Behavioral Treatments for Sleep Disorders: A Comprehensive Primer of Behavioral Sleep Medicine Interventions 1st

38 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia sleep” perspective, napping may provide such patients with a boost or “second wind” for later in the day. A patient who elects to nap should be warned that occasional napping may lead to regular napping via conditioning, altered sleep–wake timing, and altered sleep homeostasis. “Talking points”: The therapist may use this opportunity to address issues related to the two-process model of sleep–wake regulation (circadian timing and sleep homeostasis). Alternative approaches: Allow napping given a sensible approach. Napping earlier in the day may be less impactful on night-time sleep. Further, the patient should be counseled to: (1) nap for relatively brief periods of time (30–60 minutes), and (2) delay bedtime for an amount of time equivalent to the period spent in bed during the day. For example, if the patient naps and is in bed for 60 minutes and reports sleeping 30 minutes, bedtime should be delayed by 60 minutes. Eat a Light Snack Before Bedtime Rationale: A snack can be helpful about 1 hour before bedtime. Carbohydrates (i.e., crackers, bread, cereal, fruit) are best for a good night’s sleep. It is a good idea to avoid chocolate or heavily sweetened foods. Such snacking may help to avoid a blood sugar drop during the night that can disrupt sleep. Caveats/considerations: As stated earlier, this may be contraindicated in patients with GERD or other digestive disorders or patients on restricted diets. Avoid Liquids Before Bedtime Rationale: Liquids close to bedtime will fill your bladder and result in discomfort while you sleep, causing you to wake more frequently. Caveats/considerations: Patients who wish to drink small amounts of liquid may do so by restricting intake to less than 6–7 ounces in the 4 hours prior to bedtime, and by making sure they void before going to bed. As stated earlier, there may be medical problems or conditions that require patients to be better hydrated, and this should supersede any sleep habit instruction. There should also be awareness of the fact that some conditions (e.g., enlarged prostate) and some medications (e.g., diuretics) may necessitate middle of the night voiding regardless of how much liquid restriction takes place. Some patients, such as those on continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), report waking in the night with a dry mouth. These patients should be encouraged to take a few sips of water in the middle of the night, perhaps even to have a small cup ready next to their bed to avoid having to get up. However, they should be dissuaded from drinking large amounts. If patients do wake in the night with even a mild sense of bladder distension, they should be encouraged to get up and void. Attempts to go back to sleep with bladder distension are likely to fail or will result in repeated arousals.

Chapter 3 | Sleep Hygiene 39 Avoid Caffeinated Products within 6 Hours of Bedtime Rationale: Caffeine works as a stimulant in your body and can keep you awake. Caveats/considerations: It is unlikely that caffeine in the morning is going to have much if any impact on night-time sleep, even in the most sensitive of patients. In addition, there is some evidence that stimulants, used judiciously in the earlier part of the day, may actually provide some benefit, especially to those patients engaged in sleep restriction therapy, in that it can help them to remain more awake and alert during the day. Permission to use caffeine may actually serve to decrease patients’ anxiety about not sleeping at night, and this may aid in promoting better sleep. On the other hand, the length of time before bed that caffeine should be curtailed before it is an issue will vary from patient to patient, and this is one rule that will require tailoring. Although decaffeinated products contain much less caffeine than their caffeinated counterparts, it is possible that small amounts of caffeine in the evening, especially in the most sensitive individuals, may still serve to be an irritant to sleep onset. This is an example of how a modest infraction may serve as a predisposing factor to sleep problems even if it is not a direct cause. Patients should be encouraged to read product labels and make sure that they are not inadvertently consuming caffeine late in the day. It can be illustrative to point out that many lighter-colored sodas and some aspirin brands contain caffeine. Avoid Alcohol as a Hypnotic Rationale: Although alcohol use before bedtime can help some people to fall asleep more easily, it has been shown that use of alcohol to promote sleep (i.e., larger quantities than is typical for the individual) results in more fragmented sleep, more awakenings during the night, and/or early morning awakenings. Caveats/considerations: While some may tolerate a glass or two of wine at dinner, others may find that this makes their sleep more fitful, while still others may find that this promotes the occurrence of early morning awakenings. Quite apart from its effect on sleep maintenance, another possible reason to curtail or eliminate alcohol consumption is that while in active behavioral treatment, one of the greatest difficulties that patients have is to remain awake until the prescribed bedtime. Drinking alcohol will only serve to make this task more difficult. So the patient may be encouraged to temporarily suspend alcohol consumption during active treatment so that they can stay awake at night. Avoid Nicotine Rationale: Nicotine is a stimulant, and it has been demonstrated that chronic cigarette smokers have experienced significantly improved sleep when they quit.

40 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia Caveats/considerations: It is possible that during the early stages nicotine withdrawal may actually exacerbate sleep disruption, especially in the patients who are most addicted. Patients should therefore be educated about the effects of nicotine on sleep, and then encouraged to work on sleep and smoking cessation at different times. One thing that could be tried during active sleep treatment would be to have patients experiment with changing the times of smoking to see what changes might benefit sleep. For example, patients could be encouraged not to smoke in the middle of the night when they can’t sleep, as such smoking might be training them to wake at night to smoke. A consistent change in this regard might at least alter that pattern without having to go through full smoking cessation. Further, smoking cessation techniques might aide in this process (e.g., the use of a nicotine patch) and represent a reasonable first step in smoking cessation. Use Ear Plugs or White Noise to Mitigate Noise Rationale: Irregular noises, even quiet ones, can be disruptive to sleep. White noise, such as the sound of a fan or humidifier, can drown out other more disruptive noises, leading to less broken sleep. Caveats/considerations: As previously noted, caution may be needed in situations where a patient is a caregiver (e.g., for an elderly Alzheimer’s parent) and may need to hear what is happening in other parts of the house. It should generally be noted that this scenario would not be ideal for a good night’s sleep to begin with, and may be part of the problem. There many types of white-noise machines on the market that have a variety of settings. While some settings (e.g., waterfall or tropical rainforest) may provide a decent white noise, others (e.g., forest birds or thunderstorm), while being relaxing sounds, are not essentially white noises in that they are not constant and meaningless. Such sound could serve to actually disrupt sleep or at least keep the patient from sleeping as deeply. Avoid Co-Sleeping with One’s Pets Rationale: Pets will frequently move around and/or jump on and off the bed, causing movement and noise which can be disruptive to sleep. Caveats/considerations: There is no real caution to this, except that the therapist should expect to meet strong resistance from some patients regarding this recommendation. At times it is helpful to engage in some problem solving regarding how a patient can teach a pet to sleep alongside the bed or in another room. Make the Sleep Environment Comfortable and Conducive to Sleep Rationale: Make sure you have a comfortable mattress, and keep your bedroom generally cool and dark.

Chapter 3 | Sleep Hygiene 41 Caveats/considerations: l Bedding. Many patients have not bought new bedding for decades. This is problematic to the extent that sleeping on worn-out pillows and mattresses may contribute to sleep disturbance by promoting levels of discomfort and/or pain that, if not precipitating frank awakenings, shallow sleep and increase one’s vulnerability to awakenings. A decent rule of thumb is to replace pillows regularly (every 1–3 years) and mattresses once every one to two decades. Patients should, if able, be encouraged to invest in their sleep comfort, and counseled that such investments may, in and of themselves, yield dividends. l Temperature. There is no “right temperature for sleep”, but the general rule is “sleep loves the cold”. Further, it is easier to keep the room temperature cold and to regulate the patient’s own temperature by covering up with blankets than it is to keep the room warm and to find some way to cool down when feeling too hot. l Light. Light attenuation in the bedroom in the morning is generally desirable, especially for those patients who are larks in their circadian pattern and tend to wake early or suffer from “terminal” insomnia. Keep a Regular Sleep Schedule by Setting an Alarm in the Morning Rationale: Keeping a consistent wake time will promote better circadian cycling, and setting an alarm will prevent giving your insomnia the function of waking you in the morning. Caveats/considerations: Some patients will balk at the idea of setting a regular wake time 7 days per week. It would be worth noting that setting strict times may be more crucial during the treatment phase while trying to strengthen the circadian control of sleep and wakefulness. Once it is well established, maintaining a good schedule may not require as strict a protocol and may allow for 1 or 2 days of modest changes in wake time (sleeping in) as long as the patient is still maintaining standard wake times the rest of the week. Some patients are also likely to resist setting an alarm, feeling that this increases their anxiety and will keep them awake. The concern is that by not setting an alarm the patient is setting up an anxious expectation about when wake time is coming, thus necessitating a lighter or more fragmented sleep so that he or she does not miss the desired wake time. Setting an alarm every morning will allow patients to become reliant on the alarm to wake them, and not their poor sleep. “Wrapping Up” When wrapping up, patients should be reminded that in many ways they are doing this to decrease their vulnerability to insomnia, improve the chances

42 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia of therapy working, and get the most efficient sleep that they can. As such, they can be encouraged to practice all of the sleep hygiene rules as faithfully as possible and to do so consistently, at least for the time that therapy is taking place. However, once they are sleeping well and have determined optimal amounts of sleep, then it may be possible to consider looking at some rules individually and seeing whether an experiment in which they begin again to break a specific rule results in any adverse changes to their overall sleep. For example, while patients might be advised to stop drinking alcohol during the weeks that therapy takes place, once they are sleeping well they certainly do not need to remain teetotal. Given no history of substance abuse, it may be fine to drink occasionally or even to have a glass of wine per night. Some may find their improved sleep is not appreciably changed, while others may find that even one drink may actually fragment their sleep. In the latter case, it will then be up to individual patients to decide whether or not it is worth it for them to drink. The important point is that by having eliminated the alcohol entirely, the patients will then more easily be able to tell how alcohol affects their sleep as they add this habit back into the routine. The same can be said for snacking before bed, drinking more liquid in the evening, having chocolate in the evening, etc. POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS/VARIANTS Noted above. PROOF OF CONCEPT/SUPPORTING DATA/EVIDENCE BASE It is generally held that sleep hygiene is not effective as a monotherapy. This common belief may be a bit of an overgeneralization from the existing facts which are more consistent with the 2006 AASM Standards of Practice Committee [3] conclusion that there is “insufficient evidence to recommend sleep hygiene as a single therapy” (p. 221). The state of the science, with respect to sleep hygiene, is simply this: 1. There are only a few studies that evaluate the efficacy of sleep hygiene as a single treatment, and in these cases there is no standard for what sleep hygiene is (i.e., what rules are covered) or how it is administered (e.g., handout vs full session review). Thus it remains possible that some form of sleep hygiene may produce significant clinical gains. 2. The clinical gains obtained with sleep hygiene are thought to be marginal as many investigators use this intervention as a control condition for CBT-I randomized clinical trials. In such studies it has been reliably shown that CBT-I produces significantly greater magnitude results than does sleep hygiene. This said, it may be that sleep hygiene, when used as a control condition, utilizes such an abbreviated form of the treatment that

Chapter 3 | Sleep Hygiene 43 it is indeed akin to an inert-monitor only condition. Thus, once again, it remains possible that some form of sleep hygiene may produce reasonable clinical gains. 3. There are at least two investigations showing that patients with insomnia do not differ from good sleepers with respect to sleep hygiene infractions [4,5]. Finally, it should be noted that some, if not many, of the components of sleep hygiene are based on empirical evidence (e.g., the effects of diurnal napping on nocturnal sleep) and/or are grounded on well established theory (e.g., sleep–wake regulation as delineated in Borbley’s Two Process Model [6]). For an excellent summary of these findings, the reader is referred to Stepanski and Wyatt’s 2003 review on sleep hygiene [7]. The fact that some of the sleep hygiene rules are scientifically “well justified” suggests, once again, that sleep hygiene (given adequate coverage, a reasonable form of delivery, and the obtention of patient compliance with the rules that derive from the hard science) should produce significant clinical gains. In sum, the most reasonable conclusion about sleep hygiene is this: it is a useful addition to a multi-component CBT-I protocol in that engaging in improved sleep hygiene may enhance outcomes or at least remove obstacles to progress. REFERENCES [1] N. Kleitman, Sleep and Wakefulness, Chicago University Press, Chicago, IL, 1987 (original version 1939). [2] P.J. Hauri, Sleep Disorders, Upjohn, Kalamazoo, MI, 2004. [3] T. Morgenthaler, M. Kramer, C. Alessi, et al., Practice parameters for the psychological and behavioral treatment of insomnia: an update. An American Academy of Sleep Medicine Report, Sleep 29 (2006) 1415–1419. [4] L.A. Gellis, K.L. Lichstein, Sleep hygiene practices of good and poor sleepers in the United States: an internet-based study, Behav. Ther. 40 (2009) 1–9. [5] C.S. McCrae, M.A. Rowe, N.D. Dautovich, et al., Sleep hygiene practices in two community dwelling samples of older adults, Sleep 29 (2006) 1551–1560. [6] A.A. Borbely, A two process model of sleep regulation, Hum. Neurobiol. 1 (1982) 195–204. [7] E.J. Stepanski, J.K. Wyatt, Use of sleep hygiene in the treatment of insomnia, Sleep Med. Rev. 7 (2003) 215–225. RECOMMENDED READING P.J. Hauri, Case Studies in Insomnia, Plenum Medical Book Company, New York, NY, 2003. V.P. Zarcone, Sleep hygiene, in: M.H. Kryger, T. Roth, W.C. Dement, (Eds.), Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, WB Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA, 1989.

Behavioral Treatments for Sleep Disorders. DOI: © Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 45 10.1016/B978-0-12-381522-4.00004-3 2011 Relaxation for Insomnia Kenneth L. Lichstein Department of Psychology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL Daniel J. Taylor Department of Psychology, University of North Texas, Denton, TX Christina S. McCrae Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL S. Justin Thomas Department of Psychology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL PROTOCOL NAME Relaxation for insomnia. GROSS INDICATION Relaxation methods are used when heightened somatic and/or cognitive arousal interferes with sleep. As most people with insomnia experience some form of arousal, relaxation techniques are appropriate for most people with insomnia. SPECIFIC INDICATION Research suggests that relaxation is more effective for sleep onset insomnia than sleep maintenance insomnia [1]. CONTRAINDICATIONS There are no serious contraindications for relaxation therapy. Patients who do not have time to practice will not profit from this approach. A small percentage of patients will experience paradoxical increased anxiety during relaxation. RATIONALE FOR INTERVENTION There are dozens of methods of relaxation that may be collectively referred to as quiescent self inquiry. The variants of relaxation are numerous. Beginning Chapter 4

46 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia with meditative forms of Hindu yoga dating to some 5000 years ago, continuing with autogenics and progressive relaxation introduced about 100 years ago, through more recent methods such as guided imagery, passive body focusing, and some aspects of mindfulness, and including machine guided relaxation (i.e., biofeedback), the core processes and effects of relaxation have changed little over the millennia. All methods that fall beneath the relaxation umbrella conform to Benson’s [2] relaxation response, yielding physiological and experiential calm. If some form of somatic and/or cognitive arousal is delaying and/or disrupting sleep, then relaxation works to diminish those barriers. Research suggests that cognitive arousal is more salient to insomnia than somatic arousal, and the mental calm accompanying well-practiced relaxation directly addresses this irritant. STEP BY STEP DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURES The Relaxation Response The four procedural elements comprising Benson’s [2] approach to relaxation are: (1) a quiet environment, (2) an object to dwell upon, (3) a passive attitude, and (4) a comfortable position. The virtue of the first and last of these is perhaps obvious. It would be difficult to attain physiological/experiential calm in a noisy, distracting environment, or when assuming a posture that was uncomfortable and physically distracting. A completely quiet environment is not necessary; indeed, many enjoy music during relaxation. Individual preference will dictate which sounds are conducive and which simply noise. Similarly, the lotus position (legs intertwined while sitting) is often adopted by experienced meditators, but would be inimical to relaxation in many others. Lying down, reclining in a padded chair, or sitting up are all acceptable relaxation poses. Some find slow or rhythmic movement is nurturing of relaxation. Rather than stipulating acceptable sound and posture prescriptions, we encourage patients to define a pleasing environment. The second element, an object to dwell upon, refers to a “mental device” that consumes attention and displaces daily concerns. This device must be repetitive and monotonous; the more boring the better. It can take many different forms and again, individual tailoring is useful. Benson recommended slowly repeating in one’s mind or aloud the neutral, secular word “one”, but Eastern-sounding words such as “om” or “shirim” would do as well. Eyes may be closed, or one’s gaze can be fixed on a flower, a candle, a vase, one’s breath, etc., replacing the repetition of a word or phrase. Images of pleasant nature scenes or personally meaningful objects can be the mental device. Benson believes the third element, passive attitude, is the most important relaxation ingredient. It is the most indispensable, and it is the most likely to help sustain the relaxation effect beyond the boundaries of the relaxation practice session. Famed sexologists William Masters and Virginia Johnson cautioned that you cannot will an erection; an erection will occur only when it is not the focus of

Chapter 4 | Relaxation for Insomnia 47 attention. So it is with relaxation. The harder you try to relax, the less likely it is to occur. A relaxed, passive attitude is essential to achieving a relaxed state. The first challenge to most people is how to manage the near universal experience of mindwandering, and this provides a valuable opportunity to cultivate a relaxed attitude. Don’t struggle for control over your mind. Allow your mind to wander, and in time it will wander back to the relaxation task. Acceptance of mind-wandering is a helpful gauge of how well the patient has embraced a passive attitude. Regular relaxation practice will both profit from and cultivate a relaxed attitude. Patients should be encouraged to maintain a relaxed attitude throughout the day, and this will translate into a more relaxed (Type B) personality. Relaxation Practice It matters little which relaxation method is used. Practice is critical, and if the patient practices regularly, therapeutic benefits are likely to emerge. We invest a fair amount of time in l explaining the importance of practice and l scheduling practice. We prescribe at least two relaxation practices a day: one during the day and one at bedtime. Relaxation can also be practiced during middle-of-the-night awakenings. The daytime practice is for skill development. It should be done during a low-stress time. Patients are more skillful at being anxious than at being relaxed. If daytime practice is done at a high-stress time, the novice relaxation skill will be at a competitive disadvantage with anxiety. The skill will be slow to develop, and patients will complain relaxation does not work. The night-time practice is the therapeutic dose. It should be done when the patient gets into bed with the intent of going to sleep. It may be helpful to allow a couple of weeks of relaxation practice during the day before commencing night-time practice, to protect the skill development period. Patients often have difficulty adhering to the daily daytime practice. We invest time in discussing its importance and planning for its occurrence. When encouraged, patients can be creative in creating 5–10 minutes of practice time early in the morning, at work, or early evening. We will often contract with patients to practice certain times, certain days. We may use the Premack Principle, making more preferred activities contingent on less preferred activities – for example, the patient agrees to practice relaxation before he or she starts watching television in the evening. Relaxation Procedures For the past two decades, our research and clinical work has mainly relied on a hybrid passive relaxation procedure (given verbatim in Lichstein [3]). The

48 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia procedure has four components: relaxed attitude; slow, deep breathing; passive body focusing; and autogenic phrases. The entire induction takes about 10 minutes. All the components are physically non-demanding, so issues of exacerbating painful areas are avoided. The procedures are simple and easily mastered. Because the four components are independent, patients are encouraged to emphasize those parts with which they feel most comfortable, resulting in a naturally occurring tailoring process. Relaxed attitude. Description of relaxed attitude concerning mind wandering and distracting sensations/noises; advice is given not to force relaxation (45 seconds). Deep breaths. Patients are asked to take five deep breaths, hold each for 5 seconds, and softly say “relax” as they exhale (1 minute 30 seconds). Body focusing. Patients are directed to focus on a body-part sequence that covers the whole body: arms, face, trunk, and legs; the patient dwells on each part for about 45 seconds and seeks out relaxing feelings in each (5 minutes). Autogenic phrases. Patients are instructed to focus on sensations of heaviness and warmth in their arms and legs (2 minutes). POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS/VARIANTS The possible modifications and variants of relaxation are likely infinite. In this section, we attempt to focus on those variants and modifications that are most commonly used. The methods of relaxation that have received the most attention in the insomnia literature are progressive muscle relaxation (PMR), autogenic training, meditation, and imagery. New evidence is emerging on the use of mindfulness-based stress reduction for the treatment of insomnia, so this intervention will also be discussed. Other relaxation methods, such as diaphragmatic breathing, hypnosis, and transcendental meditation, may be used clinically, but they have no empirical backing as treatments of insomnia, and thus will not be discussed here, to conserve space. Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) The protocol for PMR varies somewhat between delivery methods, but globally involves alternately tensing and relaxing different muscle groups throughout the body [4,5]. Patients are trained to focus on and compare feelings of relaxation with the tension that was present before the relaxation procedure. Different practitioners utilize different durations (e.g., tense for 5–15 seconds and relax for 20–45 seconds). No comparative studies have been performed to help determine which tensing and relaxing durations are most beneficial, so it is ultimately up to the therapist and perhaps the patient. This technique typically takes 10–30 minutes. Some therapists go through each body part individually multiple times. Others focus on individual body parts early in therapy, focus on body regions in the middle sessions, and finally

Chapter 4 | Relaxation for Insomnia 49 focus on the whole body by the final sessions, so the patients can achieve relaxation more rapidly. Homework typically involves practicing the relaxation at home during the day, just prior to bedtime, and sometimes during night-time awakenings. Some therapists do not like to assign the bedtime practice, because they feel it produces performance anxiety, but there is no evidence to support this belief. Patients are typically asked to do the bedtime relaxation in bed, so that if they fall asleep during the procedure, they do not have to move back to their bedroom. In addition, it might be useful to perform the daytime practice in the bedroom, in an attempt to facilitate classical conditioning. Multiple scripts for progressive muscle relaxation are available both online and within treatment texts (see, for example, Lichstein [6], Morin and Espie [7], and Smith [8]). Autogenic Training One variant of relaxation that is often included in other forms of relaxation training is autogenic training. In this method, the patient visualizes a peaceful scene and repeats autogenic phrases intended to deepen the relaxation response. The patient typically repeats phrases focused on each arm and leg which include “heaviness” and “warmth” (e.g., my left arm is heavy … my left arm is warm … my left arm is heavy …, etc.). From there the patient moves on to focusing on cardiac regulation, respiration, abdominal warmth, and cooling of the forehead. In the original form, the patient took 6 months to learn this method, with one to two sessions to learn each component (e.g., left arm). Briefer methods [6] have been developed which focus on the same or similar areas, but for a shorter period of time (i.e., 30 seconds for each component). Meditation Meditation is a difficult concept to define, because a multitude of meditation techniques exist. We present two variants. Yoga Kundalini Yoga was popularized by Yogi Bhajan in the late 1960s as a means of general life enhancement and to explore altered states of consciousness without the use of drugs. Yoga involves the awareness of breath (pranayama) and thought processes, in addition to a series of postures (asanas) designed to stretch and strengthen the body. Yoga, as traditionally practiced, is often combined with aspects of PMR (especially in “corpse pose”) and meditation. As one can see, many of these elements overlap with the relaxation techniques already discussed. The following Kundalini yoga treatment has been used for insomnia [9]: 1. Meditation on long, slow abdominal breathing (1–3 minutes). 2. Arms extended upwards at a 60° angle with the palms flat and facing upwards with meditation on the breath (1–3 minutes).

50 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia 3. Arms extended horizontally to the sides with the wrists bent upwards and the palms facing away with meditation on the breath (1–3 minutes). 4. Hands clasped together at the sternum with the arms pushing the palms together with meditation on the breath (1–3 minutes). 5. A breathing meditation called “Shabad Kriya” (30 minutes). l Palms are resting in lap, facing upward, with right over left and thumbs touching l Eyes are one-tenth open and gaze downwards past the tip of the nose l Inhalation is in 4 segments or “sniffs”, followed by breath retention for 16 counts, and exhalation in 2 segments (ratio of inhale : hold : exhale is 4 : 16 :2) l During inhalation, the mantra “Sa, Ta, Na, Ma” is mentally recited with each segment l During breath retention, this mantra is mentally repeated four times l During the exhalation the mantra “Wahe Guru” is mentally recited concurrently with each exhale segment l Overall breathing frequency should be as slow as is comfortable, while maintaining the specified ratio of inhale :hold : exhale. Participants are instructed to perform the treatment in the evening, preferably just before bedtime. If, on occasion, the subject’s evening schedule makes it difficult to incorporate the treatment, participants are to practice the treatment at another time of day. Mindfulness The Mindfulness-Based Therapy for Insomnia (MBTI [10]) method is discussed elsewhere in this text, but deserves some mention at this point. This form of therapy combines common behavioral treatments of insomnia (e.g., stimulus control) with mindfulness meditation practices and exercises. Based on the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program (MBSR [11,12]), each session combines formal mindfulness meditation, followed by didactics, and group dialogue to teach the principles of mindfulness. The major point of emphasis in the mindfulness meditation component is a focus on present thoughts, actions, body functions, feelings, etc., without judgment. A point of emphasis in MBTI is using the principles of acceptance and letting go to work with negative emotional reactions to disturbed sleep. In this way, the procedure is much like other meditation. Imagery Imagery is employed in most forms of relaxation training, but has received little supportive research as a single treatment. Guided imagery is generally a reminiscent task, as patients tend to choose images of places from their past which were relaxing. Future orientation tends to be discouraged, as it is thought

Chapter 4 | Relaxation for Insomnia 51 to be less relaxing and more activating. Generally, a pleasant nature scene is ideal. Patients are asked to close their eyes, find a comfortable position, and select an image that they find relaxing, that they have actually experienced, and that is relatively fresh in their memory. They are then guided through making the image as realistic as possible by focusing on the details of the scene and using the five senses (i.e., vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch). Note that not everyone is good at imagery, so caution must be used with this technique. Biofeedback Biofeedback is a specific form of relaxation treatment that differs from those mentioned above because it actually provides sensory feedback (usually visual or auditory), either mechanically (i.e., thermometers) or, more frequently, with computers and amplifiers, to help patients learn how to control physiological parameters (such as finger temperature or muscle tension) in order to reduce somatic arousal [13]. For instance, frontalis electromyography (EMG) biofeedback, the most commonly studied form of biofeedback, teaches subjects to reduce muscle tension in the muscles of the forehead and face. Biofeedback seems to help patients attain states of mental and physical relaxation, and become more aware of their own bodily sensations and responses to stressors. Biofeedback actively involves the patient in the therapeutic process, and provides immediate measures of progress. One difficulty with evaluating the effectiveness of biofeedback is that it is often paired with some form of relaxation exercise, making it difficult to parse out the independent effects of each. In addition, improvements appear to be comparable to PMR, which takes less time for the patient to learn and requires no expensive equipment. PROOF OF CONCEPT/SUPPORTING DATA/EVIDENCE BASE Relaxation is commonly used as a form of therapy for disorders in which arousal (cognitive and physiological) plays an important role (e.g., anxiety, chronic pain, insomnia). There is considerable evidence (more than 50 studies) to support its use as a monotherapy, as part of CBT-I, and as part of multicomponent therapies for insomnia. In 2006, an American Academy of Sleep Medicine Task Force concluded that this evidence was sufficient to recommend relaxation training (e.g., PMR, autogenics) as a standard treatment for insomnia [13]. Because relaxation is an umbrella term that refers to a family of therapeutic techniques (PMR, passive relaxation, autogenics, biofeedback, imagery training, meditation), the amount of evidence supporting a specific technique varies with the bulk of studies examining PMR or similar techniques (e.g., passive relaxation) [14,15]. Over the past 30 years, two notable trends have emerged in the literature. Specifically, research prior to 1997 [14] tended to examine relaxation as a stand-alone treatment and included a wider range

52 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia of techniques, including PMR, biofeedback, guided imagery, and meditation, while more recent research [15] tends to focus on PMR or similar techniques and to examine relaxation as just one component of either CBT-I or multicomponent interventions. As a stand-alone technique, controlled studies (placebo, wait list, and/or no treatment) have shown that relaxation (regardless of technique) produces improvements in sleep quality ratings as well as 20- to 30-minute improvements in self-reported sleep onset latency, wake time after sleep onset, and total sleep time from baseline to post-treatment [14,15]. In studies that included follow-up evaluations, these improvements were generally well maintained. Imagery training is a notable exception, as research examining this technique has produced mixed results. Polysomnography was included as an objective outcome measure in only a handful of studies, and findings support little to no improvement on objective sleep measures. Some studies have also included measures of daytime functioning. However, improvements have been documented primarily for subjective sleep outcomes. Most experts would agree that this is not surprising, given that insomnia (similar to chronic pain) is largely a subjective sleep disorder by nature. Trials that included relaxation as part of CBT-I or a multi-component treatment have largely produced results similar to, and in some cases slightly better than, those of trials evaluating relaxation as a stand-alone treatment. Although this evidence may make it tempting to conclude that relaxation alone may be able to replace CBT-I and multi-component treatment for insomnia, it is important to note that dismantling studies have yet to be conducted. Therefore, no conclusions can be drawn regarding the active element of CBT-I or multicomponent interventions. Additionally, some evidence suggests that, when used as stand-alone techniques, stimulus control and sleep restriction may be more effective than relaxation. A handful of recent studies (see, for example, Lichstein [16]) have utilized relaxation (either alone or combined with other techniques) in protocols including medication withdrawal. Those studies have documented reductions and even the complete elimination of hypnotic medication in some patients. One such study compared relaxation and medication withdrawal to medication withdrawal alone, and found sleep efficiency improved in medicated and nonmedicated patients [16]. Not surprisingly, there was a worsening of all other measures during withdrawal that was not attenuated by relaxation. However, only medicated patients who were receiving relaxation reported improvements in sleep quality and fewer withdrawal symptoms. REFERENCES [1] C.M. Morin, J.P. Culbert, S.M. Schwartz, Nonpharmacological interventions for insomnia: a meta-analysis of treatment efficacy, Am. J. Psych. 151 (1994) 1172–1180. [2] H. Benson, The Relaxation Response, William Morrow, New York, NY, 1975.

Chapter 4 | Relaxation for Insomnia 53 [3] K.L. Lichstein, Relaxation, in: K.L. Lichstein, C.M. Morin, (Eds.), Treatment of Late-life Insomnia, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, 2000, pp. 185–206. [4] B. Bernstein, T. Borkovec, Progressive Relaxation Training, Research Press, Champagne, IL, 1973. [5] E. Jacobson, Progressive Relaxation: A Physiological and Clinical Investigation of Muscular States and their Significance in Psychology and Medical Practice, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1929. [6] K.L. Lichstein, Clinical Relaxation Strategies, Wiley, New York, NY, 1988. [7] C.M. Morin, C.A. Espie, Insomnia: A Clinical Guide to Assessment and Treatment, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, NY, 2003. [8] J.C. Smith, Relaxation, Meditation & Mindfulness, Springer, New York, NY, 2005. [9] S.B.S. Khalsa, Treatment of chronic insomnia with Yoga: a preliminary study with sleep– wake diaries, Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback 29 (2004) 269–278. [10] J.C. Ong, S.L. Shapiro, R. Manber, Mindfulness meditation and CBT for insomnia: a naturalistic 12-month follow-up, Explore: J. Sci. Healing 5 (2009) 30–36. [11] J. Kabat-Zinn, Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness, Delacorte Press, New York, NY, 1990. [12] S. Santorelli, Heal Thyself: Lessons on Mindfulness in Medicine, Crown, New York, NY, 1999. [13] T. Morgenthaler, M. Kramer, C. Alessi, et al., Practice parameters for the psychological and behavioral treatment of insomnia: an update. An American Academy of Sleep Medicine report, Sleep 29 (2006) 1415–1419. [14] C.M. Morin, P.J. Hauri, C.A. Espie, et al., Nonpharmacologic treatment of chronic insomnia. An American Academy of Sleep Medicine review, Sleep 22 (8) (1999) 1134–1156. [15] C.M. Morin, R.R. Bootzin, D.J. Buysse, et al., Psychological and behavioral treatment of insomnia: update of the recent evidence (1998–2004), Sleep 29 (2006) 1398–1414. [16] K.L. Lichstein, R.S. Johnson, Relaxation for insomnia and hypnotic medication use in older women, Psychol. Aging 8 (1) (1993) 103–111. RECOMMENDED READING H. Benson, The Relaxation Response, William Morrow, New York, NY, 1975. B. Bernstein, T. Borkovec, Progressive Relaxation Training, Research Press, Champagne, IL, 1973. E. Jacobson, Progressive Relaxation: A Physiological and Clinical Investigation of Muscular States and their Significance in Psychology and Medical Practice, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1929. J. Kabat-Zinn, Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness, Delacorte Press, New York, 1990. K.L. Lichstein, Clinical Relaxation Strategies, Wiley, New York, NY, 1988. K.L. Lichstein, Relaxation, in: K.L. Lichstein, C.M. Morin, (Eds.), Treatment of Late-life Insomnia, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, 2000, pp. 185–206. T. Morgenthaler, M. Kramer, C. Alessi, et al., Practice parameters for the psychological and behavioral treatment of insomnia: an update. An American Academy of Sleep Medicine report, Sleep 29 (2006) 1415–1419. C.M. Morin, C.A. Espie, Insomnia: A Clinical Guide to Assessment and Treatment, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, NY, 2003.

54 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia C.M. Morin, J.P. Culbert, S.M. Schwartz, Nonpharmacological interventions for insomnia: a metaanalysis of treatment efficacy, Am. J. Psychiatry 151 (1994) 1172–1180. C.M. Morin, R.R. Bootzin, D.J. Buysse, et al., Psychological and behavioral treatment of insomnia: update of the recent evidence (1998–2004), Sleep 29 (2006) 1398–1414. S. Santorelli, Heal Thyself: Lessons on Mindfulness in Medicine, Crown, New York, NY, 1999. J.C. Smith, Relaxation, Meditation & Mindfulness, Springer, New York, NY, 2005.

Behavioral Treatments for Sleep Disorders. DOI: © Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 55 10.1016/B978-0-12-381522-4.00005-5 2011 Sleep Compression Kenneth L. Lichstein, S. Justin Thomas Department of Psychology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL Susan M. McCurry Department of Psychosocial and Community Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA PROTOCOL NAME Sleep compression. GROSS INDICATION Sleep compression is ideal for those who exhibit sleep continuity disturbance but not substantial daytime deficits. SPECIFIC INDICATION Poor sleep accompanied by little daytime impairment suggests that enough sleep has been obtained to satisfy biologic need. Decreasing wake time in bed, not increasing sleep, becomes the primary therapeutic goal. There is insufficient experience with this method to recommend its preferred use with a type of insomnia (e.g., primary vs comorbid, midlife vs late life) or with a particular pattern of wakefulness (e.g., onset vs maintenance). However, sleep compression does use an incremental approach to decreasing time in bed, as compared to abrupt contraction in the method of sleep restriction, and sleep compression may be better tolerated by individuals who are experiencing daytime fatigue or mild sleepiness, or who may be sensitive to abrupt alteration of their time in bed pattern. CONTRAINDICATIONS There are no serious contraindications for sleep compression. Temporary, increased daytime sleepiness that sometimes occurs with the introduction of the similar procedure of sleep restriction has not been observed with sleep compression. Chapter 5

56 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia RATIONALE FOR INTERVENTION Individuals may seek more sleep than they need when idiographic sleep needs are defined by nomothetic goals. Individuals gifted with a short need for sleep may create an insomnia sleep pattern when they strive for the common goal of 7 hours and 30 minutes of sleep, even when less sleep is needed to satisfy their biologic need. By their night-time sleep pattern, this insomnia subtype resembles individuals who do fail to obtain sufficient sleep, but may be distinguished by the absence of daytime sequelae expected to follow inadequate sleep. STEP BY STEP DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURES Neither research nor clinical experience has dictated a standard sleep compression protocol. What follows is how we typically do it. Sleep compression begins by estimating total sleep time (TST) and time in bed (TIB). This is usually done by collecting a 2-week baseline sleep diary; longer or shorter baseline duration and other data sources, such as actigraphy, could be used instead. However, collecting data for much less than a week may mean that you will not get a representative sample of sleep (for example, including both weekend and weekdays). We have also found that sleep diaries have better utility for setting a sleep compression schedule, since they reflect patients’ perceptions of their own sleep, and as a result patients are more likely to accept recommended changes than when baseline data are derived from an actigraphic device. The baseline sleep assessment will yield mean TST and mean TIB. Atypical baseline nights producing unrepresentative TST or TIB values that might arise from factors such as illness or uncharacteristic socializing can be discounted. The therapeutic goal of sleep compression is to eliminate the TIB–TST discrepancy by cutting back TIB in incremental parts over the next several weeks. We will typically use about six sessions to shrink TIB to conform to TST. The number of treatment sessions may be adjusted according to the magnitude of the TIB–TST discrepancy that will be managed. As an example, consider Jennifer, who averaged 6 hours of sleep a night during baseline but had 8 hours of TIB. The 2 hours of superfluous TIB will be cut by 120 minutes/six sessions, or about 20 minutes a week. As the sessions unfold, the pace of cutting TIB can be adjusted to accommodate changes in TST that may arise. If TST gradually increases, the number of minutes cut can slow, or the reverse if TST shrinks. Similarly, should the patient report waxing daytime impairment, the pace of reducing TIB should slow. We do not use a fixed formula, such as maintaining sleep efficiency within a specified range, in titrating TIB cuts. Typically, by the fourth or fifth session the therapist or patient may suggest that the rate of compression is too slow or too fast, and we will renegotiate the treatment course. In the first session of sleep compression in this case example, prescribed TIB will be reduced to 7 hours, 40 minutes. Provider and patient will negotiate a fixed bedtime (e.g., 11:00 pm) and fixed wake time (e.g., 6:40 am).

Chapter 5 | Sleep Compression 57 We usually defer to the patient’s preference in setting these TIB boundaries so long as they conform to the prescribed TIB duration. A week later, the second session will set a TIB of 7 hours and 20 minutes, and the bedtime (e.g., 11:10 pm) and/or wake time (e.g., 6:30 am) will be reset accordingly. Each of the next four weekly treatment sessions will reduce the TIB by 20 minutes, so that at the end of the sixth treatment session, the week following will see the TIB and the TST match at 6 hours. Adherence Adherence with sleep compression is generally less problematic than with traditional sleep restriction recommendations that precipitously reduce a client’s time in bed. The leisurely process of cutting back in-bed times allows patients time to become accustomed to changing their bedtime and rising time, and because the overall reduction in bed time is less abrupt, there is usually less initial reactance to the plan. Unlike the common injunction “Don’t go to bed unless sleepy” characteristic of the stimulus control procedure, sleep compression instructions encourage patients to stick with the prescribed bedtime and wake time each week. We want the compression of TIB to proceed in an orderly, slow fashion. Some patients want to rush the process and are tempted to cut back at a faster pace. In our experience, this may excite side effects, such as increased daytime sleepiness and irritability, and invite unstable, disruptive circadian rhythms. Patients whose life circumstance dictates an inconsistent sleep schedule, such as rotating shiftwork, may be poor candidates for sleep compression treatment. Based on correlation with treatment outcome, greater consistency of time spent in bed per night and a more consistent arising time are aspects of adherence that should receive the most attention [1]. Though many of us would relish the newfound time liberated by compressed sleep, some patients rebel at the prospect of having to find something to do late at night or early in the morning, and this may fuel lapses in adherence. Therapists should assist patients in creating a menu of low-key activities for the evening and alerting activities for the morning. Another concern with adherence arises in the case of persons whose TST improves to match in-bed time before the full 6-week protocol is complete. For example, if Jennifer comes back at the end of the third week reporting that she was in bed every night for 7 hours and asleep for an average of 6 hours and 45 minutes per night, a decision must be made. Continuing to pursue the sleep compression schedule as planned may invite resistance, since the desired goal of a high nightly sleep efficiency has been achieved. In such a case, we would typically encourage the client to “hold the course” at 7 hours per night for the next few weeks to see whether the improvement is permanent or transitory. If, the following week, Jennifer’s sleep has again deteriorated, then we would recommend reducing an additional 20 minutes per night, picking up where we left off with a target goal of 6 hours per night as originally set. Although in cases where one is following a standardized research protocol this kind of variation in procedure may not be permitted,

58 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia in the average clinical setting such flexibility empowers the patient and reduces the risk of the patient and therapist developing an adversarial relationship around the sleep scheduling program. POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS/VARIANTS There are few published modifications of sleep compression. The protocol just described is a modification from the protocol used in the initial case study, which was conducted weekly for 2 months and then biweekly for the final 6 months [2]. Subsequent studies have all been conducted using between four and six sessions, conducted once a week [3–6]. Two of these studies demonstrated the efficacy of sleep compression as an independent intervention [3,6]. Another variation regarding the timing of individual therapy, although no supporting publications exist, would be to decrease the time in bed more rapidly, thus reaching the target total sleep time at a quicker pace. However, as was cautioned earlier, reducing time in bed too rapidly may produce side effects. An extreme modification would be akin to sleep restriction [7], in which the time in bed is immediately cut to the total sleep time. A major difference between sleep compression and sleep restriction is that sleep restriction aims to increase total sleep time after time in bed is reduced. Therefore, sleep compression is better suited for individuals with reduced sleep need, whereas sleep restriction is better suited for individuals whose sleep need falls within the normal range. (See Chapter 1 in this volume for a more detailed description of sleep restriction.) Another modification is the use of group treatment for the presentation of sleep compression. A study utilizing treatment groups consisting of five participants yielded positive outcomes for the use of sleep compression [3]. Subsequent studies utilized groups of three to six individuals. However, these studies combined sleep compression in a treatment package, making it difficult to separate out the specific treatment effects of sleep compression from the combined effects of the multi-component treatment package [4,5,8]. The McCurry package consisted of relaxation, sleep hygiene, stimulus control, sleep compression, and education for caregivers of parents with Alzheimer’s disease, and demonstrated improvements in sleep during treatment and at a 3-month follow-up compared to wait list control [5]. These findings suggest that whether independent or as part of multi-component treatment, sleep compression presented via group therapy can be effective for insomnia and provides all the usual benefits of group treatment. PROOF OF CONCEPT/SUPPORTING DATA/EVIDENCE BASE Sleep compression is a method of behavior modification for insomnia that includes the gradual, step-wise reduction of time in bed until the target total sleep time is reached. Sleep compression has been shown to be effective as

Chapter 5 | Sleep Compression 59 monotherapy [2,6] and as part of a multi-component treatment package [4,5]. Recently, sleep restriction/sleep compression was recommended as one of two evidence-based psychological treatments (EBTs) for insomnia in older adults [9]. The other recommended EBT is multi-component cognitive-behavioral therapy, which could include sleep compression. REFERENCES [1] B.W. Riedel, K.L. Lichstein, Strategies for evaluating adherence to sleep restriction treatment for insomnia. Behav. Res. Ther. 39 (2001) 201–212. [2] K.L. Lichstein, Sleep compression treatment of an insomnoid, Behav. Ther. 19 (1988) 625–632. [3] B.W. Riedel, K.L. Lichstein, W.O. Dwyer, Sleep compression and sleep education for older insomniacs: Self-help versus therapist guidance, Psychol. Aging 10 (1995) 54–63. [4] S.M. McCurry, R.G. Logsdon, L. Teri, Behavioral treatment of sleep disturbance in elderly dementia caregivers, Clin. Gerontol. 17 (2) (1996) 35–50. [5] S.M. McCurry, R.G. Logsdon, M.V. Vitiello, L. Teri, Successful behavioral treatment for reported sleep problems in elderly caregivers of dementia patients: a controlled study, J. Gerontol.: Psychol. Sci. 53B (1998) P122–P129. [6] K.L. Lichstein, B.W. Riedel, N.M. Wilson, K.W. Lester, R.N. Aguillard, Relaxation and sleep compression for late-life insomnia: a placebo-controlled trial, J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 69 (2001) 227–239. [7] A.J. Spielman, P. Saskin, M.J. Thorpy, Treatment of chronic insomnia by restriction of time in bed, Sleep 10 (1987) 45–56. [8] N.K. Vincent, H. Hameed, Relation between adherence and outcome in the group treatment of insomnia, Behav. Sleep Med. 1 (2003) 125–139. [9] S.M. McCurry, R.G. Logsdon, L. Teri, M.V. Vitiello, Evidence-based psychological treatments for insomnia in older adults, Psychol. Aging 22 (2007) 18–27. RECOMMENDED READING K.L. Lichstein, B.W. Riedel, N.M. Wilson, et al., Relaxation and sleep compression for late-life insomnia: a placebo-controlled trial, J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 69 (2001) 227–239. S.M. McCurry, R.G. Logsdon, M.V. Vitiello, L. Teri, Successful behavioral treatment for reported sleep problems in elderly caregivers of dementia patients: a controlled study, J. Gerontol.: Psychol. Sci. 53B (1998) P122–P129. B.W. Riedel, K.L. Lichstein, W.O. Dwyer, Sleep compression and sleep education for older insomniacs: self-help versus therapist guidance, Psychol. Aging 10 (1995) 54–63.

Behavioral Treatments for Sleep Disorders. DOI: © Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 61 10.1016/B978-0-12-381522-4.00006-7 2011 Paradoxical Intention Therapy Colin A. Espie University of Glasgow Sleep Centre, Sackler Institute of Psychobiological Research, University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK PROTOCOL NAME Paradoxical Intention (PI) therapy. GROSS INDICATION Paradoxical intention is thought to be ideal for insomnia disorder, particularly where there is intense preoccupation about sleep, sleep loss, and its consequences. The psychophysiological insomnia phenotype, as characterized in ICSD-2, couples sleep preoccupation with the notion of “striving” to sleep, and the maladaptive relationship between effort to sleep and ability to sleep [1]. SPECIFIC INDICATION There is no evidence to suggestion that Paradoxical Intention (PI) therapy is differentially effective in the sleep onset and sleep maintenance insomnia subtypes. The rationale for PI therapy, however, seems particularly appropriate for the psychophysiological insomnia phenotype (as stated above). There are two studies that suggest that reduction of sleep-related anxiety and performance effort may be the mechanism by which PI has its effect [2,3], but there are no formal clinical trials that demonstrate greater efficacy of PI in those insomnia patients who exhibit greater sleep effort. CONTRAINDICATIONS Two related notes of caution when considering PI therapy. First, PI is not suitable for patients who adopt a very concrete approach [4], or who are cognitively impaired. PI instructions (such as “remain awake for as long as possible”) are not literal commands to be implemented in an unthinking, mechanistic way. Rather, PI presents a cognitively challenging perspective on insomnia. It is important that patients understand that PI is a vehicle for a change in outlook as well as a change in behavior. Second, whereas aspects of Chapter 6

62 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia PI are incorporated in all elements of CBT for insomnia (see Table 6.2, later), the particular use of PI, and certainly its use as a single insomnia therapy, may require a high level of therapist skill. In these circumstances, it should be regarded as a more advanced form of sleep psychotherapy [5]. RATIONALE FOR INTERVENTION The guiding rationale is that because sleep is essentially an involuntary physiological process, attempts to place it under voluntary control are likely to make matters worse. PI is thought to work by reducing performance anxiety (the poor sleeper’s inability to produce the criterion performance for good sleep) and by reducing associated sleep worry and sleep preoccupation. Paradoxical techniques in psychotherapy have been described for a long time – for example, 100 years ago, methods were described of treating impotence through the simultaneous prescription of intimate physical contact and the prohibition of sexual intercourse. Further work in the 1960s and 1970s developed this into a treatment program for sexual dysfunction, to good effect. Psycho-physiological relationships seem particularly relevant to PI. People have sexual responses when they try not to; people blush when they try not to blush; people stammer when they try to prevent stammering; … and people remain awake when they try to get to sleep. The paradoxical nature of early behavior therapy treatments is also worth noting – for example, “negative practice” to break undesirable habits, “massed practice” for motor tics, “flooding” for fears and phobias (see Seltzer [6] or Espie [5] for review). The use of PI for insomnia was adapted from Viktor Frankl’s (1955 onwards) work [7] by Michael Ascher and others in the late 1970s [8,9], when it was observed that people with insomnia had more success falling asleep when they tried to remain awake than they had when they tried to fall asleep. Contemporary understanding of PI fits with the Psychobiological Inhibition/ Attention–Intention–Effort model [10,11], where mental and behavioral focus on the sleep process is regarded as inhibitory to sleep engagement. STEP BY STEP DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURES The following elements of PI therapy should be regarded as sequential but, for the purposes of tailoring therapy for an individual patient, they may be taken out of order, and some elements may be regarded as more or less important to include. Consider Sleep “Normalcy” A good starting point is to consider, with your patient, “How does a good sleeper do it?” It must be a difficult thing to be a good sleeper, or so people with insomnia might think. They usually have spent months, more likely years, trying to find a solution to their problem; to find a key that will unlock their

Chapter 6 | Paradoxical Intention Therapy 63 sleep. But here there is a special secret. Good sleepers are good sleepers precisely because what they do is second nature to them. They just don’t really think about it, nor do they “do” anything in particular. Consider that good sleepers may not even be the best at following good routines. Maybe some of them are neglectful of so-called “sleep hygiene”. The point is that the good sleeper is different from the person with insomnia because whatever it is that they do is not done deliberately or anxiously with the purpose of influencing sleep. They are not preoccupied about sleep … and so they sleep. If they don’t sleep so well, then because they are not preoccupied about that it tends to sort itself out again. Consider the purpose of “sleep hygiene”; you might even venture the idea that most good sleepers don’t deserve to sleep well because they pay so little attention to it! This introduces a helpful component of the PI approach: the use of humor, which, in skilled therapeutic hands, is a very effective, and perhaps ultimate, de-catastrophizing agent [5]. Measure Sleep Normalcy Ask your patient to complete a sleep effort scale [12], in the manner they think that a good sleeper might complete it. There is one such scale in Figure 6.1. The following seven statements relate to your night-time sleep pattern in the past week. Please indicate by circling one response how true each statement is for you (score 2, 1 or 0 for each statement) 1. I put too much effort into sleeping when it should come naturally Very much To some extent Not at all 2. I feel I should be able to control my sleep Very much To some extent Not at all 3. I put off going to bed at night for fear of not being able to sleep Very much To some extent Not at all 4. I worry about not sleeping if I cannot sleep Very much To some extent Not at all 5. I am no good at sleeping Very much To some extent Not at all 6. I get anxious about sleeping before I go to bed Very much To some extent Not at all 7. I worry about the consequences of not sleeping Very much To some extent Not at all FIGURE 6.1 The Glasgow Sleep Effort Scale. (Broomfield & Espie)

64 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia Each item reflects a common concern or preoccupation for people with insomnia. Their task, though, is to fill out the scale from the perspective of a good sleeper. Hopefully, they will see that the good sleeper’s score would be zero, or pretty close to zero. Develop a Formulation of Insomnia as a Sleep Effort Syndrome By the time we see the majority of people with insomnia at a clinic, they may have spent years trying and trying to find a solution. PI offers a potential exit from that vicious cycle – by giving up trying. So, the next therapeutic task is to consider whether the patient would share a collaborative formulation that sees insomnia as a psychophysiological “sleep effort syndrome” [13]. Having considered what the “sleep psychology” of the good sleeper is like, you could now ask the patient to complete the Glasgow Sleep Effort Scale from his or her own perspective. Commonly, patients will endorse putting a lot of effort into trying to sleep, wishing they could control it, the build up of fear as bedtime approaches, excessive worry and anxiety about sleep and its consequences, and an overall feeling that they are just no good at sleep. In short, they may begin to realize that they see sleep as a “doing thing”, and that this is counter-productive. It can be helpful to get people to understand that they should “draw the thin line” (Figure 6.2) [14]. Here is the challenge of this exercise. On the one side, there should be recognition that they need to put 100 percent commitment into putting good advice into practice, but on the other that it is crucial they stop trying so hard. Motivation and commitment are good; effort and preoccupation are bad. You should work alongside individuals toward a steady, calm, assured approach as the best way to go. The emphasis should be upon determination and not giving up, but if they cross the line from productive commitment to unproductive effort, then they will be focussing their efforts again too much Being motivated Trying too hard Following advice Getting more preoccupied Sticking to the program Forcing sleep Returning to the program Trying to win Refusing to give up Getting desperate FIGURE 6.2 The thin line between commitment and unproductive effort. (From Espie, 2006)

Chapter 6 | Paradoxical Intention Therapy 65 upon trying to sleep, trying to defeat insomnia. They will lose that battle. Help patients to consider that the good sleeper is no conquering hero. They have to abandon their attempts to drive insomnia from their bedroom door, and instead to start permitting sleep to come to them in its own way and in its own time. Draw Helpful Parallels PI therapy requires an attitudinal shift: just as it is helpful to consider the perspective of the normal sleeper, and to contrast that with the insomnia perspective, it can be helpful to draw parallels with other problems and with other situations. For example, a paradox sometimes occurs when people with insomnia actually sleep better when they come into a sleep lab than they do at home. This may be because they are relaxed about whether or not they sleep well; they may even want their sleep problem to be evident to others. When they have this different outlook, their sleep may actually be more normal. Another illustration that most people understand is that normal sleepers, who do occasionally have bad nights, are familiar with the experience of wakeful periods spent wishing that morning would come quickly. When finally it is close to morning, they feel relieved about it and think “well, at least I can get up now”; upon which they promptly fall asleep, being no longer concerned and no longer trying to sleep. Moreover, in a general sense, tapping into what people already know and so what they believe to be true, can be very helpful in therapy. The laudable sporting failure is a good example(!), where the commendable desire to achieve something becomes counter-productive and impairs performance. Get people to generate their own examples. That will help them get the point – trying not to scratch something that is itchy, trying to get that tune out of your head, the audition performance that didn’t go as well as it might have, thinking too hard about your golf swing, trying to thread a needle, etc. Whether these are simple motor activities, social, sporting, or interpersonal goals, the point is that too much can spoil. Another technique you can use for this part of the therapy is the “try not to think of a white bear” experiment, commonly used in social psychology. This demonstrates that active attempts to suppress (thoughts of a white bear) actually cause an increased frequency of such thoughts returning. There are a number of thought suppression strategies and games on the Internet which people can try. They all illustrate the importance of ironic (paradoxical) control processes. Give Up Trying to Sleep So what advice would PI therapy specifically offer for sleep-related behavior? Table 6.1 describes two methods for implementing PI therapy in bed.

66 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia Method 1 is a “giving up trying” method (after Fogle and Dyall [2]); an extension of the attitudinal shift that you will have been working on together, and parts of it come close to the notion of acceptance and mindfulness that are reported elsewhere in this book (see Chapter 14). This method has been referred to as “turning the tables” [4]. The use of humor is powerful in helping people to take a different perspective. It helps to reduce to dust the edifices of our exaggerated conclusions and emotions. Encourage people to think “what is the worst that can happen?”, BUT rather than just challenging the true likelihood of all their wild imaginings (as you would do in cognitive restructuring; see Chapter 12) try instead going with the flow, rather than against it, by posing less resistance. Consider the scripted example in Box 6.1. Method 1 may or may not appeal to your patient, but this more lighthearted approach could help to reduce anxiety and effort around sleep. Patients using this approach often talk about developing a completely different attitude. Indeed, the idea of accepting situations, rather than fighting them all the time has its roots in a number of ancient philosophies and religions. Acceptance leads to a problem having a less dominating position and influence. Where sleep is concerned, a more mellow perspective is an adaptive outlook, and one that can lead to improved sleep. Method 2 is more explicitly paradoxical, where patients (paradoxically) encourage the symptoms that they don’t want to have, to keep going. The goal becomes that of staying awake, instead of getting to sleep. By deciding to stay awake, the patient is completely giving up trying to sleep. When that happens, there is a strong possibility that individuals will find themselves falling asleep, in spite of their efforts to remain awake. It can be enormously reassuring for TABLE 6.1 Methods for Giving Up Trying to Sleep (from Espie, 2006) Method 1 Method 2 l Turn the tables l Take every opportunity to be carefree about your insomnia l Relish opportunities to get out of bed whenever you can l Be prepared to accept you have insomnia l Try to imagine as many catastrophes as you can that will happen just because you are awake at night; see them as exaggerated and absurd l Think of wakefulness as an opportunity, not a disaster; use the time when you are up to do something useful or something you enjoy l Try to stay awake l Lie comfortably in your bed with the lights off, but keep your eyes open l Give up any effort to fall asleep l Give up any concern about still being awake l When your eyelids feel like they want to close, say to yourself gently “Just stay awake for another couple of minutes, I’ll fall asleep naturally when I’m ready” l Don’t purposefully make yourself stay awake, but if you can shift the focus off attempting to fall asleep, you will find that sleep comes naturally

Chapter 6 | Paradoxical Intention Therapy 67 patients to find that they are overtaken by sleep. They often say things like “I don’t know what happened last night. I was trying to stay awake just a few minutes longer, and the next thing I knew it was morning”. This is when patients begin to realize that they can be normal sleepers. In the Method 2 approach, people should go to bed at a normal time when they feel sleepy and put the lights off; however, their explicit intention is to Box 6.1 The Use of Humor in Paradoxical Intention Therapy Patient: It is pretty awful really when I think about it. I can’t sleep at night, and then to make matters worse insomnia just ruins my day. Therapist: What do you mean? Patient: Well, I can’t think straight, and I get irritable, and I don’t get through as much work as I should. Therapist: That’s shocking. Patient: What’s shocking? Therapist: Well, that you don’t get through your work. I mean that’s pretty bad. Patient: Well it’s not that I don’t get my work done, it’s more that … Therapist: Sorry, you are the one that said you didn’t get through your work … So what effect does that have? Patient: Well, it might get noticed. I mean, my boss might notice it. Therapist: Really! … I guess he wouldn’t like that!? Patient: Em, no, he’d probably have something to say about it. It could affect my job. Therapist: Wow, that’s worrying. You’re not getting through your work, your boss is maybe going to notice, and you might lose your job. Patient: Yeah, it’s possible. Therapist: Have you thought about reducing your financial commitments? Patient: What? Therapist: … like maybe giving up your golf club membership, or taking the kids out of private school? Patient: No, no I haven’t, but why …? Therapist: I mean, if these things are likely to happen then you are best to take responsible action. Patient: I think this is maybe getting a bit exaggerated, I mean it is not that bad … it is not even likely I think. Therapist: Thank goodness for that! (takes out handkerchief and mops brow). Patient: (smiles) Therapist: (smiles, laughs): I thought I was going to have an anxiety attack there! Patient: (laughs): Yeah, I’m like a dog with a bone about this sleep problem! Therapist: I was just about to check if I had some loose change to give you!! Patient: (laughs): … very thoughtful of you. Therapist: You know, I think you’re just trying too hard in every department, … to sleep … and also during the day. Why don’t you give yourself a break!? Patient: (laughs): … you’re not the first person to have suggested that!

68 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia remain awake rather than to fall asleep, and therefore they are instructed to keep their eyes open and to make no effort whatsoever to sleep. This is a passive approach rather than an active one, in the sense that they should not deliberately try to keep themselves aroused. They are not given explicit direction to think about something stimulating, to move their arms and legs, or whatever, to remain awake; rather, to resist the tendency for their eyelids to close by re-opening them and keeping them open, and encouraging themselves to remain awake until sleep comes naturally. They should follow the same instructions if they waken during the night and do not quickly return to sleep. Like the good sleeper, sleep should be allowed to come to them. POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS AND VARIANTS There is essentially no difference in the treatment instruction for PI when it is used for sleep onset insomnia compared with sleep maintenance insomnia or mixed type insomnia. However, there are, as we have seen, alternative ways of presenting the PI instructions. In addition, it is important to note that there are elements of PI incorporated into almost all the proven CBT interventions for insomnia. This is illustrated in Table 6.2. The first column refers to the CBT technique itself, the second column refers to the insomnia problem that the technique is addressing, and the third column explains why the technique might be seen as paradoxical. Table 6.2 also illustrates how some of the processes in CBT (like keeping a diary) may also seem paradoxical. PROOF OF CONCEPT/SUPPORTING DATA/EVIDENCE BASE Paradox has been part of psychological theory and practice for a long time. Frankl’s concern that patients took control of their symptoms stemmed from an existentialist philosophy [7]. His logotherapeutic approach comprised two related techniques; paradoxical intention and de-reflection. The former was concerned with increasing the frequency of responses already occurring too often; the latter involved attempting further to inhibit already infrequent responses. It is the latter response deficit which is the core of insomnia. Paradoxical intention in this sense involves “prescribing the symptom”. The work of Ascher [7,8] and Seltzer [6] has been associated with the integration of PI into behavioral therapies, and there are parallels with Wegner’s theories of ironic control [15,16]. PI also resonates with contemporary psychological perspectives on insomnia [10,11,17]. Treatment outcome data provide evidence for the efficacy of PI as a single therapy. Randomized, placebo controlled trials have been available for decades, demonstrating significant reductions in the principal insomnia dimensions of sleep onset latency and wakefulness after sleep onset [18,19]. In light of such data, the Standards of Practice Committee of the American Academy

Chapter 6 | Paradoxical Intention Therapy 69 TABLE 6.2 Paradoxical Aspects of Other CBT Methods CBT method Patient concern Therapeutic response Sleep Restriction Therapy I have got insomnia. I feel I am not getting enough sleep. What we are going to do is to reduce the time you spend in bed so you need to stay awake for longer … Stimulus Control I keep wakening up during the night and can’t get back to sleep. Get up out of your bed, and get out of your bedroom, and go and read a book instead. Progressive Muscle Relaxation I feel wound up and unable to let go. Tense up the muscles in your fingers and your hands to make a fist, keep the tension going at a steady rate, … Cognitive Therapy I feel that if I don’t sleep soon, then I am going to be completely useless tomorrow. So what’s the worst that could happen if you don’t sleep? You could try that as an experiment. Keeping a Sleep Diary I just can’t stop thinking about my sleep. How I sleep and how I feel the next day is constantly on my mind. I would like you to start keeping a detailed and careful note of your sleep pattern and sleep quality in a diary. Now every day you need to fill this in accurately… of Sleep Medicine regards PI as an evidence-based treatment for insomnia [20,21]. Moreover, PI is often included as an element of multi-component CBT, which, like PI alone, is an effective treatment for insomnia disorder [22,23]. REFERENCES [1] American Academy of Sleep Medicine, International Classification of Sleep Disorders. Diagnostic and Coding Manual, second ed., American Academy of Sleep Medicine, Westchester, IL, 2005. [2] D.O. Fogle, J.A. Dyall, Paradoxical giving up and the reduction of sleep performance anxiety in chronic insomniacs, Psychother. Theory Res. Pract. 20 (1983) 21–30. [3] N. Broomfield, C.A. Espie, Initial insomnia and paradoxical intention: An experimental investigation of putative mechanisms using subjective and actigraphic measurement of sleep, Behav. Cogn. Psychother. 31 (2003) 313–324. [4] C.A. Espie, W.R. Lindsay, Paradoxical intention in the treatment of chronic insomnia; Six case studies illustrating variability in therapeutic response, Behav. Res. Ther. 23 (1985) 703–709.

70 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia [5] C.A. Espie, The Psychological Treatment of Insomnia, J. Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, 1991. [6] L.F. Seltzer, Paradoxical Strategies in Psychotherapy: A Comprehensive Overview and Guidebook, J. Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1986. (Wiley Series on Personality Processes). [7] V.E. Frank, The Doctor and the Soul: From Psychotherapy to Logotherapy, Knopf, New York, NY, 1955. [8] L.M. Ascher, J.S. Efran, The use of paradoxical intention in a behavioural program for sleep-onset insomnia, J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 8 (1978) 547–550. [9] L.M. Ascher, R.M. Turner, Paradoxical intention and insomnia: An experimental investigation, Behav. Res. Ther. 17 (1979) 408–411. [10] C.A. Espie, Insomnia: Conceptual issues in the development, persistence and treatment of sleep disorder in adults, Annu. Rev. Psychol. 53 (2002) 215–243. [11] C.A. Espie, N.M. Broomfield, K.M.A. MacMahon, et al., The attention-intention-effort pathway in the development of Psychophysiologic Insomnia: A theoretical review, Sleep Med. Rev. 10 (2006) 215–224. [12] N.M. Broomfield, C.A. Espie, Toward a reliable, valid measure of sleep effort, J. Sleep Res. 14 (2005) 401–407. [13] C.M Morin, C.A. Espie, Insomnia: A Clinical Guide to Assessment and Treatment, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, NY, 2003. [14] C.A. Espie, Overcoming Insomnia and Sleep Problems: A Self-Help Guide Using Cognitive Behavioral Techniques, Constable & Robinson Ltd, London, 2006. [15] D.M. Wegner, Ironic processes of mental control, Psychol. Rev. 101 (1994) 34–52. [16] M.E. Ansfield, D.M. Wegner, R. Bowser, Ironic effects of sleep urgency, Behav. Res. Ther. 34 (1996) 523–531. [17] A.G. Harvey, A cognitive model of insomnia, Behav. Res. Ther. 40 (2002) 869–893. [18] R.M. Turner, L.M. Ascher, Controlled comparison of progressive relaxation, stimulus control, and paradoxical intention therapies for insomnia, J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 47 (1979) 500–508. [19] C.A. Espie, W.R. Lindsay, D.N. Brooks, et al., A controlled comparative investigation of psychological treatments for chronic sleep-onset insomnia, Behav. Res. Ther. 27 (1989) 79–88. [20] A.L. Chesson, W.M. Anderson, M. Littner, et al., Practice parameters for the nonpharmacologic treatment of chronic insomnia, Sleep 22 (1989) 1128–1133. [21] T. Morgenthaler, M. Kramer, C. Alessi, et al., Practice parameters for the psychological and behavioral treatment of insomnia: an update. An American Academy of Sleep Medicine Report, Sleep 29 (2006) 1415–1419. [22] C.M. Morin, P. Hauri, C.A. Espie, et al., Nonpharmacologic treatment of chronic insomnia: An American Academy of Sleep Medicine Review, Sleep 22 (1999) 1134–1156. [23] C.M. Morin, R.R. Bootzin, D.J. Buysse, et al., Psychological and behavioural treatment of insomnia. Update of the recent evidence (1998–2004) prepared by a Task Force of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, Sleep 29 (2006) 1398–1414.

Behavioral Treatments for Sleep Disorders. DOI: © Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 71 10.1016/B978-0-12-381522-4.00007-9 2011 Behavioral Experiments Allison G. Harvey, Lisa S. Talbot Golden Bear Sleep and Mood Research Clinic, Psychology Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA PROTOCOL NAME Behavioral experiments. GROSS INDICATION Behavioral experiments provide: l an approach to challenging unhelpful beliefs about sleep and developing/ testing new (and helpful) beliefs about sleep; l an approach to facilitating awareness of perpetuating cognitive and behavioral processes and bringing about change in/reversal of these processes. SPECIFIC INDICATION There is no evidence that this form of therapy is differentially effective for subtypes of insomnia. CONTRAINDICATIONS Based on clinical experience, this treatment modality may be difficult to utilize when the context only allows for short therapy sessions (i.e., therapy sessions less than 50 minutes) because most behavioral experiments need time to set up and then, in a subsequent session, debrief. Specific behavioral experiments have contraindications (see Chapters 8–10 in this volume for examples). RATIONALE FOR INTERVENTION Because verbal techniques like directly questioning the logical basis of thoughts and beliefs, Socratic questioning, and guided discovery are typically not enough on their own to bring about profound change, behavioral experiments are used. Behavioral experiments are “planned experiential activities, based Chapter 7

72 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia on experimentation or observation, which are undertaken by patients in or between ... therapy sessions. Their design is derived directly from a ... formulation of the problem, and their primary purpose is to obtain new information which ... [includes] ... contributing to the development and verification of the ... formulation” [1]. Behavioral experiments encourage patients to become scientists (i.e., to make judgments in their lives based on data they collect, rather than based solely on their subjective feelings). STEP BY STEP DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURES There are essentially six steps to completing a behavioral experiment [1]: 1. Precisely identify the belief/thought/process the experiment will target. 2. Collaborate with your patient to brainstorm ideas for an experiment; be as specific as you can. 3. Write predictions about the outcome and devise a method to record the outcome. 4. Anticipate problems and brainstorm solutions. 5. Conduct the experiment. 6. Review the experiment and draw conclusions. Finally, identify follow-up experiments if needed. Before explaining each of these steps in more detail, it is important to note that conducting behavioral experiments requires an openness to any outcome. The purpose of the experiment is to facilitate your patient to have new experiences and to discover new possibilities (even if they are not the experiences/ outcomes you expected). Very often, the experience of a behavioral experiment brings about profound disconfirmation of unhelpful beliefs or stunning demonstrations that certain behaviors or thoughts are important contributors to the insomnia. They can also provide deep experiential learning that new thoughts/ beliefs/behaviors can reduce distress/anxiety and improve sleep. If you are going to make use of behavioral experiments, introduce the idea in Session 1. Explain to the patient that: A big part of this treatment is that you and I will be thinking together creatively to devise ways of working out which of the things that you are currently doing are helpful or unhelpful. We’ll do this by setting up and completing behavioral experiments. Behavioral experiments are just like experiments that scientists do. They enable us to collect data on important issues in our lives and they are also a means of generalizing what we’re working on in session to your day-to-day life so that the changes really “stick”. We’ll also use behavioral experiments to figure out what works best for you. Everyone is different, so it is important that you are willing to experiment to find out what works for you. That is, we’ll be trying new things or stopping doing some familiar things. And I’ll be asking you to tell me honestly how these changes work out for you. Based on your experience, we will learn what helps and what makes things worse. The more experiments you do, the faster we can figure out what will help you.

Chapter 7 | Behavioral Experiments 73 Then ask, “Are you willing to do some experiments and then report what you notice?” Also, when possible, it may be better to do behavioral experiments within the therapy hour rather than across 2 or more days, as it creates a more controlled environment (i.e., fewer potential confounding variables). However, as will become clear in this chapter and in Chapters 8–10 in this volume, many behavioral experiments for insomnia need to be conducted between therapy sessions. For these experiments, particular care is needed to ensure maximally efficient and effective learning. Be very specific when planning the experiment. Operationalize exactly what the experiment involves, define the outcomes and – this is very important – when possible, practice the skills needed for the conduct of the experiment within the therapy session before the patient goes home to try the experiment. When possible, we also suggest that experiments conducted during the daytime be conducted within 1 day. If conducted over 2 days, the results can be attributed to sleeping better on one of the nights or to differences inherent to the days (e.g., the work I was doing wasn’t so hard that day) [2]. We’ve found that therapy outcome is better when we really move the treatment along. That is, if an opportunity arises to do a behavioral experiment, go for it. The therapist should try to accumulate as much evidence as possible (against unhelpful beliefs, etc.) as quickly as possible. Aim to complete at least one behavioral experiment per session. Now to return to the step-by-step process of setting up a behavioral experiment. Step 1: Precisely Identify the Belief/Thought/Behavior/Process the Experiment will Target Be clear about the reason for doing the experiment. Define the target. Write it down as the “aim” of the experiment. Sometimes the aim is to challenge a currently held unhelpful belief, a style of thinking, or an unhelpful behavior. Sometimes the aim of the experiment is to test a new (more helpful) belief, style of thinking, or behavior. Sometimes an experiment compares these two. Other times the experiment is “observational” [1]. The survey experiment described in Chapter 8, on unhelpful beliefs, is an example of this. This involves gathering evidence regarding specific beliefs and behaviors related to sleep. In the example we will discuss in this chapter (patient John), frequent worrying in bed was identified as an unhelpful behavioral process to target through a behavioral experiment (see Table 7.1). Step 2: Collaborate with your Patient to Brainstorm Ideas for an Experiment Be as specific as you can. Define a time and a place for the experiment. Identify people and resources needed to complete the experiment [1]. Be creative, and try

74 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia to arouse a patient’s curiosity and interest. If your patient comes up with an idea for an experiment that tests beliefs or behaviors, go with it. This may increase interest in this approach and motivation to complete the experiment. Write down all of the decisions made. In the example of John (see Table 7.1) he believed that worrying in bed was likely to be unhelpful, but he could not think of alternative cognitive strategies that could occupy his mind. The therapist suggested the concept of savoring – a process that involves recalling, appreciating, and enhancing positive experiences of the day. John expressed interest in this idea, particularly given that he was working on developing a more positive approach to his life in general. John and the therapist decided to test the effectiveness of savoring by having John try it, instead of worrying, while lying awake in bed on 3 nights. TABLE 7.1 Behavioral Experiment Record Sheet for John Aim and prediction Experiment Outcome What I learned What do I want to find out? What do I think will happen? How will I test my prediction? What actually happened? Was the prediction correct? Aim: Determine whether savoring is a process that will reduce my worrying in bed and improve my sleep. Prediction: Savoring will make lying awake more pleasant, but will not help my sleep quality. On 3 nights, when lying awake in bed, try the process of savoring (recall, appreciate, and enhance positive experiences of the day; focus on each experience in an in-depth way by remembering feelings, words, scents, and other details associated with the experience) Night 1: Sleep quality rating (1–10): 5 Pleasantness rating (1–10): 6 (Time spent savoring: 15min) Night 2: Sleep quality rating (1–10): 8 Pleasantness rating (1–10): 7 (Time spent savoring: 25min) Night 3: Sleep quality rating (1–10): 6 Pleasantness rating (1–10): 8 (Time spent savoring: 20min) Savoring made me feel calmer and it was much more pleasant than worrying. I felt less anxious. Savoring seemed moderately helpful for my sleep quality. It might become even more helpful if the process is more “natural” for me. I plan to practice it during the day so that savoring becomes easier for me.

Chapter 7 | Behavioral Experiments 75 Step 3: Write Down Predictions about the Outcome and Devise a Method to Record the Outcome This should be done as soon as possible after the experiment is completed. This is critically important. If a patient waits until the next therapy session, a number of days later, to report the outcome, the memories may be vague and inaccurate. In such a case, the learning would be greatly reduced. In John’s experiment, he predicted that savoring would not help him fall asleep faster but would make the experience of lying awake in bed more pleasant. The outcome variables of “sleep quality” and “pleasantness”, with 1–10 scales, were listed for John to rate each morning after completing savoring during the previous night. In addition, John estimated how long he tried savoring during the night (see Table 7.1). Step 4: Anticipate Problems and Brainstorm Solutions Ask, “What things might prevent you from doing this?” Collaborate with your patient to identify possible obstacles, and think together about how to prevent these from becoming impediments to the conduct of the experiment. We emphasize again that it is really important to practice the skills needed for the conduct of the experiment within the therapy session before your patient goes home to try the experiment. In the case of John, he expressed a genuine interest in trying savoring, but also discussed his concern that he was naturally a “more negative guy”. The therapist reassured him that the two of them would practice savoring in session. After reviewing the guidelines of the savoring process, the therapist and the client each closed their eyes for 2 minutes and tried savoring. The therapist then asked John about his experience. He expressed that he had experienced a few moments where he felt he was attending to the “positives” of the day, but that he also felt frustrated that his mind jumped between experiences. The therapist and John brainstormed ways he could enhance his connection with savoring, such as through focusing on each experience in a more in-depth way by remembering the feelings, words, scents, and other details associated with the experience. John wrote down these ideas associated with savoring to review at home. At the end of the session, he felt more confident in his ability to use savoring as an in-bed process. Step 5: Conduct the Experiment In John’s case, he attempted savoring while in bed on 3 nights during the week between therapy sessions, and each time completed the ratings in the morning (see Table 7.1). Step 6: Review the Experiment and Draw Conclusions Ask the patient to summarize the session/main point learned. Help the patient by filling in the gaps. Write down the conclusions; make a copy for the patient to take home and keep a copy for the files.

76 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia In our example, John returned to the next therapy session with his behavioral experiment form completed. It indicated that on all 3 nights John found the experience of savoring pleasant (scores of 6, 7, and 8 consecutively on a 1–10 scale). Interestingly, on each successive night the experience became more pleasant. He believed this upward trend was a result of the process becoming easier with more practice. To John’s surprise he also found that his sleep quality generally improved following savoring, though there was some variation (ratings of 5, 8, and 6, see Table 7.1). He concluded that savoring increased his sense of calm and pleasure when lying awake in bed, while decreasing his anxiety. He found it moderately helpful for his sleep quality. Keep a look out for, and a list of, the conclusions drawn for each experiment. In subsequent sessions, keep reminding the patient about these. The goal is to promote deep encoding of the new material. Repetition of the core conclusion helps with this. Sometimes an experiment will not generate the outcome you or your patient were expecting. When this happens, walk patients through the experiment step-by-step. Start with an understanding of the context (What was their mood? Where were they? Had anything significant happened just prior to starting the experiment?). Then cycle through questions like, “What happened next?”, “What did you do then?”, “What did you think?”, and, again, “What happened next?”, until you have a hypothesis about what happened. Typically, via careful questioning, learning can be derived from an experiment regardless of the outcome. In John’s case, the therapist and patient discussed that his sleep had improved, albeit not dramatically, on the savoring nights. After some questioning regarding his experience of the savoring, John hypothesized that his sleep quality might improve if savoring became more “second nature” for him. He suggested that he practice savoring during the day three times in the next week, in addition to continuing to implement it during the night. Step 7: Identify Follow-up Experiments if Needed If the experiment wasn’t completed fully, or if the outcome was ambiguous and raised another question, return to Step 1 and devise a further experiment. POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS/VARIANTS While a stock of behavioral experiments useful for patients with insomnia is beginning to accrue (see, for example, Ree and Harvey [2]), behavioral experiments should be personalized for each patient. As such, there is an infinite range of possibilities (see Chapters 8–10 in this volume for examples). The use of behavioral experiments in therapy creates opportunities to collaborate with your patient, being highly creative together, while making substantial progress in the treatment.

Chapter 7 | Behavioral Experiments 77 PROOF OF CONCEPT/SUPPORTING DATA/EVIDENCE BASE There is preliminary evidence that conducting a behavioral experiment, relative to traditional verbal/educational approaches, is more helpful in the context of insomnia [3]. There is no evidence for this specific approach as a monotherapy. However, there is evidence from an open trial that behavioral experiments used as part of a multi-component approach to insomnia are effective [4]. We emphasize, though, that testing within a randomized controlled trial is required. REFERENCES [1] J. Bennett-Levy, G. Butler, M.J.V. Fennell, et al., The Oxford Handbook of Behavioural Experiments, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004. [2] M. Ree, A.G. Harvey, Insomnia, in: J. Bennett-Levy, G. Butler, M. Fennell, et al., (Eds.), Oxford Guide to Behavioural Experiments in Cognitive Therapy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004, pp. 287–305. [3] N.K. Tang, A.G. Harvey, Altering misperception of sleep in insomnia: Behavioral experiment versus verbal feedback, J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 74 (4) (2006) 767–776. [4] A.G. Harvey, A. Sharpley, M.J. Ree, et al., An open trial of cognitive therapy for chronic insomnia, Behav. Res. Therapy 45 (2007) 2491–2501. RECOMMENDED READING J. Bennett-Levy, G. Butler, M.J.V. Fennell, et al., The Oxford Handbook of Behavioural Experiments, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004. M. Ree, A.G. Harvey, Insomnia, in: J. Bennett-Levy, G. Butler, M. Fennell, et al., (Eds.), Oxford Guide to Behavioural Experiments in Cognitive Therapy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004, pp. 287–305.

Behavioral Treatments for Sleep Disorders. DOI: © Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 79 10.1016/B978-0-12-381522-4.00008-0 2011 Intervention to Reduce Unhelpful Beliefs about Sleep Allison G. Harvey, Polina Eidelman Golden Bear Sleep and Mood Research Clinic, Psychology Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA PROTOCOL NAME Intervention to reduce unhelpful beliefs about sleep. GROSS INDICATION This intervention is an approach to challenging unhelpful beliefs about sleep and developing/testing new (and helpful) beliefs about sleep. SPECIFIC INDICATION There is no evidence that this form of therapy is differentially effective for subtypes of insomnia. CONTRAINDICATIONS The Fear of Poor Sleep experiment may involve some short-term sleep deprivation. As such, this experiment should not be attempted with patients who will need to drive, operate a machine/industrial tool, or engage in other activities the day following the experiment if these activities, attempted under conditions of sleep deprivation, would compromise the safety of the patient or other people entrusted to the patient. RATIONALE FOR INTERVENTION Unhelpful beliefs about sleep held by patients with insomnia relate to the amount of sleep required (e.g., “I must get 8 hours of sleep most nights”, “If I have to get up to go to the bathroom my night’s sleep is wrecked”), fear of the short- and long-term consequences of insomnia (e.g., “After a poor night’s sleep, I know that I’ll find it impossible to cope at work the next day”, “This is having Chapter 8

80 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia serious effects on my physical health”), and the belief that it is possible to lose control over one’s ability to sleep (e.g., “When I have trouble getting to sleep, I should stay in bed and try harder”, “I’ll go to bed early to ensure I get at least some sleep”, “I must actively control my sleep”). The Dysfunctional Beliefs about Sleep Scale (DBAS) [1] is a useful aid for identifying unhelpful beliefs about sleep. The approach to challenging unhelpful beliefs described here makes use of behavioral experiments (for the rationale for this approach, see Chapter 7). STEP BY STEP DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURES There is an enormous variety of unhelpful beliefs about sleep held by patients with insomnia. Hence, while some of the most commonly used behavioral experiments for tackling beliefs are described below, it is emphasized that these experiments should be individualized for each patient, and new experiments should be devised for other beliefs held by your patients. Several of these experiments have also been described elsewhere [2]. Each experiment is described in terms of seven “set up” steps (see Chapter 7 for the steps involved in devising each experiment). Example 1: Daytime Fatigue 1. Precisely identify the belief/thought/process the experiment will target. A common belief held by patients with insomnia is that “I have a fixed pot of energy that I must conserve. It progressively drains away throughout the day. The only way I can top up my energy is via sleep.” You may introduce this experiment and help patients identify this belief by asking them what they typically do and avoid doing during a day that follows a night of insomnia. Approaches to conserving energy commonly used by patients with insomnia include engaging in mundane activities such as paperwork and data entry, and avoiding meetings and socializing. Note that while these coping strategies may initially make a lot of sense, they can actually lead to feeling more tired, and contribute to the day being unpleasant, boring, and unproductive. Furthermore, it probably contributes to increased stress (because important activities in the day were avoided) and worry (there will be fewer distractions from worry), which may further impede sleep, hence contributing to a vicious cycle. 2. Collaborate with your patient to brainstorm ideas for an experiment. Be as specific as you can. The key to this experiment is for the patient to compare and contrast conserving and using energy. There are many variants on this experiment, but one that seems to work particularly well is to conduct the experiment over 2 days. On the first day, the patient spends one 3-hour block conserving energy, and then a 3-hour block using energy. The following day they do this again, but in the reverse order. Prior to the experiment,

Chapter 8 | Intervention to Reduce Unhelpful Beliefs about Sleep 81 through careful questioning, try to understand exactly what conserving energy means for your patient. Also, spend time brainstorming strategies for using energy. These might include going for a 10-minute walk, returning all phone calls, arranging to have a coffee with a colleague, getting on top of paperwork, going to the water cooler to get a drink, and walking to a local shop to buy a magazine or snack. 3. Write down predictions about the outcome and devise a method to record the outcome. Typically, the prediction made by patients with insomnia will be that “after a poor night’s sleep, I will cope better and feel less fatigued and moody if I conserve my energy”. Measurement method: After each 3-hour block, the patient rates their fatigue, mood, and coping on a 0 (“not at all”) to 10 (“very much”) scale. In addition to measuring specific aspects of functioning or mood, encourage your patient to note what they have learned from the experiment. 4. Anticipate problems and brainstorm solutions. The patient may not know or only have a vague idea how to engage in using energy – so very clearly define and discuss. Get super specific. To increase the chance that your patient will do the experiment over the coming week, it may be useful to plan the specific time when it will be done. To increase the chance that your patient will do the experiment over the coming week, it may be useful to plan the specific time when it will be done and to practice specific skills for using/generating energy in the session. 5. Conduct the experiment. 6. Review the experiment and draw conclusions. Write down the conclusions. Typically, a patient with insomnia will discover that there may be other factors than sleep that influence energy levels, and that mood and energy are improved by “using” energy. In other words, “using” energy becomes synonymous with “generating” energy. We often then develop a new metaphor with that patient – that energy levels are like elastic; they can be stretched quite easily. This is in contrast to their original view that energy levels progressively deplete throughout the day (like a leaky battery). To conclude the experiment, it is often useful to generate a list of ways to decrease the adverse effects of poor sleep through energy generation. Patients may benefit from preparing a list that works in the different contexts of their life (workplace energy generating, weekend energy generating, working from home, etc.). Example 2: Poor Sleep is Dangerous A belief commonly held by patients with insomnia is that poor sleep is dangerous. This belief needs to be pulled out by the roots. It is only then that fewer episodes of tiredness will be noticed. Patients will always feel somewhat tired unless we deal with the belief, because they’ll always be monitoring

82 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia for/watching out for tiredness and then, of course, they’ll notice it more. Accordingly, a behavioral experiment can be conducted to show that poor sleep is not dangerous. This is also an opportunity to practice new skills for managing the consequences of not sleeping. This experiment works best toward the latter part of treatment, when the patient has learned and practiced a number of effective coping strategies for the day. Additionally, for patients who have experienced a significant improvement in their sleep, this experiment may be conceptualized as a sort of celebration and a way to prove to themselves that they do not need to be fearful of a night of poor sleep. It’s often helpful to explain the fact they have done the experiment by accident on several occasions. The reason for doing it more formally is that these accidental experiments are often easily forgotten, or can be attributed to flukes or the particular circumstances in which they occurred. It is very important that patients feel you are with them and right behind them, so it can be helpful to phone them to review the experiment the evening before – this can be brief and focused. It will be hard not to do the experiment if you are going out of your way in this manner. You could also call them in the morning to remind them how to cope with a poor night of sleep. 1. Precisely identify the belief/thought/process the experiment will target. A belief commonly held by patients with insomnia is that “to function well the next day, I must get at least 8 hours of sleep a night. Less than 8 hours of sleep will have serious consequences for my health. If I don’t get 8 hours sleep per night, I won’t be able to cope with anything.” 2. Collaborate with your patient to brainstorm ideas for an experiment. Be as specific as you can. The experiment usually works well when sleep is kept to about 1–1.5 hours less on the night of the experiment compared to a usual night of sleep. It is fine to be flexible with this amount. However, be mindful of the patient’s anxiety in response to the suggested sleep restriction – this anxiety is a manifestation of the exact belief targeted by the experiment, and is a useful point to which you should draw the patient’s attention. Collaboratively, you might decide to sleep just 6.5 hours one night. Specify whether this will involve going to bed later than usual or waking up earlier in the morning. Discuss how to stay awake later or how to wake up earlier in the morning. Try to select activities that will ensure that the experiment is enjoyable and memorable (for example, watching a movie with family, walking the dog, playing a musical instrument, getting up early to go for a swim, etc.). 3. Write down predictions about the outcome and devise a method to record the outcome. The predictions often include some version of the following: “I won’t cope, I’ll feel awful, low, sick, tired, and I won’t want to do anything or see anyone. If I aim to sleep for only 6.5 hours I’ll end up sleeping much less. If I have 1 night of poor sleep this will trigger others.”

Chapter 8 | Intervention to Reduce Unhelpful Beliefs about Sleep 83 In order to assess the predictions, develop a form to help patients monitor the effect of the experiment on their ability to cope, tiredness, productivity, and mood. Also, patients should continue to complete the sleep diary each morning immediately on waking. 4. Anticipate problems and brainstorm solutions. If patients are anxious about trying this experiment, capitalize on their past experiences – for example, ask “Have there been times when you have slept less than 8 hours and gotten on with the day OK?”, “Have there even been times when you have had a poor night’s sleep and actually had a good day?”, “What did you make of these times?”. Often the patient will discount these experiences. This is then an opportunity to say, “OK, so you’ve noticed that you can get away with X hours sleep and feel OK but this may have been due to X, Y, and Z, so the only way you can really know what this means is if you actively choose to have less than 8 hours sleep”. In other words, it can be helpful to begin by recruiting a past experience that doesn’t fit with their belief (if I sleep poorly it’s a disaster, I find it so hard to cope) and is consistent with an alternative belief (if I sleep poorly I might feel rotten but cope OK). This helps sow the seeds of doubt that the belief is correct. You should also generate a list of effective daytime coping strategies collaboratively with your patient. This can serve as a reminder during the day following the night of “poor sleep”. Additionally, it may be useful to remind patients that the hour they will be cutting from their night can be used as a time for pleasurable activities that they might otherwise not have time to do. 5. Conduct the experiment. 6. Review the experiment and draw conclusions. Write down the conclusions. Patients are typically surprised by how well they cope with 6.5 hours sleep, and they get to discover that restricted sleep does not necessarily trigger poor sleep on subsequent nights. When reviewing the experiment, it is important to spell out the take away message – poor sleep might be unpleasant, but it is not dangerous and it is definitely something with which the patient can cope. Remind patients that this experience is an important one to remember. This is a night where they chose to sleep “poorly” and still made it through the day, coping well. This is a helpful experiment for reducing the fear of poor sleep. Table 8.1 depicts an example of a behavioral experiment that was completed with a patient who conducted the Fear of Poor Sleep experiment. This patient wanted to reduce his sleep to 5.5 or 6 hours. He concluded that one night of reduced sleep did mean he felt more tired but he coped. For this patient the Fear of Poor Sleep experiment was a celebration of his new-found confidence in his ability to sleep (as opposed to the significant fear of poor sleep he had felt previously).

84 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia Example 3: Control of Sleep 1. Precisely identify the belief/thought/process the experiment will target. A common belief held by patients with insomnia is, “I am terrified of losing control over my ability to sleep. I have to try really hard to sleep and try to get control back over it.” 2. Collaborate with your patient to brainstorm ideas for an experiment. Be as specific as you can. One example that has worked well is that on the first night the patient does everything he or she can to control sleep. On the second night, the patient drops all attempts to sleep. 3. Write down predictions about the outcome and devise a method to record the outcome. A typical prediction is that “unless I try very hard to get to sleep and be perfectly still, I will have a night of insomnia”. The sleep diary kept by the patient will indicate the amount of time it took to get to sleep and how long he or she was awake over the course of the night – these are useful outcome measures for this experiment. Additional outcome measures can be collaboratively developed with the patient. 4. Anticipate problems and brainstorm solutions. Brainstorming the specifics of what a patient will do when trying to control sleep, and how he or she might drop these attempts at TABLE 8.1 Fear of Poor Sleep Experiment Record Sheet for Behavioral Experiments Aim The experiment (i.e., what you plan to do) What do you predict will happen? What actually happened? Outcome To purposefully have a shorter night’s sleep Either stay up later – watch stars, moonlit walk (1 am to bed) OR get up earlier and go for a run in the countryside. Aim for 5.5–6 hours of sleep (in bed for around 6.5 hours) Might even sleep better? I’ll feel fine in the morning. It’ll be interesting to see Went out to see friends. Back midnight. Watched film until 1:30 am Bed 1:45–7:45 Slept 2 am to 7 am (5 hours) one or two awakenings Did feel tired on waking and at times during the day but functioned fine and coped okay – paperwork at desk, gardening odd jobs, saw friends. Can do it! Can survive okay on 5 hours!

Chapter 8 | Intervention to Reduce Unhelpful Beliefs about Sleep 85 controlling sleep, is a useful way to prevent obstacles. These will likely vary person to person, and it is important to outline them in some detail before the experiment is attempted. 5. Conduct the experiment. 6. Review the experiment and draw conclusions. Write down the conclusions. Patients typically conclude that the more they try to control their sleep, the more out of control it is. So actively trying to control sleep makes it worse. This experiment is also a good basis for having a discussion about sleep being an automatic biological process that does not need to be controlled. Example 4: Survey The goal of this experiment is to broaden the patient’s thinking about what constitutes “normal sleep”. By administering a survey to a set of individuals who are close to the patient’s age, the patient can gather data about the variety of sleep obtained by self-described good sleepers. Additionally, he or she may survey peers to gather ideas for coping strategies for the daytime and can begin to see that individuals without sleep difficulty often see their daytime mood and energy levels as being affected by many factors other than sleep. Pre-session preparation: We suggest administering the DBAS [1] before this experiment is attempted. For all items rated as higher than halfway on the rating scale, prepare survey questions designed to help your patient to obtain corrective/helpful information. For example, if your patient believes that he or she must sleep 8 hours every night in order to cope the next day, you could include the following questions: “Do you regard yourself as a normal sleeper or someone with insomnia?” or “Each week, what is the typical number of hours of sleep that you get per night?” Also, go through your notes for the past few sessions to identify other unhelpful beliefs the patient holds. Prior to the session, prepare drafts of survey questions designed to tackle these. 1. Precisely identify the belief/thought/process the experiment will target. Introduce this experiment by discussing with patients how they developed their ideas about sleep. Do they have some ideas about how good sleepers sleep? Do they have some curiosity about these ideas? Many individuals with insomnia are eager to learn more about the way other people sleep, and to approach this in a scientific manner. The key beliefs targeted by the survey will vary person to person, and will be based on the highly endorsed DBAS items. Some common unhelpful beliefs include: – It’s not normal to have difficulty with sleep. – Most people sleep about 8 hours a night and wake up feeling bright and alert. – It’s not normal to feel tired and experience some lapses in memory and concentration at times during the day.

86 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia 2. Collaborate with your patient to brainstorm ideas for an experiment. Be as specific as you can. Design a survey collaboratively with your patient to address different beliefs and attitudes about sleep. Surveys are a great reminder as to how well good sleepers really sleep (i.e., the reality is that good sleepers have poor nights of sleep now and then, and they feel tired during the day at times). Often patients with insomnia have forgotten the realistic picture of what being a good sleeper is. You can also include questions asking about strategies that others use to increase their energy when they feel tired. In one recent experiment, we included questions about how other people coped with daytime tiredness. Many, many strategies were suggested, and only a small proportion of them involved resting or sleeping. In fact, most strategies suggested things like a change in environment, getting fresh air, going for a walk, drinking cold water, having a snack. The patient realized that energy can be increased by other things than rest and sleep, and that boredom was the biggest trigger to feeling tired. The above experiment can also be very helpful for eliciting reasons for daytime tiredness that are not sleep-related. Answers might include that work is boring, and that everyone gets tired in the afternoon. Questions might include: – How long, on average, does it take you to fall asleep? – What would be the maximum time it takes you to fall asleep? – How many hours of sleep do you think you need? – How many hours of sleep do you actually get? – Most people wake up in the night; how many times do you wake up, even if for a few seconds? – Do you ever find it difficult to get back to sleep (after waking up)? – Do you ever feel tired/lethargic when you wake up in the morning? Can you describe how you feel? – Do you ever feel tired during the day? Can you describe this? What are some reasons why you might feel this way? Typically, the patient will try to collect 10–20 responses and the therapist will try to collect some responses too. We always try to target people within 5 years of age either side of the patient’s age (given sleep-related changes with age). 3. Write down predictions about the outcome and devise a method to record the outcome. Ask your patient his or her predictions about what the responses will be. Before the next session, devise a form for collating the data from the survey experiment. In the session, show the patient the form for collating the data. Work together to collate the data for a couple of the completed questionnaires. Set the rest of the collation for homework. If there are only a small number of respondents, feel free to complete the collation in session. An example of a collated survey, along with the associated conclusions (in bold), is included as Figure 8.1.

Chapter 8 | Intervention to Reduce Unhelpful Beliefs about Sleep 87 Sleep survey – results 1. How long, on average, does it take you to fall asleep (in minutes)? 0–10 11–20 21–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 61+ 12 5 7 1 1 Many people take a long time to fall asleep. 2. What would be the maximum time it takes you to fall asleep? 11–20 21–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 61–70 71–80 81+ 5 3 1 2 6 7 3. How many hours of sleep do you think you need? 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4 8 7 4 1 4. How many hours of sleep do you actually get? 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 11 5 1 Average sleep was less than 8 hours. 5. If you got less than your ideal amount of sleep, how many hours could you get by with per night for two nights in a row? 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 4 8 10 Average hours to get by with was 5 hours. 6. Do you think about sleep during the day? Yes No 5 14 7. Most people wake up at night. How many times do you wake up, even if for a few seconds? 0 1–2 2–3 3–4 4–5 5–6 7+ 2 10 6 2 2 1 Most people wake up during the night between one and three times. 8. Do you ever find it difficult to get back to sleep after waking up? Yes No 5 8 9. Do you ever have times in the day when you feel lethargic/tired? Yes No 23 3 How often does this happen? Almost every day Most days After lunch In the mornings Occasionally 2 times/week 1 time/week Early afternoon Lunchtime 2 times/day 10. If you feel tired during the day, what strategies do you use to help you feel less tired? Try to reinvigorate Work Keep busy Motivate self Walk Sports Keep going Eat more Drink tea, coffee, water Power nap Fresh air Focus on work Be active Snack 11. What things, other than lack of sleep, lead to feelings of tiredness for you? Certain foods Meal Lack of food Exercise Low blood pressure Worry Work, stress, pressure Dark, cold Sitting in one place Children Driving Problem solving Heat Junk food Difficult work FIGURE 8.1 An example of a collated survey.

88 PART I | BSM Treatment Protocols for Insomnia 4. Anticipate problems and brainstorm solutions. Include a discussion about survey design more generally, covering things like the fact that your results will be more valid if the sample size is reasonable (the larger the sample, the less likely your results will be skewed by unusual responders), the importance of the age group of respondents (given that age influences sleep), and other sources of potential bias. This discussion not only educates the patient about how to collect valid data to make their mind up about important issues in their lives, but also sets up a basis for discussing the results (e.g., if there are a small number of respondents then you can remind the patient in the next session about the potential for bias). Be mindful of patients who have some anxiety about administering the survey to peers. To trouble-shoot this, you might problem-solve the reasons for this anxiety. For instance, if the patient does not want to ask friends to complete the survey in person, he or she might choose to set up an online survey, the link for which can be emailed to others. Alternately, the therapist may administer the bulk of the surveys to collect the data without triggering the patient’s anxiety. 5. Conduct the experiment. 6. Review the experiment and draw conclusions. Write down the conclusions. The survey is likely to reveal that the majority of people get less than 8 hours of sleep; have some trouble with sleep when feeling stress; and feel tired when they wake up, and again after lunch. Most people have trouble sleeping at least some of the time. It is not realistic to expect 8 hours sleep every night. The patient’s expectations of sleep and daytime tiredness are adjusted, and anxiety about attaining “perfect” sleep is reduced. Strategies for coping with poor sleep are generated. PROOF OF CONCEPT/SUPPORTING DATA/EVIDENCE BASE There is preliminary evidence that conducting a behavioral experiment, relative to a verbal approach, is more helpful in the context of insomnia [3]. There is no evidence on this specific approach as a monotherapy. Although there is no evidence on this specific approach as a monotherapy, evidence from an open trial suggests that behavioral experiments used as part of a multicomponent approach to insomnia are effective [4]. However, we emphasize that testing within a randomized controlled trial is required. REFERENCES [1] C. Morin, Insomnia: Psychological Assessment and Management, The Guilford Press, New York, 1993. [2] M. Ree, A.G. Harvey, Insomnia, in: J. Bennett-Levy, G. Butler, M. Fennell, et al., (Eds.), Oxford Guide to Behavioural Experiments in Cognitive Therapy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004, pp. 287–305.

Chapter 8 | Intervention to Reduce Unhelpful Beliefs about Sleep 89 [3] N.K. Tang, A.G. Harvey, Altering misperception of sleep in insomnia: behavioral experiment versus verbal feedback, J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 74 (4) (2006) 767–776. [4] A.G. Harvey, A. Sharpley, M.J. Ree, et al., An open trial of cognitive therapy for chronic insomnia, Behav. Res. Ther. 45 (2007) 2491–2501. RECOMMENDED READING J. Bennett-Levy, G. Butler, M.J.V. Fennell, et al., The Oxford Handbook of Behavioural Experiments, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004. M. Ree, A.G. Harvey, Insomnia, in: J. Bennett-Levy, G. Butler, M. Fennell, et al., (Eds.), Oxford Guide to Behavioural Experiments in Cognitive Therapy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004, pp. 287–305.

Behavioral Treatments for Sleep Disorders. DOI: © Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 91 10.1016/B978-0-12-381522-4.00009-2 2011 Intervention to Reduce Misperception Allison G. Harvey, Lisa S. Talbot Golden Bear Sleep and Mood Research Clinic, Psychology Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA PROTOCOL NAME Intervention to reduce misperception. GROSS INDICATION This intervention is an approach to reversing misperception of sleep and misperception of daytime functioning. SPECIFIC INDICATION There is no evidence that this form of therapy is differentially effective for subtypes of insomnia. CONTRAINDICATIONS Be mindful that there is a significant subgroup of patients who accurately perceive their sleep and daytime dysfunction. Tread gently with the approaches suggested here in case your patient falls into this group; these interventions then cease to be relevant. RATIONALE FOR INTERVENTION There is a significant subgroup of people with insomnia who display a tendency toward misperceiving their sleep. Specifically, they perceive that they have slept significantly less than they have actually slept. Also, people often assume that they can accurately gauge the quality of their sleep by how they feel on waking. Using feelings on waking to judge sleep quality is likely to lead to erroneous conclusions, as these feelings may be influenced by many Chapter 9