Ny's History Portfolio -2022

World
History
Portfolio

By: Ny Alkareem

Tabel

of

Contenets

Contents

UNIT #1

CHAPTER 1 Foundations for Studying History

CHAPTER 2 Sumer: The First Postiluvian Civilization

CHAPTER 3 The Middle East
CHAPTER 4 Other Asian Cultures
CHAPTER 5 Egypt: the gift of the Nile
CHAPTER 6 Other African Other African cultures

UNIT #2

CHAPTER 7 Grease: home of beauty
CHAPTER 8 Rome: preparation of the world for Christ
CHAPTER 9 Early church history
CHAPTER 10 The Byzantine Empire

UNIT #3

CHAPTER 11 The Dark Ages

CHAPTER 12 Medieval Culture
CHAPTER 13 The Rise of Modern Nations

Contents

UNIT #4

CHAPTER 14 The Protestant Reformation

CHAPTER 15 Post - Reformation Europe
CHAPTER 16 Post - Reformation Science and Culture

UNIT #5

CHAPTER 17 France: the Road to Revolution

CHAPTER 18 England and America: Quest for Freedom
CHAPTER 19 The Age of Industry

CHAPTER 20 The Victorian Era: England's Age of Progress

CHAPTER 21 Unbelief and Revolution in 19th - Century
Europe
UNIT #6

CHAPTER 22 World War I: "The War to End all Wars"
CHAPTER 23 The Rise of Communism

CHAPTER 24 Twentieth - Century Liberalism: Retreat
from Authority and Responsibility
CHAPTER 25 World War II
CHAPTER 26
CHAPTER 27 The Cold War
Globalization Documentary Video

Chapter 1

foundations for
studying history

•History is His (God's) story, and we must study history form the perspective of God, and it is revealed to
us in God's word, The Bible.
•The only reliable source we have to know true history is the Bible, because it tells us how history began
with man, and more specifically Adam and Eve.
•Some of man's special characteristics that God has given us:
(1)Language / thought
(2)Knowing what is right and wrong
(3)Freedom to make choices
•Adam and Eve committed the first sin and Rebelled against God by eating the forbidden fruit.
•History is divided into “before Christ” (B.C.) and “in the year of our Lord (A.D.).
•Evolution – a fable process of progressive change dependent on chance and time, with the origin of life on
earth.
•The first advent of Jesus Christ to earth – His incarnation, birth, life, and death, resurrection, and
ascension – is the focal point of all history.
•Time is dived into three eras:
(1)ancient history (c. 400 B.C.)
(2)medieval history (c. A.D. 1500)
(3)Modern History (Protestant Reformation – until the present)
•Government – an outstation that has both authority and power to control, direct, and to rule in the
actions and affairs of others.
•Sovereign – God's supreme power over all nations, rulers, and individuals.
•Humanism – the worship of man.
•Humanism is the age-old attempt of man to exalt himself in place of or above God.
•After the flood (often called Deluge), God established civil government by ordering the death penalty
(capital punishment) for murder.
•In establishing this first foundational civil ordinance, God again ordained that men the sanctity of human
life and ordained that men sch up systems of law and justice for the restraint of evil.
•The survivors of the flood migrated southwest and settled in lower Mesopotamia, the Plain of Shiner.
•Mankind disobeyed God's command to replenish the postindustrial (post – flood) earth, and man's history
of rebellion continued.
•Nimrod, a descendant of Noah's son Ham, emerged as the leader of the group and the builder of the first
world empire – Gen. 10: 8- 10.
•Under Nimrod's leadership, the antediluvian population determined to build the city of Babel(later known
as Babylon).
•Nation – is a large group of people who thinks of themselves as one and act in history as a single entity.
The races of mankind
•Mankind can be divided into several large groups called races.
•Genetics have observed three key factors:
(1)rapidly changing environment
(2)a small population
(3)extensive inbreeding
•Pele, a descendant of Shem, Pele, or “division”.
•The Japhetic peoples spoke a common language known as Indo European, which began diverging into the
ancient and modern tongues of India and Europe.

Summary
History is primarily the account of God's dealings, in blessing or judgment, with men and nations. It is a
written record of what man has done with the time God had given him.

Chapter 2

Sumer: the first
postdiluvian civilization

•From evidence in the early chapters of the Bible and from the work of archaeologists, it is clear that the
Garden of Eden was located in part of ancient Western Asia known as the Fertile Crescent.
•The Tigris and Euphrates rivers begin high up in the Ararat mountains as streams fed by rain and
melting snow.
•The main party of Mesopotamia, is the 400-mile-long Babylonian plain, “the Plain of Shinar”, which
stretches from the areas north of Baghdad to the headwaters of the Persian Gulf.
•Sumer (Shinar) – the southernmost region of the Mesopotamian plain, was the site of the first
postdiluvian civilization.
•The three oldest Sumerian settlements were at Eridu, Uruk, and Ur along the lower Euphrates.
•Near the end of the early period of Sumerian history, the Sumerians developed their greatest contribution
to civilization: the art of writing.
•With the invention of the cuneiform writing, Sumerian history properly begin, since history is primarily a
written record of man's past.
•Pictogram – symbols representing particular objects, such as the sun, the moon, a man, a tree, and a bird.
•Ideogram - symbols of things that cannot be pictured and of actions.
•Phonogram - provides the basis for the development of syllabary (signs representing syllables).
•Sumerian, and indeed all inscriptions in cuneiform, would have remained a mystery to modern man had it
not been for the labors of an English army officer of the 19th century, Sir Henry C. Rawlinson, who
successfully broke the code of the trilingual cuneiform inscriptions that had been discovered earlier on the
cliffs of Behind is modern Iran.
• Recorded Sumerian history begins with the Early Dynastic Age, when the Sumerians reached their first
high point of cultural development as a group of independent city-states.
•This period came to a close when a Semitic warrior king, Sargon of Akkad, warred against the Sumerian
city-states and united them by conquest.
•Sargon became history's second great empire builder.
•Akkadian – a Semitic language written with cuneiform characters.
•Ur-Nammu came to the founded throne of Ur about 2100 B.C. And founded the famed Third Dynasty of
Ur.
•He developed the world's most ancient law code.
•That time period is referred to as the Golden Age of Ur.
•Culture – refers to the way of life of a group of people.
•A civilization come into being when a people's culture begins to include a specialized division of labor, a
written language, a written code of laws, an organized form of civil governmen, and the development of the
arts and sciences.
•Education – the process of transmitting the cultural heritage of a people form one generation to the next.
•The Sumerian school, which was called the edubba, was established soon after the Sumerians developed a
written language in order to train professional scribes in the fine art of cuneiform writing on clay tablets.
•The most important Sumerian industry in terms of commercial activity was textiles.
•The Sumerians also constructed huge temple-towers known as ziggurats in which one terrace was built
upon another, each a little smaller than the one below.
•They divided the year into lunar mouths(based on cycles of the moon) of 29 to 30 days each; thus, the
Sumerian year was 354days long, and a thirteenth mount was added.
•The Sumerians also dabbled in the pseudoscience of astrology.
•Astrology – the false belief that heavenly bodies influence human affairs and destinies.
•The spreading of cultural traits and patterns is known as cultural diffusion.
•The Sumerian king, known as the lugal, or “big man,” provided central direction and military leadership
in each in each of the city-states.

•The nobles were the ruling princes and their families, palace administrators, and the more important
priest of the temple.
•The commoners were the free citizens who lived in extended patriarchal families.
•The clients consisted of three groups of people:

◦well-to-do temple employees
◦craftsmen
◦other temple workers

•The fourth Sumerian social class was made up of slaves, who worked in the temples and palaces and on
the large estates.

Chapter 3

the middle east

•The first empire to rule the Middle east after Sumer was that of Babylon.
•The Sumerian Third dynasty of Ur could not maintain its control of Babylonia after the death of Ur-
Nammu.
•With the accession of Hammurabi as the king of Babylon, most of Mesopotamia was brought under
Babylonian rule, and the Old Babylonian Empire was established.
•The mythical Enuma Elish, or Babylonian Gensis, was composed during the reign of Hammurabi in order
to exalt Babylon and its chief God, Marduk.
•The greatest mathematical achievement of the Babylonians was the principle of place-value notation,
which assigned a value to numbers according to their position in a series.
•Justice – is the use of authority and power to uphold what is right, just, or lawful.
•The Hittites, an Ido-european people from Anatolia in Asia Minor (modern Turkey), made a daring raid
upon Babylon around 1600 B.C. And plundered the great city.
•Before the 20th century A.D., the Bible was the only source of information about the Hittites, who
dominated Asia Minor(modern-day Turkey) and Syria from 1700 B.C. Until 700 B.C. During the Modern
Age, in the 18th and 19th centuries, unbelieving critics of the Bible.
•The Hittites are noted for being the first people to use iron extensively.
•Assyria's first great monarch, Tiglathpileser I, seized Babylonia ans established the Assyrian Empire
about 100 B.C.
•Under kings, the Assyrians pursued an aggressive program of conquest and expansion that continued
until the fall of Nineveh, their great capital, in 612 B.C.
• The name Assyria and became synonymous with terror, cruelty, and oppression among all the peoples of
the ancient Middle East.
•Their last great monarch Ashurbanipal call Lynn ruled 668--630, build the worlds first great library at
Nevaeh, which contain many thousands of clay tablets written in cuneiform.
•The terrorist roof gardens, known as The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, and the mighty city war or
counted among the seven wonders of the ancient world.
•Daniel, one of the Jews taken captive by the Babylonians come eventually became an important official in
Babylon.
•The Neil Babylonian empire, however, was short-lived; the maties and the Persians under Cyrus the
Great captured Babylon and overthrew the empire in 539B.C.
•Cyrus the great, whom the God of Israel had called my shepherd and my anointed, was surely one of the
most remarkable men in world history.
•Strictly speaking, ancient Persia was merely the section of modern Iran bordering the Persian Gulf in the
southwest.
•Under Darius, I, and Xeres I the first, the Persian empire reached its greatest extent. Darius divided his
room and into provinces, each ruled by a governor. When there was an attempt to stir up trouble against a
Judean and Jews, Darius was reminded of Cyrus is a decree.
•Darius establish the world’s first Postal Service over the numerous roads built to connect the empire.
•Xerxes, called Ahasuerus in the Bible, was the husband of Queen Esther, and Nehemiah was the
cupbearer to his successor, Artaxerxes I.
•Although the Persian kings practice the force, pagan religion of Zoroastrianism, they had a much higher
regard for the sanctity of law than did the hottie of Syrian and Babylonian monarchs. The Persian ruler
was under the law, an important principle in the development of western European political theory.
•After God called Abraham out of Sumer. God promised a land to him and his descendants. That land was
known as various times as Canaan, Palestine, or Israel. The name Canaan comes from Han’s son of the
same name.

•Each of the worlds three great monotheistic religions -- Judaism, Christianity, and Islam--has viewed the
promised land as the holy land.
•Abraham believed God and received a new name – Abraham (fathers of a great nation) – as a testimony
of God’s promise to him.
•God‘s covenant promises pass first to Abraham son Isaac and then to Isaac‘s son Jacob. Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob, together with the 12 sons of Jacob, are known as the patriarchs, the founding fathers of the
nation of Israel.
•Moses- one of the greatest man in the world history Dash to deliver the Israelite's from Egyptian bondage
and to lead them into the land promise to their fathers.
•God made a covenant (solemn agreement) with Israel in which he promised that he would be a God to the
descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and that they will be his special people, a nation sit apart,
through whom the savior of the world will come.
•At Mount Horeb, God gave his people the Ten Commandments (also called the Decalogue), a summary of
the basic principles of morality (right and wrong, good and evil).
•Theocracy- a nation ruled by God
•With the providential collapse of souls dynasty, David became the ruler of the united monarchy and
establish his capital at the former Jebusite strong hold of Jerusalem.
•Alphabet - a phonetic system of writing in which letters are used to represent sounds rather than things
or ideas
•Sinai Script - the first true alphabet
•A more streamlined form of the alphabet appeared at the Canaanite city of Gebal (Greek, by blues, from
which we get the words book and Bible) about 1000 D.C.and was soon carried through the Mediterranean
world by these Semitic see farmers and merchants, whom the Greeks called Phoenicians.
•The spread of alphabet help make possible widespread literacy, the ability to read and write one’s own
language.
•The powerful Hittites virtually disappeared from history. Thus, under David and Solomon, Israel was the
greatest nation in the world around 1000 B.C.
•After Solomon‘s death, the empire was divided into a northern kingdom (Israel) and a southern kingdom
(Judah).
•Jesus Christ, the Messiah of Israel and the savior of the world, was born while wrong with the world.
•The Jews became people without a home after the destruction of Jerusalem in A. D. 70.
•The Byzantine Empire, or eastern Roman empire, control parts of the Middle East for over 1000 years
from his capital Byzantium, or Constantinople (modern Istanbul), and European turkey.
•Byzantium, however, was increasingly threatened after a. D. 600 by the rise of a fanatical, militant new
religion in the Caribbean peninsula – Islam.
•Islam spraying from the favorite imagination of Mohammed, an Arab mystic from the city of Mecca.
•Our Hebrew word stem from roots are usually three consonants (as in the names of Jacob, Moses, and
Deborah) which are altered by the use of those in addition of prefixes and suffixes.
•Hebrew language has passed through three major periods of development:

◦Biblical (classical) Hebrew, during which the old testament was written;
◦Rabbinic Hebrew, when the Jewish laws and traditions known as the Talmud were written and
◦collected;

Modern Hebrew, when Hebrew scholars began creating the modern tongue to be spoken in the nation of

◦Israel.
European tongues as well as from Yiddish, a language derived from medieval German and spoken by
European Jews.
•The self-proclaimed prophet quickly attracted a throng of devoted followers, known as Muslims.

•Under persecution from the authorities in Mecca, Mohammed, his family, and his followers were forced to
flee in 622 to median in what is known as the hegira.
•Mohammad successors, caliphs, ruled much of the Middle East and North Africa from magnificent capitals
as Damascus (in modern Syria), Baghdad (in modern Iraq), and later in Carrio (in modern Egypt)
throughout most of the middle ages.
•Koran - the Holy book of Islam
•The pioneer missionary in Persia, and, indeed, throughout the Middle East, was an Englishman, Henry
Martyn.
•The first man in modern times to except to reach the Muslims of Arabia with the gospel of Christ was
Ion-Keith Falconer, a Scottish nobleman and graduate of Cambridge University.
•After fall Connors death in 1889, two young Americans of the reformed church, James Cantine and
Samuel Zwemer, established the Arabian mission.
•The middle east has become an area of importance among nations because of the oil reserves that are
located beneath it stands in a long is Shores.

Chapter 4
~other american culturs

•Middle East, where human civilization in recorded history began, lies almost completely in the southern
corner of Asians continent. Asia's three great for Fertile river valleys – the Tigres Euphrates, Indus, and
Huang he formally called Hwang ho or yellow river, provided the setting for three very important Asian
cultures: Mesopotamia, India, and China.
•Asia also contains a highest and lowest places on earth; mighty Mount Everest towers above the
Himalayas at 29,035 feet (about 5 1/2 miles) above sea level, and the shores of the lowly Dead Sea
descend to around 1365 feet below sea level.
•Because Asia’s geography is so distinct Lee separated from the rest of Asia, India is often called a
subcontinent.
•The Indian subcontinent consist of three major land regions:

◦The Himalayan mountain system
◦The Northern plain, Water by the three great river systems organizing the Himalayas
◦The Deccan plateau

•Indian civilization first arose about 2000 B. C. Upon the fertile plains of the Indus River Valley and parts
of modern day India and Pakistan.
•A series of natural disasters apparently overwhelmed the Indus Valley people, making them easy prey for
the Aryans, hordes of fierce barbarians who invaded India from the Northwest.
•With their horses and chariots, the Aryans completely overwhelmed the Dravidian's, many of whom fled
to southern India, where did descendants still live today.
•During this time, Indians two distinctive cultural features, the religion of Hinduism and the social
arrangement known as the caste system, were developed
•Although Hindus worship a host of deities, they believe that these guys are only manifestations of one
absolute and, impersonal, universal spirit they call Brahma.
•A major component of Hinduism is observance of caste, a strict division of social classes.
•There were four traditional castes (varnas) 1000s of subcastes.
•At the top of the Indian social ladder with a Hindu priest, the Brahmans; and beneath the Brahmans with
the princes and warriors. The two lower castes with the land owners and the merchants, and the farmers
and laborers, and servants.
•A person who broke the rules of his cast became an outcaste (also called Pariah or untouchable).
Untouchables were despised by all casts and live below the lowest cast, managing to make a better
existence for themselves and their families by doing only the most demeaning and degrading tests.
•After Alexander‘s death, a native Indian family, death the Maurya, drove out the Greeks, conquered the
entire northern plane, and establish the Maurya empire (321 -184B. C.). It’s greatest ruler, Asoka
extended his dominion southward until he controlled over 2/3 of the Indian subcontinent.
•The religion of Buddhism arose in India around 500 B. C. With his cycle of reincarnations and it’s
ultimate goal of escape into oblivion, booty is in closely resembles Hinduism. This similarity is no
coincidence, for booty is in spring from the mind of an upper cast Hindu nobleman name Siddharth
Guatama.
•Eventually, he became known as Buddha (enlightened one) and develop his own religious philosophy.
•When India became independent in 1947, the Muslims in these two territories seated from India to
become the states of west and east Pakistan. East Pakistan later became Bangladesh.
•Although Persia was the official language of the Mongol Empire, it will mix with Arabic and Hindi to
become a highbred tongue known as Hindustani or Urdu, the official language of modern Pakistan.
•For centuries, the Arabs obtain fine Damascene steal from India for weapons.
•The Indians also cultivated and made extensive use of cotton – for clothing, for bindings on sandals, and
four elephant harnesses.
• With a written history extending over 35 centuries, China is the world’s oldest living civilization.
•

Two great river systems Huang He and the Yangtze began in the titan Highlands and went through the
fertile, heavily populated place of eastern China before emptying into the Pacific Ocean.
•The Huang He or yellow river gets its name from its yellowish-brown color; it is also known as “China’s
Sorrow”, because of its disastrous floods, which have claimed many lives over the centuries.
•The ancient Chinese culture land Chung -Kuo“(middle country) because they believed that China stood in
the geographic and cultural center of the earth.
•China’s history revolves around the 10 dynasties (ruling families).
•During the Shang dynasty (1525 Dash 1028B. C.), The Chinese began casting bronze, building horse-
drawn charioteers, and cultivating silkworms.
•Most importantly, they developed a system of writing.
•The Shang dynasty was replaced by the Chou dynasty (1122 -256B. C.), which became China’s longest-
ruling dynasty.
•Chinese laws were written down for the first time, China’s to grade it, philosophers, Lao-tse and
Confucius, lived in the tart.
•Lao-tar emphasized harmony with nature; his philosophy became known as Taoism.
•Confucius taught his followers to respect tradition, reverence learning, cherish honesty, and honor family
ties.
•Confucianism, the practice of these virtues in the worship of one’s ancestors, became the dominant
influence in Chinese life and culture and remain so until the communist revolution in China.
•Two strong dynasties, the Ch’in and the Han followed the collapse of the Chou rule.
•The founder of the Ch’in dynasty, Shin Huang Ti became the first emperor of a united China when he
established the ancient feudal system and establish a strong, centralized monarchy.
•Emperor Ch’in expanded existing frontier fortifications into the tremendous Great Wall of China (the
world’s longest walk) in order to bar invaders from his domain.
•The Han dynasty, which thrived at the time as the Roman empire did in the Mediterranean basin, marked
the height of ancient Chinese power and glory.
•The Great Silk Road linked China with the Roman world; it is possible that Christian missionaries first
came to China over this road during the Han empire.
•Chinese astrologers devised a calendar of 365 1/4 days, like our own, the Chinese artisans well silk cloth
made glaze pottery plates (chinaware) and discover how to make paper.
•In the 12,000, the Mongols, fierce nomads from the northern steppes of Asia, swept into China under the
leader ship of Genghis Khan.
•The empire of Genghis Khan eventually stretched from China and Korea in the east to Europe’s river in
the west making it the largest continental empire in history.
•Genghis Khan’s successors went on to establish the Yuan dynasty (1279 - 1368) in China.
•Italian Marco Polo travel with his father and uncle from Venice, Italy, to China and spent nearly 20 years
in the kingdom of the great Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan.
•The Mongols were succeeded by the emperors of the Ming dynasty (1368 - 1644) and the Manchu Ch’ing
dynasty (1644 – 1912).
•Japan is an island country in the north Pacific Ocean consisting of four major islands - Hokkaido,
Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku- and thousands of smaller ones.
•Mountains, including the famous Mount Fuji, Cover 70% of Japan’s land area and provide great natural
beauty.
•The Japanese called the mountain island country Nippon, which means source of the sun.
•The name Japan is derived from Cipango, the name given to it by Marco Polo.
•The original inhabitants of Japan may have been the Caucasian Ainu, who are now confined largely to
Hokkaido.

•The Japanese called the mountain island country Nippon, which means source of the sun.
•The name Japan is derived from Cipango, the name given to it by Marco Polo.
•The original inhabitants of Japan may have been the Caucasian Ainu, who are now confined largely to
Hokkaido.
•Shinto, A religion of nature worship, is old is surviving religion in Japan.
•Buddhism, which was introduced to Japan in the 500s by the Korean kingdom, also had a great influence
on the culture of Japan.
•Ancient Japan consisted of a number of small states, each ward by a clan (a group of extended families).
•By the A.D. 400s, the Yamato clan, ancestors of Japan’s imperial family, had established a loophole over
the other clans.
•The “founder of Japanese civilization”, Prince Shotoku (rude from a. D. 593 -622), promoted Buddhism
and other Chinese influence in Japanese culture and government.
•After Shotoku’s death, the Taika (Great reform). Began in which a central government was formed, the
emperor became the owner of the land, and a tax system is set up.
•Gradually, the Mikado Lost his rolling power, though he remained on the throne, and feudal, aristocratic
society developed in Japan.
•Japanese society came to be dominated by shotguns, feudal lords who really control public affairs;
daimios, local and board; and samurai, warriors are nice to serve in the private armies of the Daimios.
•10 independent nations - Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore,
Indonesia, the Philippines, and Brunei - and make up southeast Asia.

Chapter 5
~eygypt: the gift of the

nile

•Africa, the second largest continent, was once connected to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez, but since 1869,
and Kanell has separated the two continents.
• The home of the world’s largest desert, the Sahara, and the world’s longest river, the Nile. Is located in
Africa.
• In the northeastern corner of the African continent lies Egypt, once the most magnificent empire in the
ancient world.
• The most ancient name for Egypt is Mizriam, the name of one of Ham‘s sons.
• Because of this culture division, Egypt has been called “the seedbed of African cultures”.
• In the early times, Egypt consisted of several small states called nomes.
• Strong rulers, or pharaohs, consolidated these names until they were only two: lower Egypt (the Nile
delta) and upper Egypt (from the Delta near Memphis to the first cataract south of Thedes).
• Menes United the two states and became the first pharaoh of all Egypt. Thus Egypt become known as
the kingdom of the two lands.
• The Nile is the longest river in the world and is one of the few that flow from south to north.
• Herodotus, the Greek father of history and the furthermost traveler of the Mediterranean world in the
classic times, called Egypt the gift of the nail; he recognized it without the floodwaters in the fertile soil
deposited by them now each year, Egypt would be a waste land.
• At its mouth, the now formed a rich alluvial plain of the fertilizer soil known as the Nile delta.
• Like Sumerian cuneiform, written Egyptian developed from picture writing into a highly elaborate
system of some 700 characters known as hieroglyphics.
• The most important Egyptian work with the book of the dead come to a book of prayers and
incantations which was placed in tones to protect the spirits of the dead.
• During its long history, ancient Egypt had several capital cities; the two most important were Memphis,
12 miles south of modern Cairo, and Thebes, about 450 miles south of Cairo.
• Nothing remains of Memphis except to Granite colossi and one alabaster sphinx; not the remains of the
best but the vest necropolis on the West Bank of the now in the ruins of the temples of Karnak and Luxor.
• The land of Egypt, its government, ruler, and religion, all represented a single divine order to the
ancient Egyptian‘s. The pyramid best symbolizes the Egyptian conception of state and society.
• The Egyptian achieve the greatest accomplishments in art and architecture during the Old Kingdom,
dynasty I I I – VI.
• The three outstanding monarchs of the old kingdom are Khufu (Cheops), Khafre, and Menkaure, the
builders of the three largest pyramids at Giza, 8 miles southwest of Cairo.
• The nearby great Sphinx, with the head of a man in the body of a lion, bears the likeness of Khafre.
• King Mentuhotep I of the Eleventh dynasty reignited the two lands and paid the way for the Middle
kingdom and the power for the Twelfth Dynasty.
• The middle kingdom came to an end when certain Asiatic warriors come up there Hyksos “shepherd
kings” or “rulers of foreign countries”, ravaged Egypt.
• The new king may have been Ahmose I, the Theban prince who founded the new kingdom.
• Moses his foster mother may have been Hatshepsut, the strong-willed daughter of Thutmose I.
Hatshepsut was the first female pharaoh.
• The New Kingdom (dynasties XVIII-XX) is also known as the Egyptian empire because Egypt was
reestablished as an empire in Asia during this period.
• Thutmose III extended Egypt’s borders to the farthest extent and brought the Egyptian empire to its
greatest heights.
• His son and successor AmenhotepI I may have been pharaoh during the Hebrew exodus.
• The Nineteenth and Twentieth dynasties compromise the later new kingdom, and the most outstanding
monarch was Ramses, who founded the Hittites in Asia and sponsored much building activity.

• Egypt fell into Persian hands in 525 B. C., And Alexander The great conquer Egypt in 332 B.C.
• Alexandria, Egypt, became the most important city in Alexandria‘s empire.
• After Alexander’s death, Ptolemy, one of his generals, gain control of Egypt and established and help
him holistic (Greek) dying to see the rules until Cleopatra suicide and the Roman conquest in 30 B. C.
Egypt became a part of the Roman empire and later a part of the Arab world, during which time the
Arabic language in the Islamic religion became dominant in the land of the Nile.
• During the Middle Ages, the new capital, Cairo, became the center of Egyptian life and one of the great
cities of the Arab world.

Chapter 6
~other african cultures

•Much of Africa was known as a Dark Continent and remained an unexplained mystery until the 19th
century.
•About 2/5 of the African continent is covered with desert. The Sahara comes in the world’s largest
desert, spreads over most of northern Africa, while the Kalahari desert spends much of southern Africa.
•Between the desert and the rain-forest are savannas, that’s tracts of land characterized by wet and dry
seasons.
•In the northwest corner of Africa stands Africa’s longest mountain range, the Atlasmountains, which
extend 1500 miles through Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
•MountKilimanjaro, Africa’s tallest mountain, is a Majestic Peak (19,330 feet. Above sea level) crowded
with snow year-round.
•Many major rivers run through Africa. The Nile, the world’s longest river, flows through the north word
through the Mediterranean sea.
•The Niger, the Congo, and the orangeriver runs right into the Atlantic ocean.
•The Zambezi and the Limpopo rivers empty into the Indian ocean.
•Most of these rivers begin in large freshwater lakes. Lake Victoria, Africa’s largest lake, is the source of
the Nile river. Lake Tanganyika, the world’s longest and second deepest lake, is a source of water for the
Congo River.
•The GreatRift Valley, the largest rift in the earth’s surface, is an even more spectacular example of Africa
unique geography.
•African history began shortly after the flood when descendants of Ham’s sons Mizriam, Phut, and Cush
migrated to Africa from Babel.
• Phut’s descendent probably settled in the region now occupied by the Sahara desert. In, this area is
called Phut,Put, or in Libya.
• Descendants of Ham’seldest son,Cush, erected the greatest ancient civilization in Africa‘s interior – the
kingdom of Cush(also spelled Kush).
• At one time, a Cushite warrior,Piankhi, overcame Egypt and began a period of Sundanese rule over
Egypt only with Assyrian and help could the Egyptian expel the sun to see from their kingdom.
• In ancient times, Kush was often called Nubia or Ethiopia, although it was located north and west of
present day Ethiopia.
• A Cushite by the name of Ebed-melech helped the prophet Jeremiah when he was cast into prison by
King Zedekiah of Judah.
• Perhaps the most famous Cushite and world history was the unnamed Ethiopianeunuch, the treasurer
for queen Candace of Kush, whom Philip led to Christ.
• This Cushite, the first African a record to become a Christian, carried the gospel of Christ back to his
native country; for many centuries, there was a thriving Christian church in Egypt and Sudan.
• East of Sabaea, one of the most mountainous regions of Africa and the location of modern Ethiopia
common formally known as Abyssinia.
• Sabaea was also known as Seba, and later as The Kingdom of Aksum.
• The Queen ofSheba, who brought gold, preschools stones, and costly spices as a tribute to King
Solomon in Jerusalem, came from either eastern Africa or southwestern Arabia.
• The ancient kingdom of Aksumhad a form of Christianity as a special religion beginning about A. D.
300 went to Christian and youths from Rome, Edesius, and Frumentius, we’re shipwrecked and taken to
Ethiopia and sleeves.
• When the gospel began to permeate the Mediterranean world during the first century A.D., Rome road
almost all northern Africa. Such cities as Alexandria in Egypt, Cyrene in Libya, and Carthage in Tunisia
became important and influential centers of Christianity.
•

Chapter 7
~greece: Home of beauty

•The rugged and mountainous Balkan Peninsula extends to the Mediterranean Sea from south eastern
Europe.
•On the east side are the black sea and the Aegean sea, and on the west is it Ionian Sea.
•The gulf of Corinth, which nearly divides mainland Greece in two, lies between the two prominent regions
of ancient Greece - Attica and Peloponnese.
•Earliest cultures of Europe developed along the shores in on the islands of the Aegean Sea and I know as
Aegean Civilizations.
•The chief among these cultures are the Minoans on the island of Crete, and the Mycenaean on the Greek
mainland and the Trojans of the city of Troy and it’s surrounding along the hill pond in Asia minor.
•Although the Minoans develop the first important European civilization after the flood, they were
unknown to modern historians until sir author Evans, a British archaeologist, uncovered the place of
legendary king Minos.
•The Mycenaean, name for the city of Mycenae on the Greek mainland, with the Greeks of the Trojan war
as we counted in homers epics the Iliad in odyssey.
•The Mycenaean culture was overwhelmed between 1100 and 800 B. C. I knew weight of barbarian
invaders, the Dorians.
•Hellenes, the Greeks of classical Times who made such great contributions to western civilization.
•Legend say that the war left behind a large wooden horse (the famous Trojan horse) was soldiers inside.
•Upon learning treachery, the spartan leaders Leonidas ordered most of his troops to withdraw.
•Each city was a monarchy, Meaning rule by one.
•The monarch was advised by the council of the elders and the assembly.
•This new form of government was an aristocratcy, mean who by the “Tatian‘s best”.
•Oligarchy, was developed, it means rule by the few, But in practice, it usually meant rule by the few rich.
•When the poor became discontent with the tyrant, they rebelled in establish a democracy, ruled by the
manyi or the common people.
•The demand became so urgent at about 620 B. C., Draco was directed to prepare a code of law.
•Dimensions among the poor grew worse, and party of strife became prevalent. Athens was threatened
with anarchy. Then, in 594B. C., The noble Solon was elected archon.
•Only the wealthiest Athenians could serve as Orchens, and only options were eligible for the Court of
Areopagus, so called because it meant on the hill known by the name.
•In 560 B. C., Peisistratus, a nobleman ask firing to office, seize control of the city and became the first
tyrant of Athens.
•Athenian democracy was brought to its fullness measure by the statesman Pericles, an aristocrat who
dominated Athens.
•In a modern representative democracy, the citizens elect a few men who represent them in the
government.
•Athens was a direct democracy; the citizens made the big decisions of government directly themselves,
not indirectly through representatives.
•The age of Pericles is referred to as the “Golden Age of Greece”.
•War between Sparta and Athens began in 431B. C. Unless it until 404B. C., With but a brief period of
peace between
•On the northern fringes of ancient Greece bloomed the kingdom of Macedonia.
•In 359 BPHC., Philip II became king of Macedonia.
•Turmoil among and written the Greek city states have made them ripe for conquest; in vain, the famous
Athenian orator in statesman Demosthenes his fellow Greeks to unite against the Macedonian threat.
•Instead, he organized a league of Greek city states (the Hellenic league) and allowed its members to retain
a considerable degree of self government.

•Name son 16 of these Greek cities for himself - “ Alexandria”. The first and most famous Alexandria was
in the western Delta of Egypt.
•Spreading of Greek culture became his most lasting contribution to world history and help prepare the
world for the coming of Christ.
•After the decisive battle of Ipsus is (301B. C.), The empire was divided among four generals, who
declared themselves kings.
•Ancient Greece flourish from the 700s B. C., Until them Macedonians conquered Greece in 338B. C.
•This is often referred to as the classical age of Greece or the Hellenic Age.
•Among the Athenian temples is the Parthenon, dedicated to Athenea, the goddess of Athens.
•The ancient Greeks also made important contributions in the writing of history, poetry, and drama.
Herodotus, remembered as the Greek father of history, describe the Persian invasion.
•The first great Greek poet was Homer, who lived in the early portion of the Hellenic age and wrote epic
poetry.
•One legendary Greek writer was Aesop, who, according to Herodotus, was a freed slaves living in the
sixth century B. C. Some believe a Aesop originally came from Africa.
•He is a credited with introducing to literature the fable, a brief story used to teach moral (its characters
are usually animals).
•Greeks also made important contributions to science, or natural philosophy, as it was once called.
•Pythagoras discover important mathematical concepts so use in geometry.
•Democritus developed a theory that all matter is composed of individual atoms.
•In modified form, modern scientist continue to use this theory. Hippocrates, the father of medicine,
conducting experiments and concluded that disease results from rationality and explainable causes.
• He is known for the Hippocratic oath, a high code of ethics still taken by many medical school graduates
today.
•Socrates, who was dissatisfied with the sophists, began a search for absolutes (ultimate foundational
truths). Who attempted define absolute upon which man could base his life. In most of his famous work,
the republic, he attempted to show how a man could have order in society in his soul.
•Socrates did not write down any of his teachings, but he inspired Plato, one of his students, to write 30 or
more words of philosophy.
•Plato attempted to find an explanation for the obvious order, design, and purpose in the universe.
•The period of nearly 300 years from the death of Alexander the great in 323B. C. To the Roman
conquest of Egypt, the last remnant of Alexander’s empire, and 30B. C. Is known as the Hellenistic age
•Zeno founded the school of philosophy known as Stoicism.
•Contrast to Zeno, the Epicurus taught the highest good of man with a live life of calm pleasure regulated
by morality, temperance, and serenity, and personal development.
In practice, however, his followers, the epicureans, later came to emphasize indulgence of one’s barley
appetite and the physical pleasures of life.

Chapter 8
~Rome: preparation of the

world for Christ

•The boot shaped peninsula of Italy (also known as the Apennine peninsula) extends from Europe about
600 miles southwestern into the Mediterranean Sea.
•Italy’s strategy, central location help make its chief city, Rome, ruler of the Mediterranean basin in
ancient times.
•Ancestor of the Romans, the Itali, were Indo European tribesman closely related to the ancient Greeks.
•One of the Italian tribes, the Latin, finally settled by the Tiber river in west central Italy on the plane of
Latium.
•I said 753 B. C., The traditional day for the founding of Rome, some of these tiny Latin settlements how
do you nine it and chosen a common market on meeting place (the Forum) in the mitts of Sevenhills nestle
along the banks of the tiber.
•The Etruscans were the seafaring people from Asia minor who appeared in Italy about 800 B. C. And
settled in Eturia, north of Latium.
•The Greeks begin colonizing the Mediterranean world extensively during the 700 B. C.
•Gauls, wild Celtic barbarians from Western Europe, where the last Indo European people to enter Italy.
They occupied the pole river valley in the north.
•The most famous of these temples was the Pantheon in Rome, a temple dedicated to the numerous gods of
the empire.
•The Roman parents often bought the educated Greek pedagogue (slave) to tutor their sons and to
discipline them.
•His office was elected: he was chosen by popular Assembly representing the cities patrician families and
clans and composed of all adult male partrician.
•Furthermore, the king was advised in his decision by August body of 100 partition elders known as the
Senate.
•Eventually, the assembly was replaced by the assembly of centuries, which represented the 193 centuries,
or military units of 100 men each, to which each Roman, partition or plebeians, belong to as a citizen
soldier.
•In 509 B. C., The nobles of Rome let a revolt of both part traditions and plebeians against the Tyranny of
the last Etruscan king, Tarquin the proud.
•Republic -is a representative form of civil government in which the political party is visited in the
electorate.
•The plebs achieved another victory in 451B. C. When they forced the patricians to publish the previously

▪unwritten laws of Rome and what became known as a Twelve tables.
Rome had conquered the Italian peninsula by force, and the threat of the mighty Roman legions (Roman
military units of 3000 to 5000 foot shoulders and Calvary, was ever presented to the discouraged

▪rebellion.
As a result of this rivalry, two cities for a series of three wars between 264 and 146B. C. Known as
Punic wars (from Rome) experienced several early defeat but was later able to develop a superior navy and

▪gain control of the Mediterranean Sea.
The Second Punic War brought the famed Carthaginian general, Hannibal, over to the alps into Italy

▪with an army of men.
Although Hannibal virtually annihilated the Romans at the Battle of Cannae in 216 deep. C., He let the
resources to follow up his victory and Laceys to Rome herself.

▪Romans eventually dispatch another army under Scipio to north Africa.
▪Recalled from Italy to Carthage, Hannibal lost the Battle of Zama, forcing the cardigans to sue for

peace, relinquish their empire, and pay the room is a huge indemnity.

▪Every day, thousands of crowded into the circuses to watch the gladiators (prisoners of war, slaves come
▪or criminals forced to fight in public shows,) five men in peace to the death.

Did the death of Gracchi, leaders of the people pass to military leaders. Marius, the idol of the masses,
Sulla, the champion of the Senate, fart rooms for Civil War.
•He was Princeps, or first citizen Cesar, the hair of distinguish Roman family; Imperator or the
commander-in-chief of Romes legions; warhead of secret college a room in priests. He was princeps, or
first citizen Cesar, the hair of distinguish Roman family; emperor or the commander-in-chief of Romes
legions; warhead of secret college a Roman priest.

▪Caligula, is this is Weiding son of Tiberius‘s nephew, was insane.
▪Claudia‘s, and uncle of Caligula, was generally a well-meaning, the weak, emperor.
▪Vespasian finally emerge victorious and help restore political and economic stability to the Empire.
▪He and his two sons, Titus and Domitian – called the Flavian emperors ruled from A. D. 69 to 96.
▪Hadrian is remembered for the construction of Hadrian’s Wall, a stone wall in northern Britain built to

protect the emperors frontier against the raid by the fierce Picts and Scots.

▪Marcus Arelious, a stomach philosopher, was renowned for his book meditations.
▪The empire was further subdivided into for prefectures, each under a perfect who served under one

Augusti.
•Romes greatest contributions to civilization were Latin language, Roman law, and republican
government.
•The Latin the most Romans spoke was not the classical, literary term of Sicario and Cesar but a common,
every day speech known as vernacular, or vulgar, in latin.
•Classical, literary late Latin continue as a language of churches, school, and monastery‘s after the fall of
Rome and became the medieval latin spoken and understood by churchman and scholars all over Western
Europe.
•Yeah it was during the war of Rome that the focal point of all world history took place in the life, death,
and resurrection of Jesus Christ
•A third characteristic of Roman law is the concept of equity, the principle that laws should be sufficiently
flexible to fit a large number of particular cases.
•These principles are in shrine in the Justinian code, which clarified a millennium of Roman legal
developments.

Chapter 9
~early church history

•The mitts of the Pax Romana, the precise time has come forgot to send Jesus Christ to the world to save
sinners.
•By the time of Jesus‘s birth, many Jews were scattered throughout the Roman empire. These Jews
gathered at local places of worship known as synagogues, where they read the old testament scriptures in
Hebrew and Arabic and sometimes even from group Septuagint.
• Herod the Great, who had married into a Jewish family, was ruling Judea in Palestine as the local king

▪and deputy of Rome.
However, the unconquerable faith and patience exhibited by the Christian martyrs (Greek for witness) in
the face of torture in death caused the ranks of Christianity to swell in new converts.

▪As the early church father Tertullian: “the blood of the martyr is the seed of the church.
▪In A. D. 64, during the reign of the demented and deprive Nero, the Christians experienced the first
▪major persecution by the Romans.”

According to early tradition, the apostle Paul was beheaded by Nero at Rome during this persecution;

▪He was not tortured because he was still a Roman citizen.
The apostle Peter was also martyred during this time; condemn to be crucified, he insisted on being

▪crucified upside down because he did not himself worthy to die in the same matter as his master.
The second great persecution irrupt it when emperor Domitian (A. D. 81 to 96) demanded to be

▪worshiped.
It was Domitian who exiled the aged apostle John to the isle of Patmos in the agency, where he received

▪and recorded the prophetic visions known as the Apocalypse or Book of the Revelation.
During the first century A. D., Persecution drove the early Christians to meet in the best galleries
beneath the city of Rome known as the catacombs.

▪The third came under Trajan, when the profession of Christianity became a capital crime.
▪The aged Bishop of Smyrna, Polycarp, was arrested in murdered in A. D. 155.
▪Fourth great persecution came when the static philosopher emperor, Marcus Arelious, an ardent hater of
▪Christians.

Many thousands of believers were crucified, beheaded, or thrown to wild beasts, including the Christian

▪philosopher Justin martyr, who was killed in Rome in 167.
The fifth great persecution came under Septimius Severus and was particularly fierce in northern Africa

▪and Egypt.
Also among the martyrs with the noblewoman Perpetua and her faithful slave Felicias, who were gored
to death by savage beast at Carthage in 203.

▪The seventh persecution, under Decius, was even worse than the preceding six.
▪Origen, a Christian philosopher and theologian from Alexandria, escape the persecution under maximus
▪thorax, but was horribly mutilated in persecution that he died shortly there after.

Finally, from his deathbed, emperor Galerius in 311 proclaim toleration for the Christians of the east,
and the Constantine I extended legal protection and recognition to Christians throughout the empire with
the Edict of Milan in 313.
•After the close of the apostle age God raised up a number of godly enablement to expound on the
Scriptures, defend the faith, and champion the cause of Christ. These bridges and teachers were called
church fathers.
•The pagans into flooded the imperial church, Inundated it with heathen beliefs, practices, and traditions.
Public worship was described by Justin martyr in the second century as a simple meaning of believers on
the Lords day to hear the Scriptures read and explain along with the saying of hymns, the offering of
prayers, the celebrating of the Lord supper, and the receiving of gifts. The influence of paganism began to
change the worship service it’s a Labrant raisins ceremonies all of the trappings of hidden temple worship.

Chapter 10
~The Byzantineempire

•Founded by Greek colonist in the 600 B. C., The city of Byzantium stood beside the strategic Bosporus, a
strait located in the south eastern corner of Europe.
•NA. D. 324, emperor Constantine I made the momentous decision to move the capital of Roman empire to
wrong to Byzantium, which he extensively rebuilt and renamed “new Rome”.
•In 395, The empire was permanently divided into eastern and western proportions, and Constantinople,
and new room had become to be called, became the capital of the eastern empire.
•Blessed with the sound monetary system, a flourishing trade with Persia, a strong navy, principles of law
and order, and elements of morality the virtue among her people, the eastern or Byzantine empire was able
to survive the fall of the western empire in 476 and endured throughout the Middle Ages.
•Which great leader of Byzantium empire was Justinian I, who became emperor in 527.
•Justinian‘s gifted general Belisarius waged long, successful wars against the barbarian and reestablish
the Roman imperium over North Africa, Italy, and parts of Spain.
•Justinian‘s greatest personal achievement was his code card efficient of existing Roman law, which he
combined with biblical principles into what is known as the Justinian code.
•The Lombard and Normans invaded Italy, attacking the empire from the west.
•The barbarian Avars, Bulgars, and Russian Slavs invaded the empire from the north.
•In the east, the Persians began to harass the empire and won several victories.
•The Byzantines defeated both assault by using a secret weapon called “Greek fire” (a byzantine invention
similar to a flamethrower).
•Emperor Basil I, a Macedonian by birth, led a restoration of Byzantium’s power.
•Under Bazil II (ruled 976 – – 1025), the empire further reinforced is bordered and gained province of
Armenia.
•During the Fourth Crusade, sailors from the growing trade cities of Venice, Italy, late French crusaders
against the Bennett’s and chief economic rival.
•Wow the Byzantines indulge in excessive luxury and personal pleasures, there was great military with
her into a state of despair and ruling, leaving the empire vulnerable to a new invader--the Seljuk Turks.
•The glorious Byzantine empire had come to an end after ruling for over 1000 years.
•The Eastern orthodox (also called Greek orthodox) Church gradually developed after the permanent
division of the Roman empire.
•Finally, in 1054, after centuries of increasing bitterness and conflict over church authority, the two
churches officially split, remaining separated to the present day.
•Slavic script based on the Greek alphabet. This group became the foundation for Russian and Slavic
alphabets.
•The Byzantine church‘s greatest contribution to civilization was a preservation of the Greek New
Testament. The Byzantine text of the eastern church became the basis of Eramus’s 1516 edition of the
Greek New Testament and all of the protestant translations made of the New Testament during the reform
action, including the king James version of 1611.
•The Byzantine empire also played a key role in preservation of Christianity and western culture.

Chapter 11
~The dark ages

•The organization of the Catholic Church inevitably lead to the dominance of one church over the others.
Well before the end of the second century, the Church of Rome become permanent.
•Even the apostle Paul the highly of the Roman church, but there is no record that Paul ever suggested
that the church is supreme, or, as church leader Irenaeus cleared.
•In the first century, each church how many leaders. Some more called deacons.
•And others were called bishops.
•The Bible clearly identifies Christ as a true head of the church.
•Gradually, the bishops of Rome joined the concept of a pasta looks session with Romes prominence, this
using the Texas Matthew to Support what became known as the Petrine theory

◦that Christ founded his church upon Peter
◦That Christ made peter the visible head of the church
◦And that Peter transmitted his power to his successors, the Bishop of Rome, the first of whom (after

himself) he appointed.
•The Petrine theory gave rise to the idea of the Roman Catholic Church: did the Roman church in supreme
over all churches in the Bishop of Rome is supreme overall bishops.
•494, pope by issued his famous doctrine to swords, separating civil in important authority and making the
pope in the bishops supreme of all human rulers in matters relating to God.
•Pope such as Gregory I (reigned 590–604), the first medieval pope, helped for the power vacuum in
Europe.
•Most people were baptized at infants. Throughout life, they attended mass, where they received the
sacrament of the anarchist. This is the most important element of mass come before it was believed that
the bread in one of the lords supper actually became the body and blood of Christ in the hands of the priest
(a doctrine in known as transubstantiation). They confess your sins to priest inside forgiveness through
acts of penance. Some devote followers even purchased in word shipped relics such as a ledge fragments
from the cross word crown of thorns.
•Among the many Germanic tribes and move to go all the Roman empire collapse, the franks became the
most dominant.
•Clovis he first great Frankish military and political leader; inherited the position of tribal king from his
father in 481.
•Remaining tutors were, Clovis was baptized into the Roman church on Christmas Day and 498 a long
with 3000 of his warriors.
•The most famous mayor of the palace was Charles Martel camel who came to power in 715. He restore
the unity of the Frankish empire, secure eastern frontier again Slavik invasion, and, in essence, rule the
kingdom.
•The alliance between the Frankish ruler and the papacy, initiated by the conversation of Clovis and
consumed by Pepin in the short term was to influence the course of European history not only during the
middle ages but also willing to modern age.
•Large, strong, and handsome, Charles command respect improved to be valiant leader in an efficient
administrator.
•Finally, and 843, three years after their father’s death, Louis’s son’s made at Virden and came to an
agreement.
•Eventually, many of the Vikings settle down. Among the most important Viking settlements was
Normandy, and area along the northern coast of France.
•In 919, the Dukes elected Henry the Fowler, the duke of Saxony, to act as king of Germany come
beginning Saxon line of kings.
•He tell my juice a final defeat, permanently confirm in them and confining them too Hungary.

•In 962, at the quest of the pope, Otto invaded Italy again, and like Charlemagne, was crowded in crowned
emperor of the Romans by the pope, given birth to the holy Roman empire.
•In 1024, the Salian line of the emperor succeeded the Saxons.
•During these years, few of the leading nobles claimed the right of choosing the king; these nobles became
known as electors.
•After the rain of the pope Nicolas II(858–867), the papacy entered a long period of eclipse as Italian
nobles German emperor dominated it and often influenced the choice of new pope.
•In 1059, however, Pope Nicholas the second, at the urging of Hildebrand, and of physics monk who
served as an advisor to the popes, expanding greatly the power and independence of the papacy by
decreasing that hints for popes would be chosen only by Cardinals, who let the time with a priest of the
churches and other Italian cities.
•Does, Henry went to see Gregory personally while the pope was staying at the castle in Italy.
•When king John of England displease the hardy appointive, innocent excommunicated John in place his
entire room under and interdict.
•Innocent III and his successors instituted the holy office of inquisitive ocean, especially court with power
to inquire about the judge matters of heresy.

Chapter 12
~Rmedieval culture

•A new system of government arose in medieval Europe -, feudalism was actually more than just a system
of government – it was a way of life based upon the ownership and use of land.
•The feudal system in the middle ages centered on the fief, a piece of land held by one man (a lord) who
permitted another man (a vessel) to use it in return for a certain promised services.
•At the top of the feudal system in each western European kingdom was a king.
•Part of this island, called the world or crown land, he kept for personal use; the rest he distributed as fiefs
to high nobles.
•These nobles, intern, promised to provide the king a specific number of knights.
•Chivalry was the code of conduct for the nobility and the knights.
•This, for identification purposes, each noble family had its own heraldry, certain colorful unique symbols,
to make their family stand out.
•In tournaments, groups of knights fight a mock battle that lasted an entire day and raised over the whole
countryside
•A favorite kind of hunting was falconry.
•The nobles were also entertain by minstrels, musicians who played simple stringed instruments and sang
ballads of love and war.
•During the middle ages, however, the vast majority of people in Europe did not live in castles and had no
time or energy for games. They worked as farmers on them manors, Estates that belong to nobles region in
size from a few hundred to several thousand acres.
•The farmers of the manors, called serfs (or peasants), lived in villages.
•With inventions and ware fare so prevalent, Noblesville heavily fortified dwellings call castles.
•During the middle ages, people in the Roman church may pilgrimage to certain holy places in an effort to
prove their piety.
•The byzantine empire return to Western Europe for help, and in 1095, pope urban II responded by
proclaiming the beginning of crusades for the stated purpose of capturing the holy land from the Muslims
and holding it for himself.
•Nevertheless, the official first Crusade(1096-1099), with great European nobles (mostly French) at the
forefront, went forward.
•Shocked Western Europe responded with the second crusade (1147–1149).
•The pope called upon the energetic monk Bernard of Clairvaux box to preach of the need for Europeans to
take up the cross again.
•The Muslims grew stronger and more unified under the gifted leader Saladin, the renowned sultan of
Egypt.
•After the fall of Jerusalem, the pope proclaimed the thirdcrusade (1189–1192).
•The English king Richard I join his French and German counterparts to lead what is remembered as “the
crusade of kings.”
•The fourth crusade (1202–1204) never even reach the holy land but instead plundered constant Nepal, a
city of Christiendom.
•By 1291, Muslims were masters of the holy land again.
•Many new towns called Burgs sprang up besides fortresses. Those living in the new communities became
known as Burghers, also called burgesses aboard voice.
•They continued the rising middle class, the class between the nobility and the peasants.
•Back in Europe, trade fairs brought together merchants from mini lands. At these international event,
merchants came from as far away is Egypt in Scotland to purchase search items as a woman products from
Flanders in leather goods from Spain and to have the loans in credit transfers arranged by Italian brokers
and bankers. Several towns became important as permanent centers of commerce.

•As towns grew and trade expanded, guilds also developed. Guilds come in early form of trade unionism,
consisted of voluntary associations among merchants, artisans, and craftsman.
•One of the earliest industries was the manufacture of Woolin goods in Flanders, a low lying region
located in western Belgium, just across the English Channel from the British Isles.
•The most outstanding scholar at Oxford University during the 14th century was John Wycliffe [1320-
1384].
•By the clear teaching of Scripture, Wycliffe became convinced that the pope's claim of absolute authority
over the church was a great distortion of Christianity.
•Spiritual light also began to stream into Holland, northern France, and northern Germany during the
1300s and 1400s.
•Many Christians became concerned with abuses in the church and the laxness and immorality among both
the clergy and the common people.
•In 1380, Gerhard Groote [gro'ta], a Dutch contemporary of John Wycliffe, founded and organized the
Brethren of the Common Lite.
•The Middle Ages, which lasted from the fall of Rome in the late fifth century until the fourteenth century,
are (somewhat exaggeratedly and incorrectly) often referred to as the "Dark Ages," due to the relative lack
of intellectual and economic progress made during this long period.
•The Middle Ages were presided over by the Catholic Church, which preached the denial of worldly
pleasures and the subjugation of self-expression.
•During the Middle Ages, European society was defined by the system of feudalism, under which societal
classes were hierarchically divided based on their position in the prevailing agrarian economy.
•This system produced a large number of scattered, self-sufficient feudal units throughout Europe, made
up of a lord and his subservient vassals.
•These feudal lords were constantly in battle during the early middle ages, their armies of peasants facing
off to win land for their lords.
•However, during the later Middle Ages, this situation changed greatly. The power of the Church declined
as monarchies rose up to consolidate feudal manors into powerful city-states and nation-states that often
opposed the Church in matters of tax collection and legal jurisdiction.
•Along with the rise of monarchies came the rise of the money economy. As monarchs brought peace to
feudal society, feudal lords concentrated less upon defending their lands and more upon accruing large
quantities of cash, with which they improved their style of living and dabbled in the growing market
economy.
•The practice of serfdom declined and former serfs soon became tenant farmers and even landowners
rather than subservient slave-like laborers. As the trade of agricultural and manufactured goods grew in
importance, cities also became more important. Strategically located and wealthy cities became populous
and modern, and some cities even boasted factories.
•Just as art and architecture flourished in the Renaissance, so too did literature. Ands similarly, just as art
and architecture benefited from new techniques, literature experienced a massive boon from technology.
•In 1454, Johann Gutenberg published the Gutenberg Bible, the first book printed by a machine using
moveable type.
•The moveable-type printing press vastly changed the nature of book publishing, simultaneously increasing
printing volume and decreasing prices. The process of printing spread throughout Europe, and was used
extensively in Italy, where the humanist writers of the Renaissance had long sought a way to more easily
express their ideas to the public. During the Renaissance, writers produced a greater volume of work than
ever before, and with the lower prices and increased numbers of texts, these works reached an audience of
unprecedented size.

Chapter 13
~The rise of modern

nations

A new system of government arose in medieval Europe -, feudalism was actually more than just a
system of government – it was a way of life based upon the ownership and use of land.
The feudal system in the middle ages centered on the fief, a piece of land held by one man (a lord) who
permitted another man (a vessel) to use it in return for a certain promised services.
At the top of the feudal system in each western European kingdom was a king.
Part of this island, called the world or crown land, he kept for personal use; the rest he distributed as
fiefs to high nobles.
These nobles, intern, promised to provide the king a specific number of knights.
Chivalry was the code of conduct for the nobility and the knights.
This, for identification purposes, each noble family had its own heraldry, certain colorful unique
symbols, to make their family stand out.
In tournaments, groups of knights fight a mock battle that lasted an entire day and raised over the
whole countryside
A favorite kind of hunting was falconry.
The nobles were also entertain by minstrels, musicians who played simple stringed instruments and
sang ballads of love and war.
During the middle ages, however, the vast majority of people in Europe did not live in castles and had
no time or energy for games. They worked as farmers on them manors, Estates that belong to nobles
region in size from a few hundred to several thousand acres.
The farmers of the manors, called serfs (or peasants), lived in villages.
With inventions and ware fare so prevalent, Noblesville heavily fortified dwellings call castles.
he middle ages, people in the Roman church may pilgrimage to certain holy places in an effort to prove
their piety.
The byzantine empire return to Western Europe for help, and in 1095, pope urban II responded by
proclaiming the beginning of crusades for the stated purpose of capturing the holy land from the
Muslims and holding it for himself.
Nevertheless, the official first Crusade(1096-1099), with great European nobles (mostly French) at
the forefront, went forward.
Shocked Western Europe responded with the second crusade (1147–1149).
The pope called upon the energetic monk Bernard of Clairvaux box to preach of the need for Europeans
to take up the cross again.
The Muslims grew stronger and more unified under the gifted leader Saladin, the renowned sultan of
Egypt.
After the fall of Jerusalem, the pope proclaimed the thirdcrusade (1189–1192).
The English king Richard I join his French and German counterparts to lead what is remembered as
“the crusade of kings.”
The fourth crusade (1202–1204) never even reach the holy land but instead plundered constant Nepal,
a city of Christiendom.
By 1291, Muslims were masters of the holy land again.Many new towns called Burgs sprang up
besides fortresses. Those living in the new communities became known as Burghers, also called
burgesses aboard voice.
They continued the rising middle class, the class between the nobility and the peasants.
Back in Europe, trade fairs brought together merchants from mini lands. At these international event,
merchants came from as far away is Egypt in Scotland to purchase search items as a woman products
from Flanders in leather goods from Spain and to have the loans in credit transfers arranged by Italian
brokers and bankers.

•The most outstanding scholar at Oxford University during the 14th century was John Wycliffe [1320-
1384].
•By the clear teaching of Scripture, Wycliffe became convinced that the pope's claim of absolute authority
over the church was a great distortion of Christianity.
•Spiritual light also began to stream into Holland, northern France, and northern Germany during the
1300s and 1400s.
•Many Christians became concerned with abuses in the church and the laxness and immorality among both
the clergy and the common people.
•In 1380, Gerhard Groote [gro'ta], a Dutch contemporary of John Wycliffe, founded and organized the
Brethren of the Common Lite.
•The Middle Ages, which lasted from the fall of Rome in the late fifth century until the fourteenth century,
are (somewhat exaggeratedly and incorrectly) often referred to as the "Dark Ages," due to the relative lack
of intellectual and economic progress made during this long period.
•The Middle Ages were presided over by the Catholic Church, which preached the denial of worldly
pleasures and the subjugation of self-expression.
•During the Middle Ages, European society was defined by the system of feudalism, under which societal
classes were hierarchically divided based on their position in the prevailing agrarian economy.
•This system produced a large number of scattered, self-sufficient feudal units throughout Europe, made
up of a lord and his subservient vassals.
•These feudal lords were constantly in battle during the early middle ages, their armies of peasants facing
off to win land for their lords.
•However, during the later Middle Ages, this situation changed greatly. The power of the Church declined
as monarchies rose up to consolidate feudal manors into powerful city-states and nation-states that often
opposed the Church in matters of tax collection and legal jurisdiction.
•Along with the rise of monarchies came the rise of the money economy. As monarchs brought peace to
feudal society, feudal lords concentrated less upon defending their lands and more upon accruing large
quantities of cash, with which they improved their style of living and dabbled in the growing market
economy.
•The practice of serfdom declined and former serfs soon became tenant farmers and even landowners
rather than subservient slave-like laborers. As the trade of agricultural and manufactured goods grew in
importance, cities also became more important. Strategically located and wealthy cities became populous
and modern, and some cities even boasted factories.
•Just as art and architecture flourished in the Renaissance, so too did literature. Ands similarly, just as art
and architecture benefited from new techniques, literature experienced a massive boon from technology.
•In 1454, Johann Gutenberg published the Gutenberg Bible, the first book printed by a machine using
moveable type.
•The moveable-type printing press vastly changed the nature of book publishing, simultaneously increasing
printing volume and decreasing prices. The process of printing spread throughout Europe, and was used
extensively in Italy, where the humanist writers of the Renaissance had long sought a way to more easily
express their ideas to the public. During the Renaissance, writers produced a greater volume of work than
ever before, and with the lower prices and increased numbers of texts, these works reached an audience of
unprecedented size.
•Literature became a part of the lives of the larger public, not just the few elite able to afford books, as had
been the case before the advent of the printing press.

Chapter 14
~The protestant

reformation

By the 1500s, the revival of learning has spread north from Italy to other parts of Europe, the
movement known as a northern renaissance had began in such countries as Germany, France, and the
Netherlands, and England.
Another foremost colors of the northern renaissance was German JohanReuchlin.
Another important German scholar was Philip Melanchton Reuchlins great nephew.
Through his biblical sermons and lectures, Collett influence mini Englishman. One such person was
Thomas more. Thomas Moore, as the kings Chandler (chief advisor, was an important political figure
and Skyler in England and we strongly influence by fluids teachings and he pursued his own studies
and humanities.
Another important figure influenced by John Khalid was WilliamTyndale. William Tyndale produced
the first printed English translation of the New Testament from the original Greek period for his Bible
translation and other attempt at reform, Tyndale‘s death was a sorrowful one.
The most famous figure of the northern renaissance was Desiderius Erasmus, a scholar from the
Netherlands.
In 1516, your ramus publish the first printed edition of the new testament in the original Greek.
Uranus hoped that others would used Greek text to translate descriptors into languages that the people
could read.
In the freedom of the Christian man, Luther addressed himself directly to the pope: blue there was
rediscovering the true Christianity of the Bible
On May 26, 1521, the furious emperor issued the edict of worms, declaring Luther a Hereticand an
outlaw.
The movement Luther began in 1517 is called the protestant reformation because Luther in other
protestant and the corrupt practices of the Roman church and at first sight to reform the church,
restoring it to the authority of the Scriptures, rather than to withdraw from it.
The followers of this movement are called protestants.
Luther graduated from the University of our fruit in 1505 with his bachelors and masters degree in
liberal arts. He had earned both degrees in the minimum amount of time required some thing only the
most diligent students could achieve.
Still searching for an answer, Luther entered further service within the church. In 1507, he was
ordained as a priest, and a year later, Luther went to teach at the new University of Wittenberg.
Luther served notice that he was ready to debate about indulgences. It was the day for all saints day,
win indulgences were again to be proclaimed in Wittenberg. Luther went to the church in William
Byrd and nailed a list of statements called the 95 thesis, to the church door. (Church doors were
commonly used to post public notices.)

Chapter 15
~post - reformation

Europe

Inflame by political fantasies and self appointed “prophets”, the peasants started making extreme
demands and taking matters into their own hands rather than trusting God to let the gospel bring
about change. As a result of this unrest, the Peasants Revolt broke out in 1524–1525.
At a meeting between the two factions at Augsburg, the Lutherans presented to the emporor their
statement of faith-the Augsburg Confession.
The Augsburg confession, written by Philip Millington and approved by Luther, was the first protestant
confession of faith.
In 1555, both sides reach a compromise agreement known as a Peace of Augsburg. This treaty gave
official approval to the territorial, state established church principal in Germany.
The protestant reformation so shut the Roman church that the pope soon responded with the Counter-
reformation.
The counter reformation put a new life two Inquisition.
To “protect” his domain from the protestant ideas, the pope issued a list of books which Roman
Catholics were for bidden to read. This Index of prohibited books included protestant writings,
vernacular (non-Latin) versions of the Bible, and other works.
While recuperating from battle wounds in 1521, a Spanish soldier name Ignitus Loyola read about the
lives of Pollos Roman saints in the life of Christ.
1540, the pope gave Loyola and some companions approval to begin a new religious organization
called the society of Jesus, or the Jesuits.
Rome made its strongest stand against the protestants at the council of Trent.
In 1519, Charles I was elected as holy Roman emperor and became known as Charles V.
In 1536, King John III of Portugal introduced the inquisition to his country
Spain’s most outstanding writer was Miguel de Cervantes, who is masterpiece, Don Quixote, depicts
the exploits of the country Squire who consider himself and night at a time when knighthood was no
longer in fashion.
The Netherlands (Holland in Belgium) are appropriately named, for the word Netherlands means “low
lands”, and much of this region lies below sea level.
Some of the lame ones labeled need to see until Dikes (dam like barriers of earth in stone) were built to
hold back the water.
Because of his geography, the Netherlands are also called the low countries.
The people are called the Dutch or Hollanders.
In 1567, Philip sent in Spanish troops led by the cruel Duke of Alva.
How was set up a ruling council which came to be known as the council of blood because of the brutal
way it treated the Dutch people.
In 1568, William the silent, prince of orange, became the leader of the route press Dutch patriots.
Dutch protestants also broke from Spain’s Ally, the Roman church, and formed the Dutch reformed
church in 1561.
The Highlander’s greatest strength was there a skilled navy, and though they were still vastly out
named in outgunned by the Spanish, they better on until 1579, and when the providence of South ride
separated and returned to Spain control, and seven no the provinces joined to form the United
provinces of the Netherlands.
Two years later (1581), the united provinces decided to declare the Netherlands to be independent of
Spain.
In 1584, the dutch suffered from a severe blow in the Spanish agent assassinated William the silent.
The “father of Dutch liberty”, was William‘s nickname.

The greatest event of the period was the English reformation.
Henry VI I became the first Tudor king of England after he won the battle of Bosworth Field in 1485,
ending the wars of the roses.
Henry VI‘s son, Henry VII, became king of England in 1509 at the age of 18.
Henry desperately wanted a male hair to succeed him. But his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, had
given him only one surviving child – a daughter, Mary.
Since Catherine was several years older than Henry, he decided to divorce her and Mary 24-year- old
and Boleyn.
Most important, the heart of English people had been prepared by the witness of the Bible been
translated into English first by John Wycliffe in the 1300’s and later by William Tyndale in the
1500‘s.
Later, and 1534, parliament passed the act of supremacy, recognizing Henry as “the supreme head” of
the English church.
In 1533, Henry divorce Catherine of Aragon and married Anne m. After she gave him another
daughter -Elizabeth -in the outrage king had an executed on charges of adultery and married a third
wife, Jane Seymour.
Henry’s son, Edward VI, was only a child of nine when he came to the throne in 1547.
Thomas Cranmer, the protestant archbishop of Canterbury, has been restrained from going as far with
the reformation as he wanted. Now, with the help of scholar Nicholas Ridley and preacher Hugh
Latimer, Cranmer let England tell him more complete reform.
Worship services became more protestant as a result of the book of common prayer (first issued in
1549, and revised in 1552), which was made up of prayers to be spoken or even sung.
Upon his death, Mary Tudor, the first daughter of Henry VIII, became queen of England.
About 300 persons who refused to obey “bloody Mary”, was the queen of England is remember, died
for their convictions.
Search scenes eventually became an eternal flame in the pages of the book of martyrs, a classical
written by John Foxe in 1563.
1554, Mary Tudor married Philip II, the future Monica Spain.
When are the most extraordinary people involved in the English reformation was 16-year-old girl
named lady Jane Grey.
For a remarkable character and extraordinary performances a ruler of England, Elizabeth I won a
claim of her country in earned the affectionate nickname of “good queen Bess”.
She tried to settle her countries religious conflict with the Elizabethan settlement.
Another group, the Puritans (so-called because they wanted to purify the Church of England), felt that
angelic and church was still to Romanist in outlook.
Mary Stewart was only a week old with her father‘s death made her queen of Scotland in 1542.
She was destined to be the queen of Scots when the reformation begin to influence Scotland.
The Scottish reformation open violently with the execution of preachers who urged reform.
John Knox (1505–1572), the outstanding leader of the scullery formation, it was captured at the
castle of Saint Andrews by Scottish in French troops and forced to serve as a slave on friendships for
19 months.
The Scottish protestants were left in control when the Scottish Parliament set up an independent
church of Scotland (the Scottish Presbyterian Church), incorporating Calvinist doctrines.
Spain have a great strength on the seas. To match, Elizabeth employed Sir John Hawkins (1532-
1595) to build up the English Navy.
With these ships, skillful English sea captains such as Sir Francis Drake (c. 1540-1596) attacked and
rained in Spanish ships.

Perhaps the greatest naval force in the world had seen, this invincible armada, as it was so known,
sets sail from England.
After 10 days of fighting, the English completely defeated the Armada, damaging or destroy many of
the Spanish ships.
Find the defeat of armada defeat in 1588, Spain’s power and prestige gradually slipped away.
From politics to poetry, weather in real drama of war or make-believe drama of theater stage, the
Elizabethan age, was the reign of Elizabeth is now now, shines in England history and in the history of
the world.
Some of Shakespeare’s best known plays are Julius Caesar, hamlet, and a Midsummer nights dream,
in Romeo and Juliet.
Another important literary work of the Elizabethan age was the Faerie queen, a poem by Edmund
Spenser.

Chapter 16
~post reformation

science and culture

Scientist began to search for the law that God had establish so they could understand nature and
controller for the good of man, as God commanded in Genesis 1:28.
in fact, scientist during this era were called natural philosophers (the term scientist was not coined
until 1840).
Philosopher comes from the Greek word that means “lover of truth”.
One of the first important breakthroughs for modern science came in 1543 when did Nicholas
Copernicus, a polish astronomer, propose a new way of understanding the universe.
In his book, revelations of the celestial spheres, Copernicus said that the planet, including the earth,
revolved around the sun, and that the earth is not a motionless body about which everything else in the
universe moves.
Today we except this heliocentric approach without question, but Copernicus’s day, the universe was
believed to be geocentric, a concept originally devised by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle.
The German Lutheran astronomer Johannes Kepler took modern science another great step forward.
Taking “pleasure in the exalted contention of the divine Mechanism” and straining to imitate his human
mind in the divine mathematics “derived by the most why is creator,’ Kepler discover the three laws of
planetary motion around 1609.
The great Italian philosopher scientist Gallileo Galilee lived about the same time is Kepler, but
Catholic Italy was not as receptive to new scientific ideas as protestant Germany.
Around 1610, Galileo built a telescope and turned it to the sky is (the telescope had only recently been
invented by a Dutch man).
Galileo discovered the law of uniform acceleration, which states that the speed of a body fallen in a
vacuum-anybody, regardless of weight – accelerates (increases) uniformly with time.
And he calculated the laws of Pendulun, which explains the relationship between the time it takes to
freely swing match travel in its arc in the distance between a mess and it’s connecting point.
The English philosopher Isaac newton contributed more to scientific progress of mankind than any
other individual.
In 1687, newton publish his mathematical principles of natural philosophy (known as Principa), in
which he announces discovery of the universal law of gravitation end every particle of matter in the
universe attract every other particle matter with horse directly proportional to its quantity of matter,
decreasing as a distance increases.
With this single mathematical law, Newton stated a truth about every particle of matter in the physical
universe. He also explained the three laws of motion, which dealt with the concepts of inertia
(resistance to change in motion).
For his many achievements, Newton’s remember as the “father of modern science”.
His Principa is considered by authorities on the history of science to be the foundation stone of modern
thought.
In 1704, he published opticks, a book about the nature of light.
The period following the reformation was filled with other scientific giants:
Flemish Andreas Vesalius, known as the father of anatomy, publish the first complete description of
the human body in the 1540s.
And 1600, William Gilbert publish damaging to come in the first grade English science book
Between 164 and one 617, Scottish mathematician John Napier invented logarithms.
In 1620, Francis Bacon, an English philosopher, formulated the modern scientific method.
In 1628, English physician William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood in the human body.
In 1631, French mathemat
In 1637, Frenchman Rene Descartes, known as the father of modern philosophy, developed analytical
geometry.

In 1641, French magthematictian and philosopher Blaise Pascal invented a circulating device.
1662, Robert Boyle, English scientist and Christian, for related his loss of gases, earning the title
father of modern chemistry.
In 1665, Robert Hooke, English astronomer, mathematician, and experimental philosopher, became
the first observed microscopic cells.
In 1675, Dutch naturalist Anton van Leeuwenhoek, known as the father of microbiology.
In 1682, Englishman Edmund Halley, one of the greatest astronomers of his days, correctly predicted
the appearance of the comet which bear is his name.
Also in 1682, Englishman John Ray, pioneered the science of taxonomy (classification,)
Carolus Linneus, a devout Christian from Sweden, expand it raise work and establish the modern
system of biological
In 1714, German Gabriel Fahrenheit invented the mercury thermometer and developed the temperature
scale that bears his name.
In 1645, John Wilkins, a Puritan clergyman, lead in the formation of the Philosophical college, which
met regularly in London to conduct experiments and discuss scientific theories.
In 1662, the Royale Society for improvement of natural knowledge was formed in London under the
leadership of John Wilkins.
The rule society was the first permanent scientific society of modern age.
The French Academy of Science was founded in Paris in 1666.
It was supported largely by the protestant Huguenots in the Jansentists a group of French Catholics
who believed in the salvation by gods grace and followed several Calvinistic teachings.
A classical is a work of superior excellence that has stood the test of time - a work for all people of all
ages.
All human work should be evaluated in light of the greatest classics of all, the Word of God, which is
the book for all people of all times, and the one source of truth uattained by error.
Martin Luther, the leader of the protestant reformation, was himself a singer and composer who
highly valued the educational and more power of music.
But by far his most original lasting musical achievements were his hymns known as chorales.
Heinrich Schutz, the most important composer before back, you are a collection of madrigals
(elaborate songs based on pounds).
Johann Sebastian Bach became one of history‘s greatest composers.
After Albert Dürer mastered goldsmiths art of engraving, he was a princess to a Prayner and wood
cutter from home he learn to use the pen and brush, to work with watercolor and also, Antie develop
the art of wood cutting (making Principe engraving designs on wooden blocks).
Many, however, believe the Dürer engraving such as The Prodigal Son where his greatest achievement
because he was able to make prints from wood cut in engravings and available to the public.
His most popular works in his drawing Praying Hands.
The greatest dutch masters, Rembrandt van Rijn, was one of the greatest painters of all time.