Knowledge Encyclopedia Space The Universe as You've Never Seen it Before

199

Viking 1 USA 1976 Orbiter/lander Success
Viking 2 USA 1976 Orbiter/lander Success
Phobos 2 USSR/Russia 1989 Phobos orbiter/lander Partial success (lander failure)
Mars Pathfinder USA 1997 Lander/rover Success
Mars Global Surveyor USA 1997 Orbiter Success
Mars Odyssey USA 2001 Orbiter Success
Mars Express/Beagle 2 Europe 2003 Orbiter/lander Partial success (lander failure)
MER-A Spirit USA 2004 Rover Success
MER-B Opportunity USA 2004 Rover Success
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter USA 2006 Orbiter Success
Phoenix USA 2008 Lander Success
Curiosity USA 2012 Rover Success
Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) India 2014 Orbiter Success
MAVEN USA 2014 Orbiter Success
EXOMARS Europe/Russia 2016 Orbiter/lander Partial success (lander failure)
Insight USA 2018 Orbiter/lander Success
Hope UAE 2021 Orbiter Success
Tianwen-1 China 2021 Orbiter/rover Success
Perseverance USA 2021 Rover Success

Giants

The giant planets have no surfaces to investigate, but their atmospheres,
rings, and moons are all intriguing. After an initial wave of flyby missions that
surveyed the giants in the 1970s and 80s, Jupiter and Saturn have both been
surveyed by long-term orbiters. A probe has entered Jupiter’s atmosphere,
and a lander has touched down on Saturn’s largest moon, Titan.

Jupiter Juno Galileo

Mission Country of origin Arrival date Type Status

Pioneer 10 USA 1973 Flyby Success
Pioneer 11 USA 1974
Voyager 1 USA 1979 Flyby Success
Voyager 2 USA 1979
Galileo USA 1995 Flyby Success
Cassini USA and Europe 2000
New Horizons USA 2007 Flyby Success
Juno USA 2016
Orbiter/atmospheric probe Success

Flyby Success

Flyby Success

Orbiter Success

Saturn

Mission Country of origin Arrival date Type Status

Pioneer 11 USA 1979 Flyby Success
Voyager 1 USA 1980 Flyby Success
Voyager 2 USA 1981 Flyby Success
Cassini/Huygens USA and Europe 2004 Orbiter/Titan lander Success

Uranus and Neptune

Mission Country of origin Arrival date Type Status

Voyager 2 USA Uranus 1986, Flyby Success
Neptune 1989

200 reference

Stars and galaxies There are about 200 billion

The vast majority of objects in the night sky lie far beyond our Solar galaxies in the observable Universe
System. All the individual stars we can see are members of our own Milky and about as many stars in the
Way galaxy, as are most of the star clusters and nebulae visible through Milky Way.
amateur instruments. There are also countless other galaxies far beyond
our own, most of them too distant to see.

Nearest stars KEY White dwarf
Orange main-sequence star
Many of the closest stars to Earth are red dwarfs, often in binary or multiple systems Red dwarf Brown dwarf
and so faint that they are hard to see despite their proximity. There are also a few White main-sequence star
Sun-like stars, and a couple of brilliant white stars, each paired with a burnt-out Yellow main-sequence star Visibility
white-dwarf companion. Also close to Earth are many star-like objects called brown
dwarfs – failed stars that are not massive enough to trigger nuclear fusion in their core. Naked eye
Telescope
Star type Designation Distance Constellation Apparent Naked eye
magnitude Telescope
Sun 8 light minutes – Telescope
Proxima Centauri 4.2 light years Centaurus –26.7 Telescope
Alpha Centauri A/B 4.4 light years Centaurus 11.1 Telescope
Barnard’s Star 6.0 light years Ophiuchus 0.01/1.34 Binoculars
Luhman 16 A/B 6.6 light years Vela 9.5 Naked eye/telescope
10.7 Telescope
Telescope
WISE 0655-0714 7.2 light years Hydra 13.9 Telescope
Wolf 359 7.8 light years Leo 13.4 Naked eye
Lalande 21185 8.3 light years Ursa Major 7.5 Binoculars
Sirius A/B 8.6 light years Canis Major –1.46/8.44 Telescope
Luyten 726-8 8.7 light years Cetus 12.5/13.0 Telescope
Ross 154 9.7 light years Sagittarius 10.4 Telescope
Ross 248 10.3 light years Andromeda 12.3 Naked eye/telescope
Epsilon Eridani 10.5 light years Eridanus 3.73 Naked eye/binoculars
Lacaille 9352 10.7 light years Piscis Austrinus 7.3 Telescope
Ross 128 10.9 light years Virgo 11.1 Telescope
WISE 1506+7027 11.1 light years Ursa Minor 14.3
EZ Aquarii A/B/C 11.3 light years Aquarius 13.3/13.3/14.0
Procyon A/B 11.4 light years Canis Minor 0.4/10.7
61 Cygni A/B 11.4 light years Cygnus 5.2/6.0
Struve 2398 A/B 11.5 light years Draco 8.9/9.7
Groombridge 34 A/B 11.6 light years Andromeda 8.1/11.1

Brightest star Apparent magnitude

Star brightness is measured by apparent magnitude. –30 –25 –20 –15 –10 –5 0 +5 +10 +15 +20 +25 +30
The brightest stars have the lowest number; 6 is
roughly the limit of naked-eye visibility in a clear, The Sun Full moon Polaris Naked- Hubble
dark sky. The Sun, with a magnitude of –26.7, is the eye limit Space
brightest object in our skies, but at night thousands Telescope
of stars are visible to the naked eye, and millions detection
more can be seen through binoculars or a telescope. limit

201

Nebulae Name: Dumbbell Nebula
Designation: M27
Nebulae are clouds of interstellar gas and dust of various shapes and Constellation: Vulpecula
sizes, ranging from huge star-forming complexes to the smoke rings Magnitude: 7.5
puffed out by dying stars. Below are a few of the brightest nebulae. Distance: 1,360 light years
Type: Planetary nebula
Name: Carina Nebula Visibility: Binoculars
Designation: NGC 3372

Constellation: Carina

Magnitude: 1

Distance: 6,500 light years

Type: Emission nebula

Visibility: Naked eye

Name: Orion Nebula Name: Helix Nebula
Designation: M42 Designation: NGC 7293
Constellation: Orion Constellation: Aquarius
Magnitude: 4 Magnitude: 7.6
Distance: 1,340 light years Distance: 700 light years
Type: Emission nebula Type: Planetary nebula
Visibility: Naked eye Visibility: Binoculars

Name: Lagoon Nebula Name: Rosette Nebula
Designation: M8 Designation: NGC 2237
Constellation: Sagittarius Constellation: Monoceros
Magnitude: 6 Magnitude: 9
Distance: 4,100 light years Distance: 5,200 light years
Type: Emission nebula Type: Emission nebula
Visibility: Naked eye Visibility: Binoculars

Galaxies KEY Barred spiral
Elliptical
The brightest galaxies in the sky tend to be those closest to the Irregular
Milky Way. This table lists some of the most interesting galaxies Spiral
that can be observed with binoculars or the naked eye.

Type Name Designation Constellation Apparent magnitude Distance Visibility

Large Magellanic Cloud LMC Dorado/Mensa 0.9 160,000 light years Naked eye
Small Magellanic Cloud SMC Tucana 2.7 200,000 light years Naked eye
Andromeda Galaxy M32 Andromeda 3.4 2.5 million light years Naked eye
Triangulum Galaxy M33 Triangulum 5.7 2.9 million light years Binoculars
Centaurus A NGC 5128 Centaurus 6.8 13.7 million light years Binoculars
Bode’s Galaxy M81 Ursa Major 6.9 11.8 million light years Binoculars
Southern Pinwheel M83 Hydra 7.5 15.2 million light years Binoculars
Sculptor Galaxy NGC 253 Sculptor 8.0 11.4 million light years Binoculars

202 glossary

Glossary

ANTENNA BLACK HOLE DENSITY GRAVITY

A rod- or dish-like structure on An object in space with such a strong The amount of matter that occupies The force that pulls all objects that
spacecraft and telescopes used to gravitational pull that nothing, not a certain volume. have mass and energy towards one
transmit and receive radio signals. even light, can escape from it. another. It is the force that keeps
DWARF PLANET moons in orbit around planets, and
APHELION BLAZAR planets in orbit around the Sun.
A planet that is big enough to
The point in the orbit of a planet, An active galaxy with a supermassive have become spherical but hasn’t HABITABLE
comet, or asteroid at which it is black hole at its centre. managed to clear all the debris
farthest from the Sun. from its orbital path. Suitable for living in or on.
CHARGED PARTICLE
ASTEROID ECLIPSE HEMISPHERE
A particle that has a positive or
A small, irregular Solar System negative electrical charge. An astronomical event in which One half of a sphere. Earth is
object, made of rock and/or metal, an object either passes into the divided into northern and southern
that orbits the Sun. CHROMOSPHERE shadow of another object or hemispheres by the equator.
temporarily blocks an observer’s
ASTEROID BELT A gaseous layer above the surface view. During a solar eclipse, the HERTZSPRUNG–RUSSELL
of a star, such as the Sun. Along shadow of the Moon falls on Earth. DIAGRAM
A doughnut-shaped region of the with the corona, it forms the star’s In a lunar eclipse, the shadow of
Solar System, between the orbits outer atmosphere. Earth falls on the Moon. A diagram showing a star’s
of Mars and Jupiter, that contains a temperature and brightness
large number of orbiting asteroids. COMET ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION in relation to other stars.

ASTRONAUT An object made of dust and Energy waves that can travel through INFRARED
ice that travels around the Sun in space and matter. Visible light, X-rays,
A person trained to travel and an elliptical orbit. As it gets near and microwaves are all forms of Electromagnetic radiation with
live in space. the Sun, the ice starts to vaporize, electromagnetic radiation. wavelengths shorter than radio waves
creating a tail of dust and gas. but longer than visible light. It is the
ATMOSPHERE EQUATOR primary form of radiation emitted
CONSTELLATION by many objects in space.
The layer of gas that surrounds a The imaginary line around the centre
planet. Also the outermost layer A named area of the sky (defined of a planet, halfway between its north LAUNCH VEHICLE
of gas around the Sun or a star. by the International Astronomical and south poles.
Union). The whole sky is divided into A rocket-powered vehicle that is
ATOM 88 constellations. Many are based ESCAPE VELOCITY used to send spacecraft or satellites
around distinctive patterns of stars. into space.
The smallest particle of a chemical The minimum speed at which an
element that can exist on its own. CORONA object has to travel to escape the LIGHT YEAR
gravity of a planet or moon. Earth’s
AURORA The outermost part of the Sun escape velocity is 11.2 km (7 miles) The distance travelled by light
or a star’s atmosphere, seen as a per second. in a vacuum in one year.
Patterns of light that appear near white halo during a solar eclipse.
the poles of some planets. Solar EXOPLANET LITHOSPHERE
wind particles are trapped by a COSMONAUT
planet’s magnetic field and drawn A planet that orbits a star other than The solid, hard outer layer of a
into its atmosphere, where they A Russian astronaut. the Sun. planet or moon.
collide with atoms and cause them
to give off light. CRATER GALAXY MAGNETIC FIELD

AXIS A bowl-shaped depression on the A collection of millions or trillions A field of force that may, for
surface of a planet, moon, asteroid, of stars, gas, and dust held together example, be created by a planet,
The imaginary line that passes or other body. by gravity. star, or galaxy and surround it.
through the centre of a planet
or star and around which CRUST GAMMA RAY MAGNITUDE
the planet or star rotates.
The thin, solid outer layer of An electromagnetic energy wave that The brightness of an object in space
BIG BANG a planet or moon. has a very short wavelength. given as a number. Bright objects have
low or negative numbers and dim
The explosion that created the DARK ENERGY GLOBULAR CLUSTER objects have high numbers.
Universe billions of years ago.
According to the big bang theory, The energy that scientists believe A large, ball-shaped cluster of old MAIN-SEQUENCE STAR
the Universe began in an extremely is responsible for the acceleration stars tightly packed together.
dense and hot state and has been in the expansion of the Universe. An ordinary star, such as our Sun,
expanding ever since. The big bang GRANULATION that shines by converting hydrogen
was the origin of space, time, DARK MATTER to helium. Main-sequence stars lie on
and matter. Mottling on the surface of the Sun the main band of the Hertzsprung–
Invisible matter that can be detected or another star. Russell diagram.
only by the effect of its gravity.

203

MANTLE NEUTRON STAR PLANETESIMALS SOLAR WIND

A thick layer between the core and A dense collapsed star that is mainly Small rocky or icy objects formed A continuous flow of fast-moving
the crust of a planet or moon. made of neutrons. in the early Solar System that charged particles from the Sun.
were pulled together by gravity
MARE NUCLEAR FUSION to form planets. SPACE-TIME

A large, flat area on the Moon’s surface A process in which two atomic nuclei PLANISPHERE A combination of three dimensions
that looks dark when viewed from join to form a heavier nucleus and of space – length, breadth, height –
Earth. These areas were originally release large amounts of energy. A disc-shaped star map with an with the dimension of time.
thought to be lakes or seas but are now overlay that shows which part
known to be floods of solidified lava. NUCLEUS of the sky is visible at particular SPACEWALK
times and dates.
MATTER The compact central core of an atom Activity by an astronaut in space
or galaxy. The solid body of a comet. PLASMA outside a spacecraft, usually to
Something that exists as a solid, conduct repairs or test equipment.
liquid, or gas. ORBIT A highly energized form of gas.
The Sun is made of plasma. STAR
MESOSPHERE The path taken by an object around
another when affected by its gravity. PROBE A huge sphere of glowing plasma
The layer of atmosphere 50–80 km The orbits of planets are mostly that generates energy by nuclear
(30–50 miles) above Earth. elliptical in shape. An uncrewed spacecraft that is fusion in its core.
designed to explore objects in space
METEOR ORBITER and transmit information back to STRATOSPHERE
Earth (especially one that explores the
A streak of light, also called a A spacecraft that is designed to orbit atmosphere or surface of an object). The layer of the atmosphere 8–50 km
shooting star, seen when a meteoroid an object but not land on it. (5–30 miles) above Earth’s surface.
burns up due to friction on entering
Earth’s atmosphere. PARTICLE PROMINENCE SUBATOMIC PARTICLE

METEORITE An extremely small part of a solid, A large, flame-like plume of Any particle smaller than an atom.
liquid, or gas. plasma emerging from the Sun’s
A meteoroid that reaches the photosphere. SUNSPOT
ground and survives impact. PAYLOAD
Meteorites are usually classified PULSAR A region of intense magnetic activity
according to their composition as Cargo or equipment carried into in the Sun’s photosphere that appears
stony, iron, or stony-iron. space by a rocket or a spacecraft. A neutron star that sends out beams darker than its surroundings.
of radiation as it spins.
METEOROID PENUMBRA THERMOSPHERE
QUASAR
A particle of rock, metal, or ice The lighter outer shadow cast by The layer of the atmosphere
travelling through space. an object. A person inside this Short for “quasi-stellar radio source”, 80–600 km (50–375 miles) above
region can see part of the source a quasar is the immensely luminous Earth’s surface.
MICROWAVE of light causing the shadow. Also nucleus of a distant active galaxy
the lighter, less cool region of with a supermassive black hole at THRUST
Electromagnetic radiation with a sunspot. its centre.
wavelengths longer than infrared The force from an engine that propels
and visible light but shorter than PERIHELION RED GIANT a rocket or spacecraft forwards.
radio waves.
The point in the orbit of a planet, A large, luminous star with a low TRANSIT
MILKY WAY comet, or asteroid at which it is surface temperature and a reddish
closest to the Sun. colour. It “burns” helium in its core The passage of a planet or star in
The barred spiral galaxy that contains rather than hydrogen and is nearing front of another, larger, object.
the Solar System and is visible to the PHASE the final stages of its life.
naked eye as a band of faint light TROPOSPHERE
across the night sky. The portion of a moon or planet that ROVER
is seen to be lit by the Sun. The Moon The layer of the atmosphere 6–20 km
MODULE passes through a cycle of different A vehicle that is driven remotely on (4–12 miles) above Earth’s surface.
phases every 30 days. the surface of a planet or moon.
A portion of a spacecraft. ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
PHOTOSPHERE SATELLITE
NEBULA Electromagnetic radiation with
The thin gaseous layer at the base An object that orbits another wavelengths shorter than visible
A cloud of gas and/or dust in space. of the Sun’s atmosphere from object larger than itself. light but longer than X-rays.
which visible light is emitted.
NEUTRINO SEYFERT GALAXY UMBRA
PLANET
A subatomic particle produced by An active galaxy, often spiral The darker central shadow cast by
nuclear fusion in stars as well as A spherical object that orbits a in shape, with a supermassive an object. A person inside this region
in the big bang. star and is sufficiently massive black hole at the centre. cannot see the source of light causing
to have cleared its orbital path the shadow. Also the darker, cooler
NEUTRON of debris. SOLAR FLARE region of a sunspot.

A subatomic particle that does not PLANETARY NEBULA The brightening of a part of the X-RAY
have an electrical charge. It is found Sun’s surface, accompanied by
in all atomic nuclei except those A glowing cloud of gas around a a release of huge amounts of Electromagnetic radiation with
of hydrogen. star at the end of its life. electromagnetic energy. wavelengths shorter than ultraviolet
radiation but longer than gamma rays.

204 index

Index

Page numbers in bold type astronomy 116 Bode’s Galaxy (M81) 101, Columba 186 craters cont.
practical stargazing 156, 157, 201 Coma Berenices 172 the Moon 25
refer to main entries 154–155 coma (comets) 66, 67 transient 29
Boeing Starliner 114 comets 9, 11, 66–67, 197, Venus 18
A Atlantis 114 Boötes 166
atmosphere 202 Butterfly Cluster (Scorpius) 90 202 Crew Dragon 114, 131
Abell 1185 106 Butterfly Nebula 82–83 67P 66 crewed spacecraft 117,
Abell 1689 106 Earth 20, 22, 23 Encke 66
accretionary disc 89, 90 Io 48 C Hale–Bopp 66, 197 130–131
active galaxies 100–101, Jupiter 45 impact craters 28 first 124–125
Mars 3, 14, 69 Caelum 185 landing on 117 future 146–147
104 Mercury 17 Callisto 47 periodic 197 crust
Akatsuki 198 Neptune 62 Caloris Basin (Mercury) 16 structure of 66 comets 66
Albireo 168 Pluto 65 Camelopardalis 164 tails 66 Earth 22, 23
Aldrin, Buzz 117, Rhea and Dione 57 cameras, rovers 129 Tempel 1 126 Io 49
Saturn 50 Cancer 153, 170 Command Module (Apollo) Mars 33
136 stars 70 Canes Venatici 104, Mercury 17
aliens 148–149 Titan 59 134, 135, 136, 137 the Moon 25
Allen Telescope Array 148 Uranus 60 166–167 constellations 152, 162–193, Titan 59
Alpha Centauri 158 Venus 18 Canis Major 178 Venus 19
Alphecca 174 atoms 110, 202 Canis Minor 178 202 Crux (Southern Cross) 158,
Andromeda constellation Auriga 164 Capricornus 153, 184 movement of 155
auroras 202 carbon dioxide 18 zodiac 153 159, 182
169 Jupiter 45 cargo weight, rockets 123 continents 21 Curiosity rover 37, 38–39,
Andromeda Galaxy 96, 105, axis of rotation 202 Carina 158, 159, 187 convection layers, stars 70
Earth 21 Carina Nebula 75, 116, 158, Copernicus Crater (the Moon) 115, 199
106, 119, 201 Saturn 51 Cygnus 168
animals in space 116–117 Uranus 61 159, 187, 201 25
Antares 84, 96 Carina–Sagittarius Arm (Milky Copernicus, Nicolaus 117, D
Antennae Galaxies 105 B
Antlia 181 Way) 101 153 D ring (Saturn) 53
Apollo programme 27, 115, B ring (Saturn) 52 Cartwheel Galaxy 105 core Dali Chasma (Venus) 18
Baikonur Cosmodrome 124 Cassini Division (Saturn) 53 Daphnis 53, 57
122, 123, 134–137 Barnard’s Galaxy 107 Cassini spacecraft 51, 52, 54, black holes 88 dark energy 96, 202
Apollo 11 27, 136, 139 barred spiral galaxies 101, 106 Earth 22, 23 dark matter 96, 97, 106, 202
Apollo 15 137 58, 115, 126–127, 199 Io 48 death of stars 70
Apollo 17 24–25 Milky Way 100 Cassiopeia 156, 157, 163 Jupiter 44
lunar landers 136–137 NGC 1300 185 Cat’s Eye Nebula 121, 163 Mars 32 black holes 88
Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) NGC 1365 101, 185 celestial sphere 152–153 Mercury 17 hot Jupiters 79
Barringer Crater (Arizona) centaurs 64 the Moon 24 planetary nebulae 83
138–139 Centaurus 158, 182 Neptune 62 red supergiants 85
spacesuits 141 29 Centaurus A 201 red supergiants 85 declination, lines of 152
Apus 193 Beagle 2 lander 36, 199 Cepheus 156, 162 Saturn 51 Deep Impact 126
Aquarius 153, 177 Beehive Cluster 170 Ceres 40, 41, 64, 197 stars 70, 74, 75, 80, Deimos 33
Aquila 176 BepiColombo 198 Cetus 178 Delphinus 176
Ara 189 Beta Centauri 158 Chamaeleon 193 81 Delta Cephei 162
Arecibo radio telescope 149 Beta Pictoris 191 Chandrayaan 1 Moon mission Sun 14 density 202
Aries 153, 170 Betelgeuse 81 Titan 59 neutron stars 87
Armstrong, Neil 117, 136, big bang 96, 110–111, 202 27 Uranus 61 Descent Module 130
Big Dipper 156, 165 Chang’e Moon missions 27 Venus 19 deserts 21
137 binary systems 90 Charon 65 corona 30, 202 Destiny Laboratory 144
Arrokoth 65 binoculars 155 China, space exploration 27 Corona Australis 189 Dione 57
Artemis programme 122, 147 black dwarfs 80–81 Cigar Galaxy (M82) 157 Corona Borealis 174 distances, cosmic 96
Asteroid Belt 9, 40, 42, 64, black holes 70, 81, 84, 86, Circinus 188 Corvus 181 Dorado 192
cliffs, Mercury 16 cosmologists 96 Draco 156, 163
197, 202 88–89, 90, 92, 100, 102, Clinton, Bill 149 the cosmos 96–97 Drake Equation 148–149
asteroids 9, 10, 21, 40–41, 103, 202 clouds Crab Nebula 171 Drake, Francis 148
blazars 103, 202 Crater 181 Dumbbell Nebula 176, 201
64, 202 M87 103 Earth 22 craters 202 dust clouds 74, 75, 80
impact craters 28 blue dwarfs 80–81 Jupiter 45 asteroids 40, 41 dust torus 102, 103
astronauts 113, 202 blue hypergiants 73 Saturn 50, 51 Callisto 47 dwarf galaxies 104–105, 107
first 124–125 blue supergiants 72 Venus 18 formation of 29 NGC 5195 104
crewed spacecraft 130–131 colliding galaxies 104–105 impact 28–29
spacesuits 140–141 Collins, Michael 136 Mercury 16, 17
spacewalks 142–143
astronomers 96
astronomical units 9, 10

205

dwarf planets 9, 40, 64, G Gemini 153, 172 Hertzsprung, Ejnar 73 Kepler Observatory 116
65, 197, 202 Gemini spacecraft 131 Hertzsprung–Russell diagram Kepler-62 system 76–77
Gagarin, Yuri 117, 124–25 geysers, Neptune 63 kinetic energy 28, 29
dwarf stars 72 Gaia 120 giant stars 72, 90 73, 202 Kuiper Belt 9, 11, 64, 65, 197
galactic centre 100 giants 8, 11 Hiten Moon mission 27
E galaxies 95, 96, 97, 100–107, Hope 199 L
birth of 13 Horologium 191
E ring (Saturn) 52 202 data 196 Horsehead Nebula 75, 179 Lacerta 169
Eagle Nebula 100, 121, active 100–101, 104 exploration 199 hot Jupiters 77, 78–79 LADEE Moon mission 27
Andromeda 96, 105, 106, see also Jupiter; Neptune; Hubble Space Telescope 74, Lagoon Nebula 201
175 Laika 117
Earth 20–23 119, 201 Saturn; Uranus 97, 116, 120–121 lakes, Titan 58, 59
Antennae 105 globular clusters 90, 202 Human Landing System 147 landers 126
celestial sphere 152–153 Barnard’s 107 hurricanes 51 Large Magellanic Cloud 106,
curvature 9 big bang 110–111 47 Tucanae 158, 190 Huygens, Christiaan 126
data 196 Bode’s (M81) 101, 156, M15 177 Huygens space probe 51, 58, 159, 192, 201
distance from stars 71 M71 175 launch sites 114
distance from the Sun 9 157, 201 NGC 6584 189 126–127, 199 LCROSS Moon mission 27
human influence 21 Cartwheel 105 Goddard, Robert 116 Hyades 171 lenses, telescope 118, 119,
impact craters 28–29 Cigar (M82) 157 Gonggong 197 Hydra 180
inside 22–23 colliding 104–105 GRAIL Moon mission 27 hydrogen 50, 70, 74, 75, 155
orbit 11 dwarf 104–105, 107 gravitational lensing 106 lensing
rotation of 152–153 elliptical 101, 106, 107 gravity 110, 202 80, 81
in the Universe 108, 109, Great Wall 107 black holes 88, 89 Hydrus 191 black holes 89
The Guitar 107 colliding galaxies 104, 105 Hyperion 56 gravitational 106
153 irregular 101 dwarf planets 9 Leo 153, 173
eclipses 30–31, 197, 202 Large Magellanic Cloud and formation of planets I Leo cluster 107
Eight-burst Nebula 187 Leo Minor 172
Einstein, Albert 88, 97 106, 159, 192, 201 13 impact craters 28–29 Lepus 186
ejecta curtains 28, 29 M81 and M82 101, galaxy clusters 106 India, space exploration 27, Libra 153, 174
electromagnetic (EM) Io 48, 49 life
156, 157 laws of 97 199 on Earth 20, 21, 22
spectrum 70 Milky Way 80, 90, 92–93, Mercury 17 Indus 189 on Mars 36, 39
elliptical galaxies 101, 106, the Moon 24, 137 infrared 119, 202 search for extraterrestrial
96, 98–99, 100–101, multiple stars 90 infrared telescopes 115
107 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, Neptune 62, 63 Ingenuity drone helicopter 37 148–149
elliptical orbits 11, 66 154–155, 157, 158, 159, neutron stars 87 inner planets 8, 9, 10 and water 149
Enceladus 52, 57, 149 161, 203 Saturn 50, 52, 54, 57 interacting binaries 90–91 light
Encke, Comet 66 newborn 121 stars 70, 74, 75, 80 International Space Station bending 89, 107
energy 70, 96, 110 NGC 1566 103 the Sun 9, 11, 117 speed of 15
engines, rocket 122 Pinwheel 106 Universe 97, 108 114, 130, 143, 144–45 waves 70
equator, celestial 152, 161 radio 103 Great Dark Spot (Neptune) 62 spacesuits 140–41 light pollution 154
Equuleus 176 reference 201 Great Globular Cluster 90 interstellar dust clouds 99 light years 71, 96, 202
Eridanus 185 Sagittarius Dwarf 107 Great Red Spot (Jupiter) 44 interstellar gas 74 living conditions, on Mars
Eris 9, 64, 65, 197 Sculptor 201 Great Wall 107 Io 46, 47, 48–49
ESA, space exploration 27, Seyfert 103, 203 greenhouses, on Mars 147 iron 80 147
shapes 101 Grus 190 irregular galaxies 101 Local Group 106
36–37, 198–199 Small Magellanic Cloud 107, The Guitar 107 Irwin, James 137 Luna spacecraft 27
Eskimo Nebula 172 158, 159, 201 lunar eclipses 31
Europa 46, 47, 149 Sombrero 121, 173 H J Lunar Gateway station 122
European Space Agency Spindle 181 lunar landers 136–137
spiral 99, 101, 104, habitable (“Goldilocks”) zone James Webb Space Telescope Lunar Module (Apollo) 134,
see ESA 105, 106, 111, 165, 77 121
event horizons 88 173, 180 135, 136–137
exoplanets 76–77, 202 Triangulum 106, 201 Hale–Bopp, Comet 66, 197 Japan, space exploration 27 Lunar prospector 27
exosphere 23 Whirlpool 104–105, 166 Haumea 64, 65, 197 Johnson Space Center Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV)
extraterrestrials 148–149 Wolf–Lundmark–Melotte Hayabusa-2 117
Extravehicular mobility unit 107 HD 189733 b 78–79 (Houston) 135 27, 137, 138–139
galaxy clusters 106–107 HD 209458 b 79 Juno orbiter 45, 199 Lunokhod 1 and 2 26, 27, 117
141 Galilean moons (Jupiter) heat shield 127 Jupiter 44–49 Lupus 182
Extremely Large Telescope 47 heliocentrism 153 Lynx 164
Galilei, Galileo 47, 54, 117 helium 50, 80, 81 data 196 Lyra 167
(ELT) 118–119 Galileo spacecraft 115, 126, Helix Nebula 177, 201 missions to 115, 126, 199
199 Heracles see Hercules moons 46–49 M
F Ganymede 46, 47 Hercules 90, 166–167 rotation 11
Garnet Star 156 Hercules A 103 M81 and M82 galaxies 101,
False Cross 159 gas clouds 74, 75, 80, Herschel, William 60 K 156, 157
Flaming Star Nebula 164 110
flybys 126, 198–99 Kennedy Space Center Maat Mons (Venus) 18
forces 110 (Florida) 122, 134 Magellan orbiter 198
Fornax 185
fossils 149 Kepler 5b and 7b 79

206 index

main-sequence stars 73, 202 Mimas 52 nebulae cont. orbits cont. polar regions
Makemake 65, 197 minor planets 64–65 Orion Nebula 74–75, 179, 201 hot Jupiters 79 Earth 20
mantle 203 Mir space station 116 Owl Nebula 165 how orbits work 9 Saturn 51
Miranda 60 Ring Nebula 167 International Space Station
Earth 23 mirrors, telescope 118, 119, Rosette Nebula 180, 201 144 Polaris (Pole Star) 156,
Io 48, 49 solar 13 Mars 10, 33 157, 162
Mars 33 121, 155 Trifid Nebula 183 Mercury 11, 16
Mercury 17 Mission Control (Houston) 135 Veil Nebula 168 Neptune 11 poles, celestial 152–153, 156
the Moon 24, 25 Mizar 165 planetary 196 Pollas, Christian 41
Neptune 63 molecular clouds 74, 75 Neptune 11, 62–63 Saturn’s moons 56, 57 the Porpoise 105
Titan 59 Monoceros 180 data 196 Pragyaan 27
Uranus 60 the Moon 24–27 missions to 115, 199 Orcus 197 pressure, stars 70, 80
Venus 19 ordinary matter 97 probes see space probes
Mariner spacecraft 35, Apollo programme 115, neutron stars 81, 84, 86–87, Orion 73, 179 prominences 14, 203
117, 134–135, 136–137, 90, 203 Orion Arm (Milky Way) 101, proplyds 74
115, 198 138–139 Proxima Centauri 71, 96
Mars 32–39 neutrons 110 109 pulsars 86, 87, 203
Artemis programme 122, New Horizons mission 65, 199 Orion Nebula 74–75, 179, 201 Puppis 186
data 196 147 newborn stars 74, 104 Orion spacecraft 114, 122 Pyxis 186
exploration 36–37, New Shepard 147 outer moons (Jupiter) 47
eclipses 30, 31 Newton, Isaac 9, 97, 117 outer planets 8, 9, 11 QR
128–129, 198–199 exploring 26–27 night sky 150–193 Owl Nebula 165
future human landings 37, formation of 24 oxygen 57 Quaoar 197
future missions to 146, celestial sphere 152–153 quasars 103, 203
117, 146–147 Northern star hopping P
life on 149 147 3C 273 103
Mars 2, 3, and 6 probes 33, impact craters 28–29 156–157 pancake domes 19 radiation
landings 24–25, 113, 115, Southern star hopping parallax 71
36, 198 particle jets 102 big bang 110
Mars Express 199 117, 136–137, 138–139 158–159 Pathfinder spacecraft 36 stars 70
Mars Global Surveyor 199 Lunar Gateway station 122 star maps 160–161 Pavo 193 radio galaxies 103
Mars Orbiter Mission mementos left on 137 night vision 154 Pegasus 177 radio signals, alien 148
Moon rovers 26–27, 117, Noctis Labyrinthus (Mars) 34 Pele volcano (Io) 49 radio telescopes 115, 148
(Mangalyaan) 199 Norma 188 Perseus 170 radio waves 115, 119
Mars Pathfinder 36, 199 138–139 North America Nebula 168 Perseus Arm (Milky Way) 101 Ranger spacecraft 26, 27
Mars Polar Lander 36 moons northern celestial hemisphere Perseverance 36, 37, 126, red dwarfs 71, 72, 80
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter red giants 70, 72, 80–81, 90,
Jupiter 46–49 156–157, 160 129, 199
34, 199 Mars 33 northern lights 15 Philae lander 66, 126 91, 203
mass-energy 96 Neptune 63 novas 90, 91 Phobos 33 red supergiants 73, 80, 81,
massive stars 80–81 Pluto 65 nuclear fusion 69, 70, 75, 80, Phobos orbiter/lander 199
matter 96–97, 110, 203 Saturn 50, 52, 53, 56–59 Phoenix 190 84–85
MAVEN 199 Solar System 9 81, 203 Phoenix lander 36, 199 relativity, theory of 89
Meir, Jessica 143 Uranus 60 nucleus photosphere 15, 203 Reticulum 191
Mensa 192 multiple stars 90–91 Pictor 191 Rhea 56
Mercury 11, 16–17 Musca 188 atoms 110, 203 Pinwheel Galaxy 106 Rigel 73, 179
Mystic Mountain (Carina comets 66, 67 Pioneer spacecraft 198, 199 right ascension, lines of
data 196 Pisces 153, 178
missions to 115, 198 Nebula) 75 O Piscis Austrinus 184 152–153
Mercury spacecraft 141 planetary motion 11, 153, 196 Ring Nebula 167
mesosphere 23, 203 N oceans 22 planetary nebulae 80, 81, rings
MESSENGER space probe Octans 193
Nair al Saif 74 Olympus Mons 32 83, 203 Jupiter 45
115, 198 NASA, Apollo programme Oort Cloud 9, 65, 196 planetesimals 13, 203 Neptune 63
meteor showers 42, 196 open clusters 90 planets 8–9, 203 Saturn 10, 50, 51, 52–55
meteorites 12, 42–43, 203 134–135 Uranus 61
near-Earth asteroids 41 IC 2391 158, 159 birth of 74 robotic spacecraft 27, 115, 146
impact craters 28–29 nebulae 201 Ophiuchus 153, 175 data 196 rock samples 128
Martian 149 Opportunity rover 36, distance from the Sun rockets 113, 114–115,
meteoroids 42, 203 Butterfly Nebula 82–83
meteors 42, 203 Carina Nebula 75, 116, 158, 129, 199 10–11 116, 122–123
Microscopium 184 optical telescopes 115 exploration 198–199 rocky planets 8, 10
microwave telescopes 115 159, 187, 201 orange giants 72 formation of 12, 13, 75
microwaves 70, 203 Cat’s Eye Nebula 121, 163 orange main-sequence stars planispheres 154–155 data 196
Milky Way 90, 92–93, 96, Crab Nebula 171 plasma torus 49 exploration 198–199
Dumbbell Nebula 176, 201 71 Pleiades 171 formation of 12
98–99, 100–101, 106, Eagle Nebula 100, 121, 175 Orbital Module 130 the Plough 156, 165 see also Earth; Mars;
107, 154–155, 161, 203 Eight-burst Nebula 187 orbital plane 9 Pluto 9, 64, 65, 197
future collision with Eskimo Nebula 172 orbiters 126, 198–199, 203 Mercury; Venus
Andromeda Galaxy 105 Flaming Star Nebula 164 orbits 13, 203 Rosetta spacecraft 66, 126
northern night sky 157 Helix Nebula 177, 201 Rosette Nebula 180, 201
southern night sky 158, 159 Horsehead Nebula 75, 179 asteroids 10 rovers 26–27, 126, 128–129,
spiral arms 80 Lagoon Nebula 201 comets 11, 66
in the Universe 108, 109 North America Nebula 168 Earth 11, 21 146, 198–199, 203
elliptical 11, 66

207

Russell, Henry 73 solar wind 15, 203 stars 68–93, 203 Tempel 1 comet 126 Veil Nebula 168
Russia, space exploration Sombrero Galaxy 121, 173 big bang 110–111 temperatures Vela 159, 187
southern celestial hemisphere birth of 74–75, 80 Venera space probe 115, 198
26–27, 36, 198–199 brightness 70, 200 Earth 20, 21, 22, 23 Venus 18–19
Ryugu 117 158–159, 161 colours 73 hot Jupiters 79
Southern Cross (Crux) 158, constellations 162–193 Mars 39, 147 data 196
S death of 70, 79, 83, 85, 88 Mercury 16 missions to 127, 198
159, 182 distance from Earth 71 Neptune 63 rotation 10
Sagitta 175 Southern Pinwheel 180, 201 forces in 70 Venus 18 Viking spacecraft 36, 37,
Sagittarius 153, 183 Southern Pleiades 158, 159, formation of 12, 75 thermosphere 23, 203
Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy 107 how stars work 70–71 thrust, rockets 122, 203 116, 199
Salyut 1 116, 144 187 lives of 80–81 Tianwen-1 199 Vikram 27
sand dunes 34 Southern Pointers 158 mapping 154 tidal forces, Io 48, 49 Virgo 153, 173
Saturn 50–59 Soyuz spacecraft 114, maps 160–161 tilt, Earth’s 21 Virgo cluster 107
newborn 74, 104 time, stretching 89 Virgo supercluster 109
axial tilt 51 130–131 parts of 70 Titan 51, 56, 58–59, 126, 127 voids 109
data 196 space exploration 112–149 pattern of movement 155 Toutatis 40–41 Volans 192
missions to 51, 115, 126, reference 200 missions to 126, 199 volcanoes/volcanic action
future 146–147 shining 70 trans-Neptunian objects
127, 199 reference 198–199 studying 70 Earth 22
moons 53, 56–57 timeline 116–117 types of 72–73 64–65 Io 46, 48, 49
rings 10, 50, 51, 52–55 Space Launch System (SLS) variable-size 70 transient craters 29 Venus 18, 19
Saturn V rocket 123, 134 Trapezium 74, 179 Vostok 1 124–125
science fiction 117 rocket 114, 122–123 stellar black holes 88 Triangulum 169 Voyager spacecraft 49, 59, 60,
Scorpius 90, 153, 183 Artemis programme 122, stellar winds 75 Triangulum Australe 158, 188
Scott, David 137 Stonehenge 116 Triangulum Galaxy 106, 201 62, 63, 115, 116, 126, 199
Sculptor 184 147 storms Trifid Nebula 183 Vulpecula 176
Sculptor Galaxy 201 space probes 114, 126–127, Triton 63
Scutum 175 Earth 22 Trojans 40 W
Scutum–Centaurus Arm 198–199, 203 Jupiter 44, 49 troposphere 23, 203
Mars 33, 36–37 Neptune 62 Tucana 158, 190 WASP-12 79
(Milky Way) 100 Titan 58 Saturn 51 Tupan Patera (Io) 48 water
seasons space race 26, 124 Uranus 61
space, shape of 108 subatomic particles 110, U Earth 20, 21, 22
Earth 21 space shuttles 114, 116, 131, Europa and Enceladus 57,
Mars 33 203 ultraviolet 70, 75, 119,
Pluto 65 132–133 Sun 14–15 120, 203 149
Uranus 61 spacesuits 141 Mars 149
Sedna 9, 197 space stations 114, 116, 143, birth of 12, 13 Unity see SpaceShipTwo wavelengths 70, 115, 119
SELENE Moon mission 27 eclipses 30, 31, 197 Universe 96–97, 108–109 Wells, H G 117
Serpens 174–175 144–145 mapping 120 Whirlpool Galaxy 104–105,
Service Module (Apollo) 134, space telescopes 120–121 planetary motion 11, 153 big bang 110–11
space tourists 147 size of 8 composition of 95, 96–97 166
135, 136, 137 space-time 89, 97, 203 Solar System 6–13, 196–197 expanding 96–97, 110, 111 white dwarfs 71, 72, 80–81,
Service Module (Soyuz) 130 SpaceShipTwo 131, 147 sunburst arc 106 observable 109
SETI (search for spacesuits 140–141, 143 Sunflower Galaxy 166 origin of 96 83, 90, 91
spacewalks 117, 140–141, sunspots 14, 15, 203 scale of 109 white main-sequence stars 71
extraterrestrial supercluster filaments 109 Upsilon Andromedae b 79 Willamette Meteorite 42
intelligence) 148 142–143, 145, 203 superclusters 107, 109 Uranus 60–61 Wolf–Lundmark–Melotte
Sextans 181 spaghettification 89 supermassive black holes 88 data 196
Seyfert galaxies 103, 203 spicules 15 supernovas 13, 75, 80, 81, 84, missions to 115, 199 Galaxy 107
shepherd moons (Saturn) 53 Spindle Galaxy 181 rotation 11 wormholes 89
shooting stars 42–43 spiral galaxies 101, 104, 105, 86, 88 Ursa Major 157, 165
shuttle programme 133 Type 1a 91 Ursa Minor 157, 162 X
singularity 88, 89 106, 111 Surveyor spacecraft 27 USA, space exploration
Skylab 116 M101 165 Swanson, Steve 144 X-ray binaries 90
Small Magellanic Cloud 107, M66 173 Syrtis Major (Mars) 33 26–27, 36–37, 134–135, X-ray telescopes 115
158, 159, 201 M83 180 198–199 X-rays 119, 120, 203
small stars 80–81 Milky Way 99 T USSR, space exploration
SMART-1 Moon mission 27 Spirit rover 36, 128–129, 26–27, 36, 198–199 YZ
Sojourner 36 tails, comets 66
solar cycle 15 199 Taurus 153, 171 V yellow main-sequence stars
solar eclipses 30–31, 197 Sputnik spacecraft 117, 124 tectonic plates 23 71
solar nebula 13 star clouds 92–93 telescopes 117, 118–119, 155 Valles Marineris (Mars) 32,
Solar System 6–13, 100 star clusters 90 34–35 Yerkes telescope 118
birth of 12–13, 111 how they work 119 young stars 74–75
data 196–197 M13 166 types of 115 variable stars 70 Yutu rover 27
structure 9 M4 183 Telescopium 189 Vega spacecraft 198 zodiac 153
in the Universe 108, 109 M47 186 Zubenelgenubi 174
NGC 457 156, 157
NGC 6067 188
star hopping
Northern 156–157
Southern 158–159
stargazing, practical 154–155
starlight 70

208 acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

The publisher would like to thank the Arizona (c); JPL-Caltech / ASI / JHUAPL / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0 and the Hubble Heritage Team STScI / AURA).
following people for their assistance in Cornell / Weizman (cl); JPL-Caltech / ASI / (ca). NASA: ESA, the Hubble Heritage Acknowledgment: A. Zezas and J. Huchra
the preparation of this book: USGS (bl). 61 W.M. Keck Observatory: Team (STScI / AURA), J. Blakeslee (NRC (Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics)
Ann Baggaley, Virien Chopra, Rohini Deb, Lawrence Sromovsky, University of Herzberg Astrophysics Program, Dominion (cl); NASA, ESA, K. Kuntz (JHU), F. Bresolin
Upamanyu Das, and Ashwin Khurana for Wisconsin-Madison (br). 62 Corbis: NASA / Astrophysical Observatory), and H. Ford (University of Hawaii), J. Trauger (Jet
editorial assistance; Nick Sotiriadis, Bryan Roger Ressmeyer (clb). 63 NASA: JPL (cb). Dr (JHU) (cla). ESA / Hubble: (bl). 107 NASA: Propulsion Lab), J. Mould (NOAO), Y.-H. Chu
Versteeg, and the Maltings Partnership for Dominic Fortes, UCL: (tc). 64 NASA: (tr). 65 ESA / Hubble & Digitized Sky Survey (University of Illinois, Urbana), and STScI,
additional illustrations; Steve Crozier for NASA: (tr); Johns Hopkins University Applied 2. Acknowledgment: Davide De Martin (ESA / Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope / J.-C.
image retouching; Harish Aggarwal, Priyanka Physics Laboratory / Southwest Research Hubble) (crb); Swift Science Team / Stefan Cuillandre / Coelum, G. Jacoby, B. Bohannan,
Sharma, and Saloni Singh for the jacket; Institute / Alex Parker (ca, tl). 66 Corbis: Immler (br). 110 NASA: WMAP Science Team M. Hanna / NOAO / AURA / NSF (bc). NOAO /
Caroline Stamps for proofreading; and Andrew Bertuleit Photography (clb). ESA: (tc). 114 Alamy Stock Photo: Military News AURA / NSF: (bl). 166 Adam Block/Mount
Helen Peters for the index. Rosetta / MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS / UPD / (bc). NASA: (clb, bl); Tony Gray and Tom Farrar Lemmon SkyCenter/University of Arizona
LAM / IAA / SSO / INTA / UPM / DASP / IDA (ca); JPL-Caltech (cb). 116-117 Dreamstime. (Board of Regents): (c, br). NASA: ESA, S.
Curator for the Smithsonian (clb/comet). ESO: E. Slawik (bc) http:// com: Justin Black (tc). 116 Dreamstime.com: Beckwith (STScI), and The Hubble Heritage
(for the first edition): creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0. Jahoo (cr). NASA: (ca, bl, crb); JPL (cb); Ames / Team (STScI / AURA) (tc). 167 NASA: The
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for Earth and Planetary Studies, National Luhman (Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Hubble 20th Anniversary Team (STScI) (bc). NASA) (br). 168 Adam Block/Mount Lemmon
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Livio and the Hubble 20th Anniversary Team Team (STScI / AURA) (clb). Science Photo
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(tl). 32 Corbis: Walter Myers / Stocktrek (br). SSRO: R.Gilbert,D.Goldman,J.Harvey,D. (bl). 150 Corbis: Rick Fischer / Masterfile Acknowledgment: Cambridge Astronomical
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JPL-Caltech (bc); JPL-Caltech / ASU / MSSS Acknowledgment: P. Cote (Herzberg Institute M. Hanna / NOAO / AURA / NSF (c). Peter 197 Corbis: Dennis di Cicco (cl). 201 Brian
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Acknowledgment: NASA / ESA, John Clarke (STSI) (cra); ESA and the Hubble Heritage Visuals Unlimited (br). Peter Michaud (Gemini (cl); JPL-Caltech (cr). NOAO / AURA / NSF:
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54-55 NASA: JPL-Caltech / SSI. Regents): (cl). CFHT/Coelum: J.-C. Cuillandre & (cr). NOAO / AURA / NSF: Hillary Mathis,
58 NASA: ESA / NASA / JPL / University of G. Anselmi (c). ESO: Digitized Sky Survey 2 N.A.Sharp (bl). 164 NOAO / AURA / NSF:
Adam Block (bl). 165 NASA: NASA, ESA