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EARTH

CRYSTALS & MINERALS - ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
THE OCEAN - VOLCANOES - ANIMAL WILDLIFE - THE FOREST

CON

PAGE 0401

PAGE 06PAGE CRYSTALS & PAGE 1004
MINERALS
PAGE 08 PAGE 04VOLCANOES
02
05
ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION ANIMAL
WILDLIFE
03
06
THE OCEAN
THE FOREST
PAGE 04

03

01 CRYS
TALS
&
MINE

04

S CRYSTAL FACES AND SHAPES CHEMICAL BONDS
S
Crystals are commonly recognized by their shape, consisting of In general, solids can be held together by various types
flat faces with sharp angles. These shape characteristics are not of chemical bonds, such as metallic bonds, ionic bonds,
necessary for a crystal (a crystal is scientifically defined by its covalent bonds, van der Waals bonds, and others. None
microscopic atomic arrangement, not its macroscopic shape) but of these are necessarily crystalline or non-crystalline.
the characteristic macroscopic shape is often present and easy However, there are some general trends as follows.
to see. Euhedral crystals are those with obvious, well-formed flat
faces. Anhedral crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one Metals are almost always polycrystalline, though there are
grain in a polycrystalline solid. exceptions like amorphous metal and single-crystal metals.
The latter are grown synthetically. (A microscopically-small
& CRYSTAL STRUCTURE piece of metal may naturally form into a single crystal, but
E larger pieces generally do not.) Ionic compound materials
A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents are usually crystalline or polycrystalline. In practice, large
(such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered salt crystals can be created by solidification of a molten
microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in fluid, or by crystallization out of a solution. Covalently
all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually bonded solids (sometimes called covalent network solids)
identifiable by their geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces are also very common, notable examples being diamond and
with specific, characteristic orientations. The scientific study o+f quartz. Weak van der Waals forces also help hold together
crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The certain crystals, such as crystalline molecular solids, as
process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth well as the interlayer bonding in graphite. Polymer materials
is called crystallization or solidification. The word crystal derives generally will form crystalline regions, but the lengths of
from the Ancient Greek word. Examples of large crystals include the molecules usually prevent complete crystallization—
snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt. Most inorganic solids are and sometimes polymers are completely amorphous.
not crystals but polycrystals, i.e. many microscopic crystals fused
together into a single solid. Examples of polycrystals include 05
most metals, rocks, ceramics, and ice. A third category of solids
is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic structure
whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax,
and many plastics. Crystals are often used in pseudoscientific
practices such as crystal therapy, and, along with gemstones,
are sometimes associated with spellwork in Wiccan beliefs and
related religious movements.

02PENOVLLIRUOTNIOMNENTAL
“Sooner or later, we will have to recognise
that the earth has rights, too, to live without • Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and
pollution. What mankind must know is that fertilise land which can change the species composition of
human beings cannot live without mother earth, ecosystems.

but the planet can live without humans.” • Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received
by plants to carry out photosynthesis and leads to the
ENVIRONMENT production of tropospheric ozone which damages plants.

Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. • Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will
There are a number of effects of this: affect other organisms in the food web.

• Biomagnification describes situations where toxins (such • Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which
as heavy metals) may pass through trophic levels, becoming lowers the pH value of soil.
exponentially more concentrated in the process.
• Organic pollution of watercourses can deplete oxygen levels
• Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the and reduce species diversity.
ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth’s oceans as CO2
becomes dissolved. HISTORY

• The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution
which affects ecosystems in many ways. started from prehistoric times, when man created the first fires.
According to a 1983 article in the journal Science, “soot” found on
• Invasive species can out compete native species and reduce ceilings of prehistoric caves provides ample evidence of the high
biodiversity. Invasive plants can contribute debris and levels of pollution that was associated with inadequate ventilation
biomolecules (allelopathy) that can alter soil and chemical of open fires. Metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the
compositions of an environment, often reducing native creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. Core
species competitiveness. samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate increases in pollution
associated with Greek, Roman, and Chinese metal production.

06

7

03 THE
OCE
DEEP SEA RESEARCH AN

Humans have explored less than 3% of the ocean floor, and EVOLUTION
dozens of new species of deep sea creatures are discovered with
every dive. The submarine DSV Alvin—owned by the US Navy and The Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed
operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago,
in Woods Hole, Massachusetts—exemplifies the type of craft during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify
used to explore deep water. This 16 ton submarine can withstand following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. Microbial mat fossils have
extreme pressure and is easily manoeuvrable despite its weight been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia.
and size. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in
3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western
The extreme difference in pressure between the sea floor and Greenland[25] as well as “remains of biotic life” found in 4.1
the surface makes the creature’s survival on the surface near billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the
impossible; this makes in-depth research difficult because most researchers, “If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could
useful information can only be found while the creatures are alive. be common in the universe.”
Recent developments have allowed scientists to look at these
creatures more closely, and for a longer time. A marine biologist,
Jeffery Drazen, has explored a solution, a pressurized fish trap.
This captures a deep-water creature, and adjusts its internal
pressure slowly to surface level as the creature is brought to the
surface, in the hope that the creature can adjust.

Another scientific team, from the Universite Pierre et Marie Curie,
has developed a capture device known as the PERISCOP, which
maintains water pressure as it surfaces, thus keeping the samples
in a pressurized environment during the ascent. This permits close
study on the surface without any pressure disturbances affecting
the sample.

“The breaking of a wave
cannot explain the whole sea”.

08

E All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor
E or ancestral gene pool.Highly energetic chemistry is thought to
N have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years
ago, and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all
life existed. The current scientific consensus is that the complex
biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical
reactions. The beginning of life may have included self-replicating
molecules such as RNA and the assembly of simple cells.]

Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their
diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction
events. The common descent of organisms was first deduced from
four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic
distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation.
Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique
organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities.
Third, vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional
ancestral traits and finally, that organisms can be classified using
these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups—similar to
a family tree. However, modern research has suggested that,
due to horizontal gene transfer, this “tree of life” may be more
complicated than a simple branching tree since some genes have
spread independently between distantly related species.

Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history.
Fossils, along with the comparative anatomy of present-day
organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record.
By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species,
paleontologists can infer the lineages of those species. However,
this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body
parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further, as prokaryotes such as
bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies,
their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry.

09

04

VOLCANOES

10

WHAT IS A VOLCANO Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets
of sulfuric acid obscure the sun and cool the Earth’s lower
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such atmosphere (or troposphere); however, they also absorb heat
as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape radiated from the Earth, thereby warming the upper atmosphere
from a magma chamber below the surface. Earth’s volcanoes occur (or stratosphere). Historically, volcanic winters have caused
because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates catastrophic famines.
that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle.[1] Therefore, on
Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are VOLCANIC FEATURES
diverging or converging, and most are found underwater.
Lakagigar fissure vent in Iceland, the source of the major world
For example, a mid-oceanic ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, climate alteration of 1783–84, has a chain of volcanic cones along
has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the its length. Skjaldbreiður, a shield volcano whose name means
Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic “broad shield” The most common perception of a volcano is of a
plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and conical mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater
thinning of the crust’s plates, e.g., in the East African Rift and at its summit; however, this describes just one of the many types
the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in of volcano. The features of volcanoes are much more complicated
North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella and their structure and behavior depends on a number of factors.
of “plate hypothesis” volcanism.[2] Volcanism away from plate Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather
boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so- than a summit crater while others have landscape features such
called “hotspots”, for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from as massive plateaus. Vents that issue volcanic material (including
upwelling diapirs with magma from the core–mantle boundary, lava and ash) and gases (mainly steam and magmatic gases) can
3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created develop anywhere on the landform and may give rise to smaller
where two tectonic plates slide past one another. cones such as Pu u on a flank of Hawaii’s Klauea. Other types of
volcano include cryovolcanoes (or ice volcanoes), particularly on
Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards, not only in the some moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune; and mud volcanoes,
immediate vicinity of the eruption. One such hazard is that which are formations often not associated with known magmatic
volcanic ash can be a threat to aircraft, in particular those with jet activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much
engines where ash particles can be melted by the high operating lower than those of igneous volcanoes except when the mud
temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.
blades and alter their shape, disrupting the operation of the
turbine.

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PLATE TECTONICS

Divergent plate boundaries
At the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from
one another as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and
solidifying of hot molten rock. Because the crust is very thin at
these ridges due to the pull of the tectonic plates, the release of
pressure leads to adiabatic expansion (without transfer of heat or
matter) and the partial melting of the mantle, causing volcanism
and creating new oceanic crust. Most divergent plate boundaries
are at the bottom of the oceans; therefore, most volcanic activity
on the Earth is submarine, forming new seafloor. Black smokers
(also known as deep sea vents) are evidence of this kind of
volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level,
volcanic islands are formed; for example, Iceland.

CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic
plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the oceanic
plate subducts, or submerges, under the continental plate, forming
a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting,
water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting
temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, thus creating magma.
This magma tends to be extremely viscous because of its high
silica content, so it often does not attain the surface but cools
and solidifies at depth. When it does reach the surface, however,
a volcano is formed. Typical examples are Mount Etna and the
volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire.

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“If your heart is a volcano, how shall you expect
flowers to bloom?”
13

05 WAILNDIMLIAFEL

THE WOLF and golden jackal, to produce fertile hybrids. It is the only
species of Canis to have a range encompassing both the
The wolf (Canis lupus),also known as the gray wolf, timber Old and New Worlds, and originated in Eurasia during the
wolf, western wolf,and its other subspecies is a canine Pleistocene, colonizing North America on at least three
native to the wilderness and remote areas of Eurasia separate occasions during the Rancholabrean. It is a social
and North America. It is the largest extant member of its animal, travelling in nuclear families consisting of a mated
family, with males averaging 43–45 kg (95–99 lb) and pair, accompanied by the pair’s adult offspring. The gray
females 36–38.5 kg (79–85 lb). Like the red wolf, it is wolf is typically an apex predator throughout its range,
distinguished from other Canis species by its larger size with only humans and tigers posing a serious threat to it.
and less pointed features, particularly on the ears and It feeds primarily on large ungulates, though it also eats
muzzle.Its winter fur is long and bushy and predominantly smaller animals, livestock, carrion, and garbage. A seven
a mottled gray in color, although nearly pure white, red, year-old wolf is considered to be relatively old, and the
and brown to black also occur. Mammal Species of the maximum lifespan is about 16 years.
World (3rd ed., 2005), a tandard reference work in zoology,
recognises 38 s ubspecies of C. lupus. THE FOX

The gray wolf is the second most specialised member of Foxes are small-to-medium-sized, omnivorous mammals
the genus Canis, after the Ethiopian wolf, as demonstrated belonging to several genera of the family Canidae. Foxes
by its morphological adaptations to hunting large prey, its have a flattened skull, upright triangular ears, a pointed,
more gregarious nature and its highly advanced expressive slightly upturned snout, and a long bushy tail (or brush).
behavior. It is nonetheless closely related enough to
smaller Canis species, such as the eastern wolf, coyote, Twelve species belong to the monophyletic “true foxes”

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EL group of genus Vulpes. Approximately another 25 current or extinct
species are always or sometimes called foxes; these foxes are
either part of the paraphyletic group of the South American foxes,
or of the outlying group, which consists of bat-eared fox, gray fox,
and island fox. Foxes live on every continent except Antarctica. By
far the most common and widespread species of fox is the red fox
(Vulpes vulpes) with about 47 recognized subspecies.The global
distribution of foxes, together with their widespread reputation
for cunning, has contributed to their prominence in popular culture
and folklore in many societies around the world. The hunting of
foxes with packs of hounds, long an established pursuit in Europe,
especially in the British Isles, was exported by European settlers
to various parts of the New World.

THE DEER “The continued existence of wildlife
and wilderness is important to the
Deer (singular and plural) are the hoofed ruminant mammals
forming the family Cervidae. The two main groups are the Cervinae, quality of life of humans.”
including the muntjac, the elk (wapiti), the fallow deer and the 15
chital, and the Capreolinae, including the reindeer (caribou), the roe
deer and the moose. Female reindeer, and male deer of all species
except the Chinese water deer, grow and shed new antlers each
year. In this they differ from permanently horned antelope, which
are part of a different family (Bovidae) within the same order of
even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla).The musk deer of Asia and water
chevrotain of tropical African and Asian forests are not usually
regarded as true deer and form their own families: Moschidae
and Tragulidae, respectively. Deer appear in art from Paleolithic
cave paintings onwards, and they have played a role in mythology,
religion, and literature throughout history, as well as in heraldry.
Their economic importance includes the use of their meat as
venison, their skins as soft, strong buckskin, and their antlers as
handles for knives.

06 THE
FOR
WHAT IS A FOREST? EST

A forest is a large area dominated by trees. Hundreds of
more precise definitions of forest are used throughout
the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree
height, land use, legal standing and ecological function.
According to the widely used. Food and Agriculture
Organization definition, forests covered 4 billion hectares
(9.9×109 acres) (15 million square miles) or approximately
30 percent of the world’s land area in 2006.

Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth,
and are distributed around the globe. Forests account
for 75% of the gross primary production of the Earth’s
biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth’s plant biomass.
Net primary production is estimated at 21.9 gigatonnes
carbon per year for tropical forests, 8.11 for temperate
forests, and 2.69 for boreal forests.

Forests at different latitudes and elevations form distinctly
different ecozones: boreal forests near the poles, tropical
forests near the equator and temperate forests at mid-
latitudes. Higher elevation areas tend to support forests
similar to those at higher latitudes, and amount of
precipitation also affects
wforest composition.

Human society and forests influence each other in both
positive and negative ways. Forests provide ecosystem
services to humans and serve as tourist attractions.
Forests can also affect people’s health. Human activities,
including harvesting forest resources, can negatively affect
forest ecosystems.

16

E ECOLOGY EVOLUTION
R
T Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity The first known forests on Earth arose in the Late Devonian
of the Earth’s biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth’s (approximately 380 million years ago), with the evolution of
plant biomass.[7] Forest ecosystems can be found in all Archaeopteris. Archaeopteris was a plant that was both tree-like
regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes up and fern-like, growing to 10 metres (33 ft) in height. Archaeopteris
to the tree line, except where natural fire frequency or other quickly spread throughout the world, from the equator to subpolar
disturbance is too high, or where the environment has been latitudes. Archaeopteris formed the first forest by being the first
altered by human activity. known species to cast shade due to its fronds and forming soil
from its roots. Archaeopteris was deciduous, dropping its fronds
The latitudes 10° north and south of the equator are onto the forest floor. The shade, soil, and forest duff from the
mostly covered in tropical rainforest, and the latitudes dropped fronds created the first forest.The shed organic matter
between 53°N and 67°N have boreal forest. As a general altered the freshwater environment, slowing it down and providing
rule, forests dominated by angiosperms (broadleaf food. This promoted freshwater fish
forests) are more species-rich than those dominated by
gymnosperms (conifer, montane, or needleleaf forests), 17
although exceptions exist.

Forests sometimes contain many tree species within a
small area (as in tropical rain and temperate deciduous
forests), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g.,
taiga and arid montane coniferous forests). Forests
are often home to many animal and plant species, and
biomass per unit area is high compared to other vegetation
communities. Much of this biomass occurs belotw ground
in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant
detritus. The woody component
of a forest contains lignin, which is relatively slow to
decompose compared with other organic materials such as
cellulose or carbohydrate.

“A forest bird never wants a cage”.

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