the Great cut it with one Jason Greek mythological hero who
Dodona site, near Epirus in north- blow of his sword. sailed in the Argo in search of the
western Greece, of an oracle devoted Golden Fleece.
to the god Zeus. Granicus River, Battle of military
confrontation between Alexander the Logos divine force—also known as
Dorians people from Macedonia and Great and the Persian Empire near reason—that the Stoics believed
northern Greece who conquered parts Troy in Asia Minor in 334 BCE. directed the universe and humankind.

185

ANCIENT GREECE

Lydia ancient province of Anatolia Parthenon temple on the Athenian satrap provincial governor in the
(part of modern Turkey). Its capital Acropolis dedicated to Pallas Athena; Achaemenian Persian Empire.
was Sardis. built between 447 and 438 BCE.
satyr play Greek dramatic work with
Macedon alternatively, Macedonia; Peloponnese large, mountainous a heroic mythological theme, like a
region of northeastern Greece that peninsula that is joined to the main- tragedy, but with a humorous tone
was for a short time during the fourth land of Greece by the Isthmus of and a chorus of satyrs (goatlike male
century BCE the most powerful state Corinth. companions of Pan and Dionysus
in the eastern Mediterranean region. who roamed the woods and moun-
Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) tains). Satyr plays formed the last part
Maia in Greek mythology, the eldest conflict of hegemony between Athens of a tetralogy and were thus always
of the Pleiades and the mother of (generally allied with the Ionians) performed after three tragedies.
Zeus’s son, Hermes. and Sparta (allied with the Dorians).
The direct cause was a conflict about Seleucid Empire empire that,
Mantinea ancient city in Arcadia; site the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu). between 312 and 64 BCE, extended
of two battles.The first Battle of The army of Sparta annually destroyed from Thrace on the edge of the Black
Mantinea, in 418 BCE, was the largest Attica, while the Athenian fleet Sea to the western border of India. It
land battle of the Peloponnesian War. plundered the Peloponnesian coasts. was formed by Seleucus I Nicator
In the second Battle of Mantinea Sparta finally triumphed over Athens from the remnants of Alexander the
(362 BCE),Thebes defeated the allied with help from the Persians. Great’s realm.
forces of Athens and Sparta.
Pergamum ancient Greek city in Asia Skepticism philosophy based on the
Marathon city on the east coast of Minor; close to the modern city of assumption that all assumptions should
Attica where the Persians suffered a Izmir, Turkey. be doubted.
devastating defeat in 490 BCE by a
small Athenian army under Miltiades. Persephone daughter of Demeter, the Sophists Greek teachers in the fifth
goddess of agriculture. Her recurring century BCE who gave popularized
Medes Indo-European people who abduction by Hades and return from (and eventually denounced) instruc-
entered northeastern Iran around the the underworld symbolize the growth tion in philosophy, political science,
17th century BCE. and decay of life. rhetoric, and literature.

Mesopotamia area in western Asia phalanx a battle formation in the Stoicism school of philosophy
surrounding the Euphrates and Tigris Greek infantry, usually consisting of founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens
rivers. Floods and irrigation made the eight rows of hoplites fighting in in the third century BCE. At its core is
land fertile, and around 4500 BCE, the extremely close ranks. the belief that people should do what
first agricultural settlements were is required of them by nature and
founded there. potsherd fragment of pottery, accept their lot.
usually one that has been unearthed
Minoan civilization Bronze Age by archaeological excavation. Thermopylae mountain pass between
civilization on Crete. Thessaly and central Greece where
prytanes 10 groups of 50 men from Leonidas and hundreds of Spartans
Muses in Greek—and later in the Council of 500; formed the daily died covering the retreat of the
Roman—mythology, nine sister administration of Athens for one- Greek army from the Persians in
goddesses (daughters of Zeus) who month periods. 480 BCE.
inspired human artistic creativity:
Calliope (epic poetry), Clio (history), rhetors orator-politicians in Athens. trireme ancient galley ship with three
Erato (lyric poetry), Euterpe (music), With their rhetorical gifts, they had a banks of oars.
Melpomene (tragedy), Polyhymnia great deal of influence over Athenian
(sacred poetry),Terpsichore (dancing), politics. zeugitai social class of economically
Thalia (comedy), Urania (astronomy). independent farmers in Athens;
Salamis island on the western coast owners of zeugos (yokes of oxen).The
Parnassus mountain of central of Attica where the Persian fleet was zeugitai served as foot soldiers in the
Greece; in Greek mythology, the defeated in battle by the Greeks in 480 army and, after Solon’s reforms, could
home of Apollo and the Muses. BCE. hold minor political offices.

186

MAJOR HISTORICAL FIGURES

Aeschylus (525–456 BCE) Greek Eratosthenes Greek mathematician Pericles (c. 495–429 BCE)
playwright; author of the Oresteia and astronomer of the third and democratic leader of Athens during
trilogy and The Persians. second centuries BCE who calculated its Golden Age.
the circumference of Earth.
Alcibiades (c. 450–404 BCE) Plato (c. 428–348 BCE) ancient
Athenian politician and military Euclid (c. 300 BCE) ancient Greek Greek philosopher who, with Aristotle
commander whose policies mathematician; known as the father and Socrates, laid the foundations of
contributed to his city’s defeat of geometry. subsequent Western thought.
by Sparta in the Peloponnesian
War (431–404 BCE). Euripides (c. 485–406 BCE) Greek Plutarch (c. 46–120 CE) Greek
dramatist; author of more than 90 biographer and historian.
Alexander the Great (356–323 plays, including Medea.
BCE) king of Macedonia from 336 Pythagoras (c. 580–500 BCE)
BCE until his death. Alexander over- Herodotus (born c. 480 BCE) ancient Greek philosopher and
threw the Persian Empire and laid the known as the father of Greek mathematician whose religious,
foundations of a Hellenistic Empire. historiography. political, and philosophical
doctrines strongly influenced
Antigonus (382–301 BCE) Herophilus personal physician to Plato.
Macedonian general who co-founded Ptolemy I in the fourth century BCE;
the Antigonid dynasty. widely regarded as the father of the Socrates (469–399 BCE) Athenian
study of human anatomy. philosopher. His ideas were passed
Archimedes (c. 287–212 BCE) down primarily through the writings
Greek mathematician and inventor. Hesiod (c. 700 BCE) epic poet; of Plato.
author of Thegonia, on religion and
Aristophanes (c. 450–388 BCE) mythology, and Works and Days, a Sophocles (c. 496–406 BCE) Greek
early Greek comic playwright. manual for farmers. playwright; author of tragedies.

Aristotle (384–322 BCE) Greek Hippocrates (c. 460–377 BCE) Thucydides (c. 460–400 BCE)
philosopher and scientist. ancient Greek physician; known as Greek historian of the Peloponnesian
the father of medicine. War.
Croesus king of Lydia between 560
and 546 BCE; conquered Ionia and Homer (c. 800 BCE) legendary Virgil (70–19 BCE) Roman poet;
was in turn subjugated by the Persians; Greek poet to whom the epics the author of the Aeneid, an epic of the
famous for his vast wealth. Iliad and the Odyssey are attributed. foundation of Rome by fugitives from
the sacking of Troy.
Cyrus the Great sixth-century-BCE Judas Maccabaeus leader of the
Persian ruler who founded an empire Maccabaean revolt against the Seleucid Xenophon (431–350 BCE) Greek
that stretched from the Aegean Sea Empire (166–165 BCE). historian; author of the Anabasis, an
eastward to the Indus River. account of how Greek mercenaries
Leonidas (died 480 BCE) Spartan attempted to seize the Persian
Darius I king of Persia between 521 king who died in the Battle of throne.
and 486 BCE; started the First Persian Thermopylae.
War. His expedition against Athens Xerxes I king of Persia between 486
ended in the Battle of Marathon. Menander (c. 341–291 BCE) and 465 BCE; destroyed Athens in
Athenian comic dramatist; author of 480 BCE during the Second Persian
Democritus fifth-century-BCE Greek more than 100 plays. War.
philosopher.
Miltiades general who led Athenian Zeno (c. 335–263 BCE) Greek
Diogenes (c. 400–325 BCE) Greek forces to victory over the Persians at Cypriot who founded the Stoic
philosopher; founded Cynicism. the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE. school of philosophy.

187

INDEX

Page numbers in italic type refer to Antipater 158, 166, 171 army 74, 76
illustrations. Antisthenes 136 Athena 53, 63, 82, 84, 114, 121
apoikiai 47–48 citizenship 60, 78, 120
A Appolonius 162 coinage 73, 74
Aratus of Sicyon 173 Corinthian War 152
Achaean League 173 Arcadia 44, 153, 176 Council of 500 74, 76, 77–78,
Achilles 37, 38, 45 Archaic colonization 45
Adonis 84 Archaic period 40, 42–51, 64 114
Aeschines 153 Archidamus II 140 Delian League 110, 111–112,
Aeschylus 88, 92–93, 92, 93, 95, Archilochus 40, 51
Archimedes 178, 180 138, 140, 148
119, 154 architecture 50, 118, 119, 177 democracy 64, 74–79, 114–118,
Aetolia 166
Aetolian League 171 Cyclopean masonry 28 138, 149–150
Agamemnon 26–27, 38 Doric order 68 ecclesia (assembly) 61, 63, 76–77,
Agesilaus 152 Minoan 19, 19, 22
Agesilaus II 151–152, 151 Mycenaean 32, 33 114, 115
agriculture 6, 8–9, 16, 19–20, 33, Sparta 58–59 Erechtheion 79, 119
archons 60–61, 63, 90, 114–115 festivals 71, 88, 90
50, 72, 72, 73, 76 areopagus 60, 114 government 60–61, 63
Ajax 45 Argos 43, 43, 45, 143, 152 Lamian War 171
Akrotiri 11–12 Aridaeus 166 legal system 71, 114, 150
Alcibiades 143–144, 143, 144, 146 Aristarchus 174, 179 Long Walls 140, 141
Alcmaeonidae 70, 72, 74 Aristides 111 Lyceum 122, 137
Alexander IV 166 aristocracy 64–65, 74 metics 150
Alexander the Great 135, 153, Aristogeiton 75, 75 Mycenaean culture 26, 31, 35
Aristogoras of Miletus 97 naval supremacy 101, 110, 111,
154–165, 155, 159, 160, 161, Aristophanes 88, 95, 119, 148, 148
164, 166, 168 Aristotle 122, 123, 124, 131, 137, 138, 140, 146, 148
Alexandria 154, 161, 162, 162, 168, ostracism 76
170, 174, 176–180 137, 154, 174, 182 Parthenon 110, 116, 119, 121,
Al Mina 47 armor and weapons 35, 45, 59, 59,
alphabets 42, 46 121
Ambracia 112 74, 100, 138, 157 Peisistratus 70–71
Amon-Re 161, 163 army see warfare and armies Peloponnesian War 110, 112, 114,
Amyntas 156 Artaphernes 97
Anacreon 75 Artaxerxes 160 138–153
Anatolia 26, 29, 40, 42, 79, 96, 154, Artemisium, Battle of 99, 102–103 pentakosiomedimnoi 63
159, 166, 169, 169, 171 ascesis 127 Pericles 110–121, 111, 140–141,
anatomy 181 asceticism 136
Anaxagoras 118, 126, 128, 132 Asine 29, 31 143
Anaximander 122, 124 astrolabe 180 Peristratus 64
Anaximenes 122, 124–125, 125 astronomy 124, 126, 126, 174, Persian Wars 96, 99–107, 112
Antalcidas, Peace of 152 phylae 76, 77
Antigonid dynasty 166, 169, 172 179–180 plague 138, 140–142
Antigonus 166, 168–169 atheism 86–87, 122 pottery 71
Antigonus Gonatas 167, 169, Athens 29, 43, 43, 45, 47, 52, 58–63 Propylaea 119
171–172 prytane 77–78
Antioch 169 Academy 122, 135, 137 rhetors 115
Antiochus I 171 Acropolis 58, 63, 70, 79, 110, slaves 78, 117
Antiochus III 170 social organization 60–61, 63
Antiochus IV 170 112, 116, 117, 119 Solon’s reforms 61, 63, 64, 68,
Alcmaeonidae 70, 72, 74
archons 60–61, 63, 114–115 74
areopagus 60, 114 strategoi 115, 143, 147
Temple of Athena Nike 117,

119
Theater of Dionysus 88, 90, 91

188

INDEX

thetes 60, 61, 74, 114 Companions (hetairoi) 158, 159, 165 diadochs 166, 168–172
Thirty Years Peace 138 Corcyra 138, 139, 140 Diagoras of Melos 87, 122
tyranny 64, 68, 70–72, 74–75, Corinth 43, 43, 47, 48, 67, 68, 107, diet 6, 8–9, 72, 76
Diogenes 122, 123, 134, 135, 136
148–150 115 Dionysia 71, 88, 89, 90, 92
wealth 101, 118 oligarchy 64, 68 dithyramb 88, 90
women 62, 78, 120 Peloponnesian War 112, 114, 138, divination 85
zeugitai 60, 61, 74, 114 divorce 120
athletics 77, 82 140 dodeca poleis 42, 52
Atlantis 13 Spartan Confederacy 112, 114 Dodona 83
atomic theory 131, 182–183 Temple of Apollo 69 Dorians 35, 40, 42, 44, 52, 80
Attica 44, 45, 52, 58, 60, 71, trade 65–66 drama 48, 82, 88–95, 119
tyranny 64, 65–69
103–104 Corinthian League 155 choregi 90
Corinthian War 152 comedy 88, 90, 95, 177, 182
B Corupedium, Battle of 166, 169, masks 88, 90, 91
satyr plays 90
Babylon 96, 163, 165, 169 169 tetralogy 90
Bactria 164, 169, 171 Cos 42, 44 theaters 88, 90, 91
Barsine 165 craftsmen 6, 19, 33, 55, 60, 68, 71, tragedy 71, 88, 91–95, 182
basileus 40, 43 dromos 31, 32, 32
Bessus 164 72–74, 73
Boeotia 7, 50 Crannon, Battle of 166, 171 E
Brasidas 143 Crete 11, 14–25, 17, 26, 35, 40, 44
Bronze Age 6–13, 8–9, 16–25 Croesus 98 ecclesia 61, 63, 76–77, 114, 115
bull-leaping 21, 21, 23, 24 Croton 122, 126–127 economy 72–74
Cycladic culture 6, 7, 8–13, 11, 13, education 57, 118, 131, 132,
C
16 181–182
Callias 112 Cynics 136 Egypt 11, 12, 14, 36, 154, 161–163,
Callimachus 100, 162 Cyprus 40, 44, 166, 169
Cambyses II 79, 96 Cypselus 64, 66–67, 72 166, 168, 169, 172, 174
Cape Mycale, Battle of 99, 106, Cyrenaica 166 Elea 49, 125, 128
Cyrene 163 Eleusian mysteries 80, 85–86
109, 110 Cyrus the Great 96, 98 Elis 143
Cape Sounion 85, 99 emporion 47
Carthage 51 D Epaminondas 152–153
Cassander 171 Ephesus 73
Catana 144 Damon 118 Epicurianism 181, 182–183
Celts 51 Dardanelles 154, 159 Epicurus 182–183, 183
centaurs 81 Darius I 75, 96, 97, 99–100, 102, Epidamnus 138
Chaeronea, Battle of 153, 154 Epidaurus 140
chariots 35, 59 163, 163 Erasistratus 181
children 57, 62 Darius III 160–161, 163–164, 165 Eratosthenes 150, 180
Chios 42 Dark Age 36, 40–42, 42–43, 43 Eritria 97
Chrysippus 183 debt slavery 47, 52, 60–61, 64 ethics 132–133, 182
Cicero 105 Delian League 110, 111–112, 138, Etruria 50
Cimon 111–112 Euboea 42, 45
Cleanthes 183 140, 148 Euclid 174, 177, 178
Cleisthenes 64, 74, 76, 79 Delos 8, 9, 11, 111, 115 Euripides 88, 94–95, 95, 119, 126,
Cleomenes III 166, 173 Delphi 80, 83, 85, 86, 99, 101
Cleon 141, 143 Demaratus 99 154
coinage 73, 74, 82, 98, 100, 161, Demetrius of Phaleron 174 Eurymedon, Battle of the 111
Demetrius Poliorcetes 166, Evvoia 44
168
colonies 45, 47–51, 119 168–169 F
comedy 88, 90, 95, 177, 182 democracy 64, 65, 74–79, 114–118,
comos 88, 90 festivals 71, 82, 88, 89, 90, 92
149–150
Democritus 87, 182
Democritus of Abdera 131
Demosthenes 141, 152, 153, 156,

171

189

ANCIENT GREECE

G Helladic culture 6, 7, 16 krypteia 54
Hellenism 172–173 Kythnos 8, 9
Gaugamela, Battle of 158, 163 helots 52, 54
Gaul 51 Hephaestion 163, 164 L
Gaza 161 Heraclitus of Ephesus 125, 132
geometry 124, 128, 177, 179 Herodotus 68, 69, 70–71, 74, 98, labyrinth 14, 20
Gla 26, 29, 35 Laconia 45, 52
gods and goddesses 80–81, 82, 84, 100, 101, 105, 105, 106 Lamachus 144
heroes 80 Lamian War 171–172
122, 172 Hero of Alexandria 178, 179 languages 7, 26, 42–43, 44, 172
Aphrodite 80, 84, 86–87 Herophilus 181 Laurium silver mines 101
Apollo 11–12, 80, 81, 84, 182 Hesiod 40, 50, 51, 83 Lefkandi 42, 45
Ares 84, 84 Hindu Kush 164 legal system 47, 71, 114, 150
Artemis 34, 84, 116 Hipparchus 75 Leonidas 58, 103
Athena 34, 53, 63, 71, 73, 74, 82, hippeis 60, 61, 63 Leotychides 106, 109
Hippias 64, 71–72, 74, 75, 99 Lerna 6
84, 114, 121 Hippocrates 122, 180–181 Lesbos 40
Demeter 84, 86 Hippodamus of Miletus 119 Leto 84
Dionysus 34, 71, 80, 81, 84, 88, Hittites 36 Leucippus 131
Homer (Iliad and Odyssey) 26–27, Leuctra, Battle of 138, 152
89, 90, 172, 173 Library of Alexandria 177, 180
Eos Aurora 80 36–39, 42–43, 45, 71, 80, 83, Libya 166, 169
Hades 84, 85–86, 87 154, 174, 176 Linear A script 23, 25
Helios 80, 82, 127 hoplites 59, 59, 74, 76, 99–100, Linear B script 44, 46, 80
Hephaestus 84 106, 106, 138, 146, 152 literature 119
Hera 80, 84 housing 6–8, 13, 16, 17, 21–22, 28 Locris 144
Hermes 80, 84 Hydaspes, Battle of 154, 164 logic 132, 177
Hestia 82 logographers 150
Minoan culture 20–21 I Logos 125, 183
Mnemosyne 182 Lycurgus 52, 56, 57
Mycenaean culture 34, 34, 35 idealism 182 Lydia 73, 96, 98, 100, 106
Olympian 80, 84 Ilium 39 Lysander 148–149, 149
Persephone 80, 84, 85–86, 87 Illyria 155 Lysias 150, 150
Poseidon 34, 84 India 154, 164 Lysimachus 169
priesthood 34 Iolkos 29, 31
Zeus 34, 71, 80, 83, 84, 163, 182 Ionia 11, 42, 44, 96, 98, 138 M
see also religion Ionian philosophy 122–126
Gordian Knot 160, 160 Ionian Rebellion 96–97, 99, 101 Macedon 96, 112, 153, 154–165,
Gordium 158, 160 Ipsus, Battle of 168, 169 169, 171–172
Gorgias 132 Ischia 50
Gournia 17, 21, 22 Issus, Battle of 158, 159, 160–161 Alexander the Great 154–165
government Ithaca 26 Antigonid dynasty 166, 169, 172
colonies 50 Magna Grecia 48, 50
democracy 64, 65, 74–79, J Maia 84
Mallia 16, 17
114–118, 149–150 Jerusalem 161, 166, 170 Mantinea, Battle of 143, 153
oligarchy 64, 68, 118, 138, 145 jewelry 23, 24, 30, 33, 45 maps 124
poleis 40, 42, 43, 45, 47, 52, 64 Judas Maccabaeus 166, 170, 172 Marathon, Battle of 96, 99–100, 99,
Sparta 47, 52–57, 118, 138
tyranny 47, 64–75, 96 K 103
Graces 182 marble 7, 9, 11
Granicus River, Battle of 154, 158, Kastri 11 Mardonius 106, 107
Keftiu 14 marriage 57, 62, 120
159–160 Keros 7, 10 mathematics 122, 124, 127–128,
Grotta-Pelos 10 Knossos 14, 16–25, 16, 17, 18, 19,
Gylippus 146 130, 174, 177–180
26, 35 Medes 96
H

Harmodius 75, 75

190

INDEX

Media 164 P Plutarch 154
medicine 122, 180–181 poetry 40, 50, 51, 82, 83, 88,
Megacles 70–71, 74 Paestum 47
Megara 140 Palestine 161, 163, 166, 170 176–177, 182
Menander 95, 177, 177 Pallene, Battle of 71 poleis 40, 42, 43, 45, 47, 52, 64
Menelaus 26, 38 Panathenaea 71 Polycrates 126
mercenaries 64, 73, 158–159 Parmenides 125, 128, 130, 131, Polypechon 171
merchants 6, 19 population 45, 49
Messenia 45, 52, 54, 153 132–133 Porus 164
metempsychosis 127 Paros 9, 9 Potidaea, siege of 140
metics 150 Partakes 171 pottery 37, 45, 60
migration 40, 42, 44, 47–51 Parthenon 110, 116, 119, 121, 121
Miletus 73, 97 Parthia 164, 169, 171 Athenian 71, 78, 119
Miletus, School of 122, 124–125 Pasagardae 163 Bronze Age 7, 13, 18, 24, 33, 35
Milos 8, 11, 13 Pausanias 149–150 Corinthian 68
Miltiades 100 Pausanius 107 Dark Ages 42
Minoans 11, 12, 14–25, 16, 17 Peisistratus 70–71, 72 Kamares ware 17, 24
Minos 14, 18, 20 Peloponnesian League 138, 140 Mycenaean 34, 35, 36
Minotaur 14, 15, 20, 20 Peloponnesian War 44, 48, 110, pithoi 18
Minyan culture 6, 7–8 Priam 37, 38
mosaics 15, 38 112, 114, 138–153 priesthood 82, 83
Mount Olympus 80, 84 Perdiccas 156 Protagoras 119, 122
Mount Parnassus 83 Pergamum 171 prytane 77–78
Muses 84, 174, 181, 182 Periander 64, 65, 66, 68–69 Psammetichus 64, 68
Museum 174, 176, 177 Pericles 110–121, 111, 126, Ptolemaic dynasty 162, 166, 168,
music 118, 127, 128, 130, 180, 182
Mycenae 26–28, 29, 31, 35, 37, 38 140–141, 143 172
Mycenaeans 13, 14, 16, 25, 26–36, perioikoi 52, 54–55 Ptolemy I 166, 168, 168, 174
Peristratus 64 Ptolemy II 168, 174
27, 29, 39, 40, 58, 80 Persepolis 108, 163, 163 Ptolemy of Alexandria 175,
tombs 29–32, 32 Persia 60, 151–152, 154, 159–166,
Mykonos 8, 9 179–180
mythology 80–81, 83, 84, 88, 92, 163–164, 165, 171 Pylos 26, 29, 31, 33, 34, 35, 46
Seleucid dynasty 166, 169–171, Pylos, Battle of 141
122, 124 Pyrrhon of Elis 182
172 Pythagoras 122, 126–128, 129, 130
N Persian Wars 58, 75, 79, 96–109, 99, Pythia 83
pyxis 120
Nabis 173 110, 112
Naxos 8, 9, 9, 111 Phaistos 14, 16, 17, 22 R
Nestor 26, 31, 33 phalanx 157, 157, 159
Nicias 143–144, 146 Pheidippides 100 religion 13, 80–87, 122
Nicias, Peace of 138, 143 Phidias 121 atheism 86–87, 122
Philip II 153, 153, 154, 156, 156, divination 85
O Hellenistic empires 172–173,
157 173
Odysseus 26, 37, 38, 38, 176 Philip III 166 Minoan 20–21, 24
oligarchy 64, 68, 118, 138, 148 Philistus 154 Mycenaean 28, 32, 34, 34, 35, 80
Olympias 154, 156, 163 philosophy 118, 122–137, 174, mystery cults 80, 85–86, 87, 154
Olympic Games 125 oracles 49, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 101,
oracles 49, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 101, 181–183 161
Phoenicia 42, 46, 102, 161 priesthood 82, 83
161 Phrygia 160, 168, 169 Pythagoreans 127
oration 110, 115, 150 Phrynichus 91–92 sacrifice 24, 32, 34, 35, 82, 83,
orchestra 90 phylae 76, 77 84
Orchomenus 7, 9 Pindar 158 syncretism 80, 173
ostracism 76, 112 Piraeus 118, 119, 140, 141, 142 temples 81–82, 85
Pithekoussai 47, 50 see also gods and goddesses
Plataea, Battle of 96, 99, 106, 107,

107, 109
Plato 58, 117, 118, 122, 123, 131,

132–133, 134–135, 134, 137,
182

191

ANCIENT GREECE

rhetoric 115, 118, 131, 132, 181 perioikoi 52, 54–55 Mycenaeans 26, 35
Rhodes 36, 42, 44, 166 Persian Wars 96, 99, 102–103, Sparta 55
Romans 39 tragedy 71, 88, 91–95, 182
Roxana 166 106–107 tragoidos 88
social organization 47, 52–55 Treasury of Atreus 26, 32, 32
S Spartan Confederacy 112, 114 trigonometry 180
Thirty Years Peace 138 triremes 109, 109
Salamis, Battle of 96, 99, 104, 104, Spartan Confederacy 112, 114 Troy 26–27, 28, 29, 36–39, 39
106, 109, 109, 110 Stoicism 87, 174, 181, 183 tyranny 47, 64–75, 96, 148
Stone Age 6–8, 14–16 Tyre 154, 161
Samos 41, 42, 101, 126 strategoi 93, 110, 115, 143, 147 Tyrtaeus 52
Samos, Battle of 97 sundial 124, 180
Sappho 44 Susa 163, 165 V
Sardis 96, 97, 160 Syracuse 48, 48, 138, 143–144, 145,
satyrs 81 Virgil 176
science 118, 122, 124, 128, 131, 146
Syria 169 W
174, 177–181, 182 Syros 10, 11
seals 6, 16, 24–25, 30, 78, 109 warfare and armies 73, 74
Sea Peoples 36 T Athens 74, 76
Seleucid dynasty 166, 169–171, 172 Bronze Age 10
Seleucus 166, 168, 169, 171 Tarentum 144 Companions (hetairoi) 158, 159,
ships 25, 35, 42, 101, 109, 109, 110, textiles 33, 62, 72, 119 165
Thales of Miletus 122, 124, 124, hoplites 59, 59, 74, 76, 99–100,
138, 140, 141 106, 106, 138, 146, 152
Sicily 48, 143–146 126 Macedon 157, 157, 158–159
Simonides 75 Thasos 51 Mycenaeans 26, 33, 35
Siwa Oasis 161, 168 theater see drama naval warfare 97, 101, 102–103,
Skepticism 181, 182 Thebes 26, 29, 31, 43, 43, 138, 104, 106, 109, 138, 140, 141,
slaves 33, 47, 51, 60–61, 62, 64, 78, 146
152–153, 156, 158 phalanx 157, 157, 159
117, 177 Corinthian War 152 Sparta 55, 56, 57, 58, 59
Socrates 118, 122, 126, 131–135, Peloponnesian War 112, 114 see also armor and weapons
Themistocles 101, 104
132, 133, 136, 143, 182 Theocritus 162, 176–177 women 57, 62, 72, 78, 91, 112, 119,
Sogdiana 164 Thera 9, 12 120
Solon 52, 61, 61, 63, 64, 74, 98 volcanic eruption 6, 11–13, 14,
sophia 127 wrestling 56
sophists 118, 131, 132, 181–182 25 writing 23, 24–25, 40, 42–43, 46,
Sophocles 88, 93–94, 94, 119, 154 Thermopylae, Battle of 58, 96, 99,
Sparta 26, 38, 43, 43, 45, 52–58, 58, 46, 47, 85
102–103
110, 166 Theseus 15, 20, 52, 58, 91 X
army and military training 55, Thespis 88
thetes 60, 61, 74, 114 Xanthippus 110
56, 57, 58, 59 Thirty Years Peace 138 Xenophanes 125
Cleomenes III 173 tholos tombs 30–32, 32 Xenophon 73, 132
Corinthian War 152 Thrace 71, 96, 154, 155 Xerxes I 96, 100–106, 160
gerousia 56–57 Thrasybulus 149
government 47, 52–57, 118 Thucydides 122, 141, 142, 147, 147 Z
helots 52, 54 Thurii 119
imperialism 151–152 Tiryns 26, 28, 29, 31, 33, 35 Zakro 16, 17
kings 56 trade 72, 73–74 Zeno of Cyprus 174, 183
krypteia 54 Zeno of Elea 130, 132–133
Lycurgan Constitution 52, 56 Archaic period 40, 42, 45, 47 zeugitai 60, 61, 74, 114
oligarchy 138 Bronze Age 6, 11, 16, 19, 25
Peloponnesian League 138, 140 colonies 47, 51
Peloponnesian War 110, 112, 114, Corinth 65–66
emporion 47
138–153

192