DK THE HUMAN BRAIN BOOK

AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS Connective DISORDERS
fiber
THIS IS A GROUP OF DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS
CHARACTERIZED BY PROBLEMS WITH COMMUNICATION,
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS, AND REPETITIVE BEHAVIOR.

There are several types of autism spectrum Basal ganglia
disorders, but the main ones are autistic disorder Involved in routine
(sometimes referred to as “classic” autism) and
high-functioning autism. movements

Autistic disorder usually appears in early childhood, Amygdala Cerebellum
before the age of about three years. It produces Involved in Refines
problems in three main developmental areas: impaired balance and
social skills, impaired communication, and restricted emotional coordination
behavior. Typically, such children fail to respond to their
name or to other speech directed at them; avoid eye responses Hippocampus
contact; resist physical contact; start talking late and Involved in
speak with an abnormal tone or rhythm; show abnormal memory formation
response to social cues, such as faces and voices;
perform repetitive movements, such as rocking; develop AFFECTED AREAS OF THE BRAIN ORGANIZED CONNECTIONS
specific routines and become disturbed when they are Autism has been associated with abnormalities in This diffusion tensor scan shows the clear, organized tracts of
changed; and may be unusually sensitive to sound, light, many brain regions (including those shown here), but connective tissue in a healthy infant brain. These fibers are
and touch but sometimes ignore sensory signals. About their causal connection to autism is not yet clear. disorganized in a person that goes on to develop autism.
half of all children with autistic disorder have learning
difficulties, and some children develop seizures. and, rarely, a child may have an exceptional ability However, they have very narrow interests, find it difficult
However, some children with autism have a high ability in a specific area (called savant syndrome), such as to interact socially with their peers, and are usually
in one area, such as rote memory or precocious reading, mathematics. Children with high-functioning autism tend inflexible in their behavior and routines.
to have similar symptoms but in a less severe form. Many
children are of average or above average intelligence and There is no cure for autism spectrum disorders,
develop speech and language skills at the normal time. and treatment is based on supportive education to help
a child reach his or her potential.

RARE AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS RESPONSE TO FACES
In these two MRI scans
TYPE DESCRIPTION the yellow and red
colors show areas of
Rett This autism spectrum disorder affects females brain activity when
syndrome almost exclusively and is caused by a mutation looking at faces. In a
in a single gene. Typically, there is a period of normal person, there is
normal development, but then autism-like activity in the fusiform NORMAL BRAIN AUTISTIC BRAIN
symptoms begin to appear, usually between about gyrus of the temporal NORMAL BRAIN AUTISTIC BRAIN
six and 18 months of age. The child’s development lobe (circled) but no
then regresses: she shies away from social contact corresponding activity
and no longer responds to her parents. The child in the brain of a person
stops talking, if she had been talking before, loses with autism.
coordination of her feet, has repeated writhing RESPONSE TO VOICES
movements of her hands, and has inappropriate These two scans show
outbursts of crying or laughter. brain activity when
normal people and
Childhood This very rare form of autism spectrum disorder those with autism
disintegrative primarily affects males. As with Rett syndrome, listened to human
disorder there is a period of normal development followed voices. In the normal
by the onset of autism-like symptoms and brain, the superior
regression. Symptoms typically appear between temporal sulcus was
the ages of three and four years, although they active (the yellow and
may sometimes appear as early as two years. red area), whereas there
There are extensive and severe losses of previously was no activity in that
acquired social, language, and motor skills, and area in those with autism.
there may also be loss of bladder and bowel
control, repetitive, stereotyped behavior patterns,
seizures, and severe intellectual impairment.

TEMPLE GRANDIN

One of the best-known writers on autism, Temple she considers her autism, hypersensitivity to stimuli, UNIQUE INSIGHT
Grandin is herself a high-functioning autist who has and unusual visual thought processes to be a positive Temple Grandin became famous for her ability to
graphically described what it is like to have autism. advantage, giving her a unique insight into the understand animals’ minds and use her insights
Born in 1947 in the US, she was diagnosed with stresses to which livestock are vulnerable. As a result to improve their lives. Today, she helps people on the
autism at the age of three. After a supportive early of her early childhood experiences, Grandin is an autism spectrum to be more comfortable in the world.
education, she attended ordinary schools, where advocate of early intervention and a supportive
she was often teased and picked on for being educational regime in autism, to help direct children
different. Nevertheless, she graduated from college with autism in productive directions. Even though
and became a prominent researcher in animal autism affects every aspect of her life, Temple
science and welfare as well as an advocate for Grandin has said that she would not support a cure
people with autism. In the field of animal welfare, for all autism spectrum disorders.

249

GLOSSARY GLOSSARY

A anosognosia The failure, due to autonomic nervous system (ANS)

acalculia The inability to perform numerical neurological injury, to be aware of a deficit A component of the peripheral nervous
in oneself, such as paralysis or blindness. system, responsible for regulating the
calculations due to neurological injury; see also activity of internal organs. It includes
dyscalculia. ANS See autonomic nervous system. both the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems.
acetylcholine A neurotransmitter that plays antagonist A molecule that blocks
axon The fiberlike extension of a neuron that
an important role not only in learning and or prevents activation of a receptor.
memory but also in sending messages from carries electrical signals to other cells. Most
the motor nerves to the visceral muscles. anterior The front, or toward the front. neurons have only one axon.

action potential A brief pulse of electrical anterograde amnesia The loss of memory B

current that is generated by a neuron, and of things that occur after a brain injury, basal ganglia A bundle of nuclei in
may be transmitted to neighboring cells. especially after concussion.
the base of the forebrain, including the
adrenaline See epinephrine and apraxia A partial or total inability to perform striatum and globus pallidus. It is primarily
concerned with selecting and mediating
norepinephrine. coordinated movements, including speech. movements.

afferent Traveling toward or entering; see arachnoid membrane The middle bilateral On both sides of the body;

also efferent. of the three meninges (layers of tissue that for example, both brain hemispheres.
cover the brain).
agonist A molecule that binds to a receptor
arcuate fasciculus The nerve-fiber tract bipolar disorder An illness that is
and stimulates the cell to fire; see also
antagonist. An agonist is often a chemical that connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas. characterized by dramatic mood swings.
that mimics the effect of a naturally
occuring neurotransmitter. ascending reticular formation A part blindsight The ability to respond to visual

agraphia The inability to write due to of the reticular formation, responsible for the stimuli in spite of being blind due to damage

neurological injury. arousal and sleep–wake cycle. to the visual cortex.

alexia The inability to read due to neurological association areas The regions of the brain blood–brain barrier A network of tightly

injury; also known as word blindness. that combine different types of information to packed cells surrounding the brain, which

amnesia A general term for memory deficit. produce a “whole” experience. prevents toxic molecules from entering.

amygdala A nucleus located in the limbic astrocyte A type of support cell that provides bottom-up Usually refers to relatively

area of the temporal lobe that is crucial brain cells with nutrients and insulation. “raw” information flowing from the primary
to emotion. sensory areas of the brain rather than from
ataxia A symptom of neurological disorder in areas involved in thinking, imagining, or
androgens The sex steroid hormones creating expectations.
which the sufferer experiences difficulty with
(including testosterone), which are responsible balance and coordinated movement. brainstem The lower part of the brain
for male sexual maturation and associated with
stereotypically masculine behavioral traits. athetosis A condition in which muscles make that becomes the spinal cord.

angular gyrus A ridge of the neocortex slow, involuntary, writhing movements, seen in brainwaves The regular oscillations
some forms of epilepsy.
in the parietal lobe, next to the temporal (firings) of neurons. Different rates of firing
and occipital lobe. It is concerned with the attention deficit hyperactivity indicates different mental states; see also
position of the body in space and linking disorder (ADHD) A syndrome of learning electroencephalograph (EEG).
sound and meaning.
and behavioral problems characterized by a Broca’s area A frontal-lobe brain region,
anomia The inability to name objects. short attention span and often by inappropriately
energetic or frenzied activity. It usually occurs concerned with articulating speech.
anosmia The inability to smell. first in early childhood.
Brodmann areas The microscopically
auditory cortex The region of the brain
distinct cortical areas that were mapped
responsible for receiving and processing out by neurologist Korbinian Brodmann
information relating to sound. (1868–1918).

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C cochlea The spiral-shaped bony canal in delusion A false belief that is not easily GLOSSARY

Capgras’ delusion A rare syndrome the inner ear, containing the hair cells that eradicated by exposure to evidence that
transduce sound. reveals its falsity.
in which people believe that a close
friend or spouse has been replaced by cognition Conscious and unconscious brain dementia A loss of brain function due
a double. It is thought to be caused by
damage to nerve pathways concerned processes, such as perceiving, thinking, to degeneration through age or cumulative
with emotional recognition. learning, and remembering information. damage to the brain.

caudal Toward the tail end; see also posterior. commisserectomy The surgical severing dendrite A branch that extends from a

of the corpus callosum. neuron’s cell body and receives signals
from other neurons.
caudate nucleus A part of the striatum. computed tomography (CT) A scanning
dentate gyrus The part of the hippocampus
cell body The central structure of a neuron; technique that uses weak levels of X-ray
to produce images of the brain and body. containing nerve cells that receive input from
also referred to as the soma. the entorhinal cortex.
concussion A brain trauma, usually
central fissure Also called the central depression A common illness characterized
caused by a blow to the head and resulting
sulcus. A long, deep fissure that runs across the in temporary loss of consciousness. by intense and chronically low mood and
brain, dividing the parietal and frontal lobes. energy levels.
cone A color-sensitive receptor cell in the
central nervous system (CNS) The brain diencephalon A part of the brain that
retina, used primarily for daytime vision. 
and spinal cord. includes the thalamus and the area that
contralateral On the other side of the body surrounds it.
cerebellum The “small brain” behind the
or brain. Damage to the brain often leads dopamine A neurotransmitter that
cerebrum that helps regulate posture, balance, to problems on the contralateral side of
and coordination. the body; see also ipsilateral. produces motivation and strong feelings
of pleasurable anticipation.
cerebral cortex The outer, wrinkled “gray” coronal A vertical “slice” through the brain,
dorsal At or toward the (upper) back.
part of the cerebral hemispheres. running parallel to the shoulders.

cerebral hemispheres The two halves of corpus callosum The thick band of dorsal horn The back part (in cross section)

the brain. nerve tissue that connects the left and of the spinal cord, where nerve fibers,
right hemipsheres of the brain and carries especially pain-carrying fibers, merge with
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) The fluid found information between them. the spinal cord to travel upward toward
the brain.
in the brain’s ventricles, which brings nutrients cortex See cerebral cortex.
to, and removes waste from, the brain. dorsal route The pathway in the visual

cerebrum The major part of the brain, Cotard syndrome A rare disorder in system that connects the visual cortex to the
parietal lobe, also referred to as the “where”
excluding the cerebellum and brainstem. which patients assert that they are dead, often or “how” pathway; see also ventral route.
claiming to smell rotting flesh or feel worms
cerebellar penducles The short, stalklike crawling over their skin. dorsolateral prefrontal cortex The area

extensions of the cerebellum, which connect it cranial fossa The various bowl-shaped of the frontal lobe concerned with planning,
to the brainstem. organization, and various other executive
cavities in the skull. The posterior cranial functions of cognition.
cholinergic system The nerve pathways fossa houses the brainstem and cerebellum.
dura mater The top of the three layers of
that are activated by the neurotransmitter cranial nerves The 12 pairs of nerves that
acetylcholine. tissue separating the brain from the skull;
arise from the brainstem. These include the see also meninges.
cingulate cortex The area of cortex that olfactory nerve, which conveys information
about smell to the brain, and the optic nerve, dyscalculia A condition associated with
makes up the sides of the longitudinal fissure. which carries data about vision.
It is closely connected to the underlying difficulty in learning simple arithmetical
limbic system as well as to cortical areas cranium The skull. operations in the absence of any other
of the brain, and is important in combining intellectual problems.
“top-down” and “bottom-up” information D
to guide actions. dyslexia A condition associated with difficulty
decussation The crossing of nerve fibers,
circadian rhythm A cycle of behavior or in learning to read and write in the absence of
as in the optic chiasm. any other intellectual problems.
physiological change lasting about 24 hours. 

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GLOSSARY E fovea The central part of the retina, composed gyrus (pl. gyri) The bulges of tissue

EEG See electroencephalograph. of densely packed cones. It is the area of the on the surface of the brain.

retina that has the highest visual acuity. H

efferent Leading away from; see also afferent. frontal lobe The area at the front of the hallucination A false perception that occurs

electroencephalograph (EEG) A graphic brain, responsible for thinking, making in the absence of any sensory stimuli.
judgments, planning, decision-making,
record of the electrical activity of the brain, and conscious emotion. hemiplegia A condition in which there
made by attaching electrodes to the scalp that
pick up the underlying brainwaves. functional imaging A range of techniques is paralysis of one half of the body.

encephalin A type of endorphin. that allow neural activity to be measured and hemisphere One half of the brain.
shown as visual images.

encephalitis Inflammation of the brain. functional magnetic resonance hindbrain The back part of brain, adjoining
imaging (fMRI) A brain-imaging technique
endorphins A group of chemicals produced the spine, which includes the cerebellum,
in which magnetic resonance imaging is used pons, and medulla.
by the brain, which produce effects similar to to measure the changes in blood properties
those of opium. associated with neural activity; see also hippocampus A part of the limbic system lying
magentic resonance imaging.
entorhinal cortex The main route for on the inside of each temporal lobe. It is crucial
fusiform gyrus A long cortical bulge on for spatial navigation and encoding and retrieving
information entering the hippocampus. long-term memories.
the underside of the temporal lobe, important
epilepsy An illness characterized by for object and face recognition; see also hormones The chemical messengers
ventral route.
repeated seizures. secreted by endocrine glands to regulate the
G activity of target cells. They play a role in
epinephrine and norepinephrine sexual development, metabolism, growth, and
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) The many other physiological processes.
Hormones and neurotransmitters secreted
by the adrenal gland; also referred to as major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. hypothalamus A cluster of nuclei that controls
adrenaline and noradrenaline.
ganglion A cluster of interactive nuclei. many body functions, including feeding,
event-related potential (ERP) The drinking, and the release of many hormones.
The term also refers to light-sensitive cells
neural activity generated in response to a in the retina. I
given stimulus recorded by EEG.
Geschwind’s territory A region of the illusion A false perception or distortion
excitatory neurotransmitter A type
brain concerned with language. of the senses often caused by unconscious
of neurotransmitter that encourages neurons brain processes.
to fire; see also inhibitory neurotransmitter. glial cells Also referred to as glia, the
implicit memory The memories that cannot
explicit memory The memories that can brain cells that support neurons by performing
a variety of “housekeeping” functions in be retrieved consciously, but are activated as part
be consciously retrieved and reported. the brain. They may also mediate signals of particular skills or actions, or in the form of an
between neurons. emotion linked to an event that cannot be made
F conscious. Implicit memories underlie the learning
globus pallidus A part of the basal of physical skills such as playing a ball game or
fissure A deep cleft, or sulcus, on the tying a shoelace; see also procedural memory.
ganglia involved in movement control; see
surface of the brain. also basal ganglia. inferior Below or underneath.

fMRI See functional magnetic resonance glutamate The most common excitatory inferior colliculi The principal midbrain

imaging. neurotransmitter in the brain. nuclei of the auditory pathway.

forebrain A major part of the brain, grand mal See seizure. inhibitory neurotransmitter A type of

including the cerebrum, thalamus, gray matter The darker tissues of the brain, neurotransmitter that stops neurons from firing;
and hypothalamus. see also excitatory neurotransmitter.
made up of densely packed cell bodies, as seen
fornix An arching band of nerve tissue in the cortex. insula Also referred to as the insular cortex,

that carries signals around the limbic gustatory cortex The area of the brain the brain region that lies in a deep recess
system from the hippocampus at one between the temporal and frontal lobes.
end, to the mammillary bodies at the other. responsible for processing taste.

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intelligence quotient (IQ) A score based magnetoencephalography (MEG) N GLOSSARY

on a range of tests that represents the relative A non-invasive functional brain-imaging narcolepsy An illness characterized
intelligence of a person. technique that is sensitive to rapid changes
in brain activity. Recording devices (SQUIDS) by uncontrolled bouts of sleeping.
interneuron A “bridging” neuron connecting measure small magnetic fluctuations associated
with neural activity in the cortex and present near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) A
afferent and efferent neurons. these in visual form.
functional imaging technique that shows
ipsilateral On the same side of the body magnocellular The pathways from large varying levels of oxygen use in the brain
(a marker of neural activity) by measuring
as that in which a condition occurs; see retinal ganglion cells to cortical visual areas. the reflection of near-infrared light from
also contralateral. They are sensitive to movement. cerebral tissues.

IQ See intelligence quotient. mamillary bodies The small limbic-system neocortex The wrinkled outer layer of the

K nuclei that are concerned with emotion brain; also referred to as the cerebral cortex.
and memory.
Korsakoff syndrome A brain disease nervous system The nerve cells that
medial In the middle.
that is associated with chronic alcoholism. connect to the brain and extend throughout the
The symptoms include delirium, insomnia, medulla Also known as the medulla entire body. They are grouped into the central
hallucinations, and a lasting amnesia.  nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
oblongata or myencephalon. A part of the nervous system (PNS).
L brainstem situated between the pons
and the spinal cord. It is responsible for neurogenesis The generation of new
lateral On or to the side. maintaining vital body processes, such
as breathing and heart rate. neurons in the brain.
lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) A
melatonin A hormone that helps regulate neuron Also referred to as a nerve cell, a
nucleus in the thalamus that acts as a relay
in the visual pathway. the sleep–wake cycle. It is produced by brain cell that signals to others by generating
the pineal gland. and passing on electrical signals.
lesion An area of injury or cell death.
meninges The three layers of protective neurotransmitter A chemical secreted by
limbic system A set of brain structures
tissue between the brain and the skull. neurons that carries signals between them
lying along the inner border of the cortex, across synapses.
crucial for emotion, memory, and mediating mesencephalon Also referred to as the
consciousness. nociceptive Responding to painful
“midbrain,” the area of the brain between
lobe One of four main areas of the brain that the forebrain and the brainstem, involved or noxious stimuli.
in eye movement, body movement, and
are delineated by function (occipital, temporal, hearing. It includes the basal ganglia. norepinephrine An excitatory
parietal, and frontal).
midbrain See mesencephalon. neurotransmitter, also known as noradrenaline;
longitudinal fissure Also called the see also epinephrine.
mind The thoughts, feelings, beliefs,
longitudinal sulcus, the deep groove that marks nucleus A bound cluster or group of nerve
the division of the two cerebral hemispheres. intentions, and so on, that arise from
the processes of the brain. cells with specialist functions.
long-term memory The final phase
motor cortex The region of the brain nucleus accumbens A limbic-system
of memory, in which information storage
may last anywhere from hours up to containing neurons that send signals, directly nucleus that processes information related
a lifetime. or indirectly, to the muscles. It stretches to motivation and reward.
around the brain like a horseshoe.
long-term potentiation (LTP) A change O
motor neuron A neuron that infiltrates
in a neuron that increases the likelihood occipital lobe The back part of the cerebrum,
of it firing in unison with one that it has muscle and causes it to contract or stretch.
fired with before. mainly dedicated to visual processing.
MRI See magnetic resonance imaging.
M olfactory nerve/system The nerve/body
myelencephalon See medulla.
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) system that responds to smell molecules.
myelin The fatty material that surrounds and
A brain-imaging technique that provides opium A drug derived from poppy seeds
high-resolution pictures of brain structures. insulates the axons of some neurons.
that produces intense euphoria, pain relief,
and relaxation.

253

GLOSSARY optic chiasm The point of decussation that produces hormones, including oxytocin. psychosis A condition in which a person

(crossing) of the optic nerves from each plasticity The capacity of the brain to change loses touch with reality.
eye; see also decussation.
its structure and function. psychotherapy The treatment of a mental
optic nerve A bundle of nerve fibers
pons A part of the hindbrain lying in front of disorder using psychological rather than
carrying signals from retinal ganglion medical methods.
cells into the main part of the brain the cerebellum.
for processing. putamen A part of the striatum, which itself
positron emission tomography (PET)
oscillations The rhythmic firings of neurons. is part of the basal ganglia, that is mainly
A functional imaging technique for measuring concerned with regulating movement and
oxytocin A neurotransmitter involved in brain function in living subjects by detecting procedural learning.
the location and concentration of small
social bonding. amounts of radioactive chemicals associated pyramidal neuron An excitatory neuron
with specific neural activity.
P with a distinctive triangular body, found
posterior Toward the back or tail end. Also in the cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala.
parasympathetic nervous system A
referred to as “caudal.” Q
branch of the autonomic nervous system,
concerned with the conservation of the body’s postsynaptic neuron A neuron that qualia The conscious, subjective sensations
energy. It inhibits the sympathetic nervous system.
receives messages from another; see also that arise from stimulation of sense organs, for
parietal lobe The top-back subdivision presynaptic neuron. example, pain, warmth, or seeing a color.

of the cerebral cortex, mainly concerned prefrontal cortex The region of the R
with spatial computation, body orientation,
and attention. brain in the forward-most part of the frontal raphe nuclei The brainstem nuclei that
cortex, involved in planning and other
Parkinson’s disease An illness higher-level cognition. mainly release serotonin and have wide-ranging
effects on mental function.
characterized by tremors and slowness premotor cortex A part of the frontal
of action; it is thought to be caused by rapid eye movement (REM) A phase of
degeneration of dopamine-producing cells. cortex concerned with planning movements.
sleep characterized by rapid eye movements
parvocellular The nerve pathways from presynaptic neuron A neuron that releases a and vivid dreams.

small areas of the retina to cortical visual neurotransmitter to carry signals across a synapse reflex An involuntary movement, controlled
areas. They are sensitive to color and form. to another neuron; see also postsynaptic neuron.
by neurons in the spinal cord.
peptides The chains of amino acids that can primary cortex A region of the brain that
reticular formation A complex area in
function as neurotransmitters or hormones.  first receives sensory information from organs,
such as the primary visual cortex. the brainstem containing various nuclei
peripheral nervous system (PNS) The that affect arousal, sensation, motor
procedural memory A form of implicit function, and vegetative functions such
part of the nervous system that includes all as heartbeat and breathing.
nerves and neurons outside the brain and memory relating to learned movements,
spinal cord. for example, riding a bicycle. retina The part of the eye containing light-

PET See positron emission tomography. proprioception Sensory information sensitive cells, which send electrical signals
to the visual area of the brain for processing
phantom limb An absent limb (usually relating to balance and the position of the into visual imagery.
body in space.
amputated) that the person continues reuptake The process by which excess
to experience as part of the body. prosopagnosia Inability to recognize
neurotransmitters are removed from the
pia matter The innermost layer of the faces. synapse by being carried by transporter
cells back into the axon terminals that
meninges; a thin, elastic tissue that covers psychasthenia A condition in which the first released them.
the surface of the brain.
sufferer experiences heightened sensitivity
to negative stimuli, resulting in chronic anxiety.

pineal gland A pea-sized gland located psychedelic A drug that distorts perception, rhombencephalon See hindbrain.

near the thalamus that produces melatonin, thought, and feeling. rod A sensory neuron in the outer edge
which regulates the sleep-wake cycle.
psychoactive Changing brain function, of the retina. It is sensitive to low-intensity
pituitary gland A hypothalamic nucleus light and is specialized for night vision. 
usually referring to drugs.

254

rostral Toward or at the front side of supplementary motor cortex An area V GLOSSARY

the body; see also anterior. in the front of the motor cortex involved in V1 The primary visual cortex—other visual
planning actions that are under internal
S control, such as actions done from memory areas are often referred to as V2, V3, V4,
rather than guided by current sensations. and so on.
sagittal A vertical plane passing through
survival value The benefit of a physical or ventral Toward the lower, front surface
the brain from front to back. The midsagittal,
or median, plane splits the brain into left and behavioral characteristic to an individual’s (such as the abdomen of an animal).
right hemispheres. chances of surviving and reproducing.
ventral route The pathway in the visual
schizophrenia An illness characterized sympathetic nervous system A part
system that connects the visual cortex to
by intermittent psychosis. of the autonomic nervous system that the temporal lobe, concerned with the
speeds up heart rate, among other things, recognition of objects and faces.
seizure A disruption of normal neural in response to stimulation; see also
parasympathetic nervous system. ventral tegmental area (VTA) A group
activity. Grand mal seizures involve
widespread synchronous neural firing, synesthesia The experience of having of dopamine-containing neurons that make
which produces unconsciousness. up a key part of the brain’s reward system.
two or more senses “blended” in response
serotonin A neurotransmitter that regulates to a stimulus—for example, a shape might ventricle A cavity within the brain containing
be tasted as well as seen, or a sound may
many functions, including mood, appetite, be seen as well as heard. cerebrospinal fluid.
and sensory perception.
ventromedial prefrontal cortex A part
short-term memory A phase of memory in synapse A gap between two neurons that
of the prefrontal cortex, associated with
which a limited amount of information may be is bridged by neurotransmitters. emotions and judgment.
held for several seconds to minutes; see also
working memory. T visual cortex The surface of the occipital

single photon emission computed tegmentum The lower-back part of the lobe in which visual information is processed.
tomography (SPECT) An imaging process
midbrain. W
that measures the emission of single photons of
a given energy from radioactive tracers in the telencephalon The largest part of the brain; Wernicke’s area The major language
brain, giving a measure of neural activity.
see also cerebrum and forebrain. area, in the temporal lobe, concerned with
comprehension. In most people, it is situated
somatosensory cortex An area of the temporal lobe A division of the cerebral in the left hemisphere, near the junction with
the parietal lobe.
brain concerned with receiving and processing cortex at the side of the head, concerned with
information about body sensations, such hearing, language, and memory. white matter A type of brain tissue that is
as pain and touch.
thalamus Large paired masses of gray made up of densely packed axons that carry
SPECT See single photon emission computed signals to other neurons. It is distinguished
matter lying between the brainstem and the from cell bodies by the lighter color. White
tomography. cerebrum, the key relay station for sensory matter generally lies beneath the gray matter
information flowing into the brain. that forms the cortex.
SQUIDS See magnetoencephalography.
TMS see transcranial magnetic stimulation. working memory A process by which
striate cortex An area of the visual cortex
top-down A phrase used to distinguish information is held “in mind” as active neural
characterized (in cross section) by visually traffic until it is forgotten, or encoded in
distinct strips of cells. “processed” information or knowledge that long-term memory.
is used to interpret “raw” sensory data.
striatum A structure in the basal ganglia
transcranial magnetic stimulation
composed of the caudate and the putamen. (TMS)

sulcus (pl. sulci) A valley or groove in the A method by which electrical activity in the
brain is influenced by a magnetic field, usually
brain surface (the opposite of gyrus). generated by a wand held on the scalp.

superior Toward or at the top. U

superior colliculi Paired structures of nuclei unilateral On one side of the body; see also

of the midbrain that play a part in relaying bilateral.
visual information.

255

INDEX INDEX

Page numbers in bold indicate amputation, phantom limbs anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) athletes 196 babies continued
extended treatments of a topic. 104, 193 continued atonic seizures 226 infant brain 208–209
ATP 106 language development 209
A amusia 248 and pain 108, 109 atriopeptin 114 maternal love 134
amygdala 53, 74, 127, 209 self-awareness 138, 139 atrioventricular node 112 number sense 169
A-delta fibers, pain signals 107 self-consciousness 192, 193 attention personality development 200
abducens nerve 43 anticipation 130 and stress 199 sense of smell 99
abortion 236 and body language 144 anterior commissure, gender and consciousness 182–183 stress 199
abscesses 227, 228 and depression 239 disorders 168, 183, 246
absence seizures 226 and dreams 189 differences 198 laying down a memory 160 backdating time 191
abuse, childhood 197 emotions 39, 126–129, 139, 212, anterior fissure, spinal cord 42 attention deficit hyperactivity bacteria
acetylcholine 73 anterior intraparietal area (AIP) 83
213 anterior nucleus, hypothalamus disorder (ADHD) 183, 246 brain abscesses 228
Alzheimer’s disease 231 functions 58 attraction, sexual 134 meningitis 227
executing a movement 119 gender differences 198 113 auditory canal, hearing 94 balance 118
acrophobia 240 and humor 171 anticipation 127, 130 auditory cortex 91 postural instability 119
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic imaging 24 antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 61, proprioception 104, 105
limbic system 64, 65 and conversation 151 vestibulocochlear nerve 43
hormone) 61, 114, 240 memory 156, 160, 161 114, 115 hearing 94, 95 ballism 119
action potentials 72 mindfulness 187 antisocial personality disorder 245 laying down a memory 161 basal nuclei (ganglia) 53, 58,
adaptive behaviors, emotions 129 morality 140 anxiety music 93
addictions 245 and optimism 200 perception of sound 92 211, 212
pain signals 109 anxiety disorders 168, 240–241 reading 152 aging 214
cocaine 130 phobias 127 eating disorders 246 auditory frequency ranges 91 and brain “clocks” 190
oxytocin 137 post traumatic stress disorder and experience of pain 109 auditory nerve 90 imaging 23
pleasure-seeking 130 and meditation 187 aura 172 planning movement 117
to sugar 115 241 obsessive-compulsive disorder epileptic seizures 226 Tourette’s syndrome 243
adenosine, sleep-wake cycles 188 recognizing faces 84 migraine 224 bases, DNA 196, 197
ADH (antidiuretic hormone) 61, self-awareness 139 (OCD) 241 auricular cartilage 90 basilar membrane 90
sense of smell and 97 phobias 240 autism 139, 223 behavior and personality 194–205
114, 115 stria terminalis 126 post traumatic stress disorder autism spectrum disorders 249 adaptive behaviors 129
adipose tissue 102 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) autistic savants 164–165, 174, 249 autism spectrum disorders
adolescence (PTSD) 164, 241 high-functioning autism 249
235 stria terminalis 126 hyperlexia 153 249
brain development 210–211 anesthesia, general 112 aphasia 149, 151 patternmaking 172 aversion behavior 129
emotions 39 analgesia, congenital 109 apolipoprotein E 231 autoimmune diseases conduct disorder 248
adrenal glands 114, 240 anarchic hand syndrome (AHS) 57 apoptosis 209 multiple sclerosis 235 dementia 230
adrenaline (epinephrine) 114 anatomy 50–73 appearance, body dysmorphic narcolepsy 238 influencing the brain 198–199
and heat production 113 automata 75 morality 140–141
stress response 240 brain cells 70–71 disorder 242 automatic movements 116 nature and nurture 196–197
thrill-seeking 131 brain structures 52–55 appeasement 129 autonomic nervous system obsessive-compulsive disorder
adrenocorticotropic hormone brain zones and partitions apperceptive agnosia 85
appetite control 115 (ANS) 40 (OCD) 241
(ACTH) 61, 114, 240 56–57 arachnoid heart rate regulation 112 personality 200–201
adults, brain development 212– brain stem and cerebellum hypothalamus and 113 personality disorders 245
arachnoid granulations 45 phobias 127 state-dependent memory 162
213 62–63 skull 56 reticular formation 112 strange brains 204–205
aerobic exercise, effect on brain cerebral cortex 66–69 spinal cord 42 autopilot 185 belief systems 172–173
early study of 8 arachnophobia 240 aversion belladonna 144
44 limbic system 64–65 arbor vitae 63 aversion behavior 129 bereavement 239
after-images 174 nerve impulses 72–73 archetypes, collective flavor-aversion learning 101 Berger, Hans 9
aging 44, 214–215 nuclei 58–59 aviophobia 240 berry aneurysm 229
agency, self-consciousness 193 scanning the brain 12 unconsciousness 187 avoidant personality disorder 245 beta amyloid 231
aggression speech 147 arcuate fasciculus 148, 151 awareness 186 Beta waves, and
thalamus, hypothalamus, and Aristotle 6, 8 agency and intention 193
amygdala and 127 arms and consciousness 180 consciousness 181
body language 144 pituitary gland 60–61 types of 179 biceps muscle,
personality markers 200 androstadienone 99 bionic arms 219 axodendritic synapses 71
agnosia, visual 85 androstenone 99 executing a movement 118 axons 68, 69, 70, 210 proprioceptors 104
agouti-related peptide (AgRP) 115 anencephaly 237 motor neuron disease 235 aging 214 bilingualism 149
alcohol aneurysm phantom limbs 104, 193 in brain stem 62 binge-eating disorder 246
addiction to 44, 245 arteries 46–47 cerebellum 63 binocular rivalry 87
and brain shrinkage 44 ruptured 229 arteriovenous malformation 229 myelin sheaths 70, 71, 212 biogenic amines 73
intoxication test 162 subarachnoid hemorrhage 229 carotid arteries 146 nerve impulses 72, 73 biometric sensors 129
and proprioception 104 anger Circle of Willis 45 spinal cord 42 bionic arms 219
alertness 186 adaptive behaviors 129 stroke 229 synapses 71 bionic eyes 218
alien beings 173 facial expressions 136 transient ischemic attacks 228 types of neurons 71 biotechnology 218–219
Alpha waves 181 angiotensin II 115 artificial intelligence 217 axospinodendritic synapses 71 bipolar disorder 223, 239
and creativity 170 “animal magnetism” 222 artists, creativity 170 bipolar neurons 71
alphabet 153 animals aspartate 73 B birds, brains 49
AlphaGo 217 evolution of brain 48–49 aspartic acid 73 bladder
altering consciousness 186–187 sense of smell 98 Asperger’s syndrome 139, 172 Baader-Meinhof Gang 205
alternating attention 182 social behavior 138 association, accessing memories babies multiple sclerosis 235
altruism 141 understanding 249 panic responses 127
Alzheimer, Alois 9 anorexia nervosa 246 159 body maps 193 bleeding see hemorrhage
Alzheimer’s disease 230, 231 ANS see autonomic nervous association areas 68 bonding with 135, 213 “blind” smell 98
tangles and plaques 214, 215 development of hearing 93 blind spot, retina 81
ambiguous illusions 174 system emotions 129 developmental delay 247 blindness 78
American Psychiatric Association anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) perceptions 39 bionic eyes 218
associative agnosia 85 blindsight 79
222 creativity 170 astraphobia 240 seeing with sound 89
amino acids 73 emotions 126, 128 astrocytes 71, 213
amnesia, head injuries 225 imaging 20 asymmetry 57
amniocentesis 236 and optimism 200 ataxic cerebral palsy 237
amphibians, brains 48 atherosclerosis 228
athetoid cerebral palsy 237

256

Bliss, Timothy 9 BSE (bovine spongiform cerebral hemispheres see coordination, multiple contrecoup injury 225 INDEX
blood clots encephalopathy) 231 hemispheres; left sclerosis 235 control see movement and
hemisphere; right hemisphere
stroke 229 bulbous corpuscles 102 cocaine addiction 130 control
subdural hemorrhage 229 bulimia nervosa 246 cerebral palsy 237 coccyx 42 conversation 150–151
transient ischemic attacks 228 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 44, 57 cochlea 90, 92, 94 conversion disorder 242
blood supply C cochlear duct 90 coprolalia, Tourette’s syndrome 243
functional magnetic resonance aging 215 cochlear implants 91, 94 cornea, eye 80
C-fibers, pain signals 107 detritus 188 cochlear nerve 90, 92, 94, 95 corpus callosum 52, 53, 56, 74,
imaging 13 calcium flow of 45 cochlear nucleus 95
glucose 45 hydrocephalus 237 cocktail-party effect 92 204, 212
oxygen in 45 Alzheimer’s disease 231 lumbar puncture 227 cognitive illusions 174–175 altered brain-states 186
blood vessels executing a movement 119 protection of brain 45 cold, thermoreceptors 102, 113 and emotions 126
arteries 46–47 ion channels 65 in spinal cord 42, 45 collateral fissure 65 gender differences 198
arteriovenous malformation 229 camphor 96 cerebrum 53, 208, 209 collective unconscious 187 split brain 204
Circle of Willis 45 cancer see also hemispheres; left color corpus striatum 58
hemorrhage 225 brain tumors 230 cortex see cerebral cortex and
panic responses 127 fear of 240 hemisphere; right hemisphere color vision 83
stroke 229 carbohydrates 45 cervical region, spinal nerves 42 illusions 87 individual cortices
and temperature control 113 carbon dioxide, regulation cervical spinal cord 53 language and 147 cortisol, stress response 240
transient ischemic attacks 228 cervical vertebra 53 visual perception 87, 89 Cottingley fairies 173
vascular dementia 230 of breathing 112 Chaplin, Charlie 199 column of fornix 64 covert attention 182
Blue Brain Project 75 carcinophobia 240 Charcot, Jean-Martin 242 coma 225, 238 cranial nerves 42, 43, 53, 55, 208
body clock 63 carotid arteries chess 217 commitment 134
body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) chest, motor neuron disease 235 communication 142–153 brain stem 62
stroke 229 chicken pox virus 227 autism 223 peripheral nervous system 40
242 transient ischemic attacks 228 childbirth 135 body language and gestures taste and smell 101
body language 144–145 Wada test 146 craniotomy 11, 232
cars, driving 116 postpartum depression 239 144–145 creativity 170–179
and conversation 150 cartoons, humor 171 children conversation 150–151 and bipolar disorder 239
tennis players 120 cataplexy 238 expressions 136–137 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)
“body maps,” self-consciousness catatonia 190 attention deficit hyperactivity gestures and body limbic
catatonic schizophrenia 244 disorder (ADHD) 246 231
192, 193 cats system 144–145 criminal behavior 211
body mass index (BMI) 246 brains 49 autism spectrum disorders 249 limbic system areas 148–149 CSF see cerebrospinal fluid
body memories 157, 160 expressions 136 brain development 210–211 origins of language 146–147 CT (computed tomography) scans
body weight, and brain caudate nucleus 52, 54, 58 childhood disintegrative reading and writing 152–153
and memory 156, 157 smell and 99 12, 222
weight 44 and obsessive-compulsive disorder 249 complex partial seizures 226 cuddling babies 135
bonding conduct disorder 248 complicated grief 130 cultural influences 199
disorder 241 developmental delay 247 comprehension, and aging 215 cynophobia 240
love and 134 and stress 199 dyslexia 153 compulsions 241 cytoplasm 70, 71
oxytocin 135 cells maternal love 134 computed tomography (CT) scans
bones cell membrane 70 personality development 200 D
in ear 90, 94 cerebral cortex 68–69 reading and writing 152 12, 222
skull 53, 54 and consciousness 181 see also babies computers Dale, Henry H. 9
borderline personality disorder retina 81 chimpanzees Dali, Salvador 191
stem cells 218 brains 49 artificial intelligence 217 danger, thrill-seeking 131
245 support cells 68, 71 language areas 147 brain-machine interfaces 216 Darwin, Charles 9
bottom-up processing 79, 87 see also glial cells; neurons Chinese room, theory of consciousness 219 day length 190
bovine spongiform central executive, memory 157 concentration 179, 186 daydreaming 186
central nervous system (CNS) consciousness 179 concha, ear 94 De Clerambault’s syndrome 244
encephalopathy (BSE) 231 chloride ions, nerve impulses 72 concrete-mindedness 172 deafness 78, 91
bowels, panic responses 127 40–41 chloroform 112 concussion 225 death 238
bradykinesia 119 evolution of 48 cholinergic circuits 130 conduct disorder 245, 248 decision-making 11, 169, 211
bradykinin 106 central sulcus, imaging 29 chorea 58, 119, 234 conduction aphasia 149
brain death 238 cerebellar cortex 63, 117 choroid, eye 81 cone cells, retina 81, 88 and aging 214
Brain Research through Advancing cerebellar hemispheres see choroid plexuses, cerebrospinal congenital analgesia 109 agency and intention 193
congruence 139 morality 140
Innovative Neurotechnologies cerebellum fluid 45 conjunctiva, eye 80 “declarative” memories 158, 160
(BRAIN) 75 cerebellar peduncles 62 chromosomes 196 connective tissue deep brain stimulation 218
brain waves cerebellum 52, 53, 55, 56, 62, support cells 68, 71 for depression 239
and consciousness 181 Down syndrome 236 white matter 69 for movement disorders 232
and creativity 170 63, 69, 208 chronic fatigue syndrome 225 connectivity 39 for Tourette’s syndrome 243
electroencephalographs 12 anatomy 63 cilia, hair cells 94 Connectome 9, 74 default-mode network (DMN) 184
“brain-in-a-vat” 180 and conversation 151 cingulate cortex conscious awareness 179, 180 defenses, physical 45
brain-machine interfaces 216 disorders 119 conscious movement 116, 117 degenerative disorders 222, 223
brain stem 52, 62–63, 208 functions 63 and aggression 200 conscious vision 84 déjà vu 163
anatomy 62 imaging 32 and depression 239 consciousness 6, 176–193 Delgado, José 10
brain death 238 internal structure 63 emotions 126 altering 186–187 Delta waves, sleep 181
coma 238 and memory 156, 157 self-consciousness 192 attention and 182–183 delusions
emotions 128, 129 planning movement 117 social cognition 184 dissociation 186 delusional disorder 244
executing a movement 118 cerebral cortex 55, 66–69 see also anterior cingulate emotions 126, 128–129 schizophrenia 244
functions 38, 63 association areas 68 investigating the brain 8 dementia 203, 214, 230
hearing 94 and consciousness 180 cortex; posterior cingulate and language 146 Alzheimer’s disease 230, 231
imaging 27 cortical folding 69 cortex levels of 192 artificial hippocampus 161
locked-in syndrome 63 cortical functioning 69 cingulate gyrus 64, 65 locating 180–181 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease 231
reticular formation 112 cortical layers 68, 69 cingulate sulcus 65 in machines 219 Huntington’s disease 234
breastfeeding 135 development 208 circadian rhythm 63 proprioception 104 demons, exorcism 222
breathing evolution 49 Circle of Willis 45, 46 requirements of 181 dendrites 69, 70, 71
panic responses 127 functional areas 67 circuits self 192–193 synapses 71
regulation of 112 functions 57 emotion circuits 128 sensory information 79 dendritic spines 71
Broca, Paul 9, 10 hippocampus 65 forming memories 158 sleep and dreams 188–189 dentate gyrus 65, 212, 213
Broca’s area 10, 148 imaging 18 CJD (Creutzfeldt-Jakob time 190–191 dentate nucleus, cerebellum 117
aphasia 149 landmarks 66 types and levels of 179 dependent personality disorder 245
imaging 25 limbic lobe 65 disease) 231 what is consciousness? 178–179 depolarization, nerve impulses 72
and memory 157, 203 memory 157 clairvoyance 173 constellations, mental depression 185, 203, 222, 223, 239
reading 152 pain signals 106, 108 claustrophobia 240 and creativity 170
speech 151, 203 sense of taste 101 “clocks” 190 disorders 223 genetics and 197
Brodmann areas 67, 68 structure 68–69 clonic seizures 226
Brodmann, Korbinian 9, 67 clots see blood clots
brown fat 113 cluster headaches 224
CNS see central nervous system
cooperation, personality

markers 200

257

INDEX depression continued dorsolateral prefrontal cortex emotions continued expressions 127, 136–137, 139 field sobriety tests 104
grief and 129 and consciousness 180 conscious emotions 128–129 microexpressions 136 “fight or flight” response 127,
pacemakers and 219 and morality 140 and consciousness 179
and conversation 150 exterior globus pallidus 53, 54 129, 240
depth, vision 83, 89 Down syndrome 236, 248 and decision-making 169 extradural hematoma 225 filum terminale 42
dermatomes 42 drawings, autistic savants desire and reward 130–131 extroversion, personality markers fish, brains 48
dermis 102 and dreams 189 fissures
Descartes, René 6, 8, 178 164–165, 174 empathy and sympathy 140 200
desire 130 dreams 188, 189 and experience of pain 109 eyes 80–89 cerebellum 63
expressing 136 cerebral cortex 66
and dreams 189 conscious perception 181 feeling 128 attention 182, 183 flashbacks, post traumatic stress
detritus 188 lucid dreams 189 gender differences 198 bionic eyes 218
development and aging 206–219 driving, movements 116 gestures 145 blindness 78 disorder 164, 241
developmental delay 247 drop attacks 226 laying down a memory 160, 161 blindsight 79 flavor-aversion learning 101
drowsiness 188 limbic system 126 brain stem functions 63 flight response 127, 129, 240
learning disability 248 narcolepsy 238 loss of control 193 communication 144 flocculonodular lobe 63
developmental disorders 222, 223 drugs mirroring 123 eye contact 144 flow 193
devils, history of mental illness 222 addiction to 130, 211 morality 140, 141 eye-tracking studies 86–87 fMRI (functional magnetic
diabetes, and aging 215 altering consciousness 186 post traumatic stress disorder facial expressions 136–137
diagnosis opiates 107 164, 241 iris 208 resonance imaging) 7, 12, 13
placebo effect 109 reading 137 macular degeneration 218 focus, ability to 183
Down syndrome tests 236 and proprioception 104 and recognition 163 nerves 43 focused attention 182
mental disorders 222 sleeping drugs 189 recognition of faces 84 neurons 71 folia, cerebellum 63
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual dualism 178 responding to 139 panic responses 127 folic acid 237
Duchenne, Guillaume 137 schizophrenia 244 retina 81, 208 “folk memory” 187
(DSM) of Mental Disorders 222 “Duchenne” smile 137 and sense of smell 96, 99 seeing 88–89 follicle-stimulating hormone
diaphragm, motor neuron disease dura mater and the supernatural 173 sending information to
skull 56 timing 129 (FSH) 61, 114
235 spinal cord 42 thalamus 60 food
diencephalon 53, 60 dyscalculia 248 empathy 140, 141 structure 80–81
diet see food dysgraphia 153 facial expressions and 139 visual pathways 80, 84–85 and aging 215
diffusion tensor imaging 13 dyslexia 149, 153, 248 and literacy 152 visual perception 86–87 appetite control 115
digestive system, panic treating 153 mirror neurons 11 eating disorders 246
dysphasia 149 F taste 100–101
responses 127 dyspraxia 248 encephalins 107 foramen magnum 53, 62
digital modeling 75 encephalitis 227 fabricated and induced illness (FII) foramina, facial bones 54
digital simulation 75 E endocrine system 114–115 243 forebrain 53
direction, attention to 183 foresight 173
disbelief 172 eardrum 90, 91, 94 pituitary gland 61 face forgetting 156, 164
diseases and disorders 220–249 ears 90–95 endoplasmic reticulum 70 autism spectrum disorders 249 Alzheimer’s disease 231
endorphins 107 babies 213 blocking memory 164
causes 223 anatomy 90 endoscopes, transnasal surgery 232 bones 54 form, visual perception 89
constellations and spectrums balance 105 energy, sources of 45 expressions 127, 136–137, 139 fornicate gyrus 65
deafness 78, 91 English language, dyslexia 153 pain 107 fornix 53, 55, 65
223 hearing 94–95 enochlophobia 240 patternmaking 173 fovea 81
diagnosis 222 nerves 43 entorhinal cortex, memory 161 recognition 83, 84, 85, 139, 163, fractures, skull 225
historical theories of 222 sending information to environment 209 fragile X syndrome 248
see also individual disorders sending information to free will 11, 169, 193
disgust 128 thalamus 60 influence of 196 thalamus 60 Freeman, Walter 11
adaptive behaviors 129 earthworms 48 and intelligence 168 sexual attraction 134 “freezing,” motor disorders 119
bad odors 98 East Asia, cultural influences 199 and schizophrenia 244 smiling 129, 137 Freud, Sigmund 9, 184, 222
facial expressions 136 eating disorders 242, 246 enzymes 197 symmetry 134 and dreams 189
dislocated self 193 Ebbinghaus illusion 175 epidermis, skin 102 on hysteria 242
disorganized schizophrenia 244 echolocation 91 epigenetic changes 196, 197 facial nerve 43 friendship 134
dissociation 186 ecstasy epilepsy 226 facial nucleus 58 frogs, brains 48
dissociative identity (DID) 201 pacemakers and 219 factitious disorders 243 frontal bone 54, 66
distorting illusions 175 out-of-body experiences 187 seizures 181 factual recognition, faces 84 frontal cortex
distraction, and experience of supernatural experiences 173 split brain 204 fairies 173 bilingualism 149
ECT see electroconvulsive therapy epinephrine (adrenaline) 114 “falling in love” 134 brain development 210, 212
pain 109 EEG see electroencephalography and heat production 113 Fallon, James 141 and consciousness 180
divided attention 182 Egypt, ancient 6, 8 stress response 240 false memory 164 emotions 126, 128, 129
DNA 196, 197 Einstein, Albert 199, 204–205 thrill-seeking 131 fasciculus cuneatus 62 false memory 164
electrical impulses 38 episodic memory 157, 160 fasciculus gracilis 62 functions 138
Huntington’s disease 234 brain-machine interfaces 216 epithelium, olfactory 97 fat tissues and limbic system 64
in neurons 70 executing a movement 119 erotomania 244 pain signals 108
dogs imaging techniques 9 erythropoietin 114 brown fat cells 113 planning movement 117
brains 49 nerve impulses 72–73 Escher, M. C. 175 regulation of hunger 115 Tourette’s syndrome 243
expressions 136 scanning the brain 12, 13 estrogen 114 fatigue, chronic fatigue syndrome frontal lobe 66, 69
sense of smell 97, 98 electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) 202 ether 112 altered brain states 186
dolphins, brains 49 electrodes 9 ethics, biotechnology 218 225 attention 182
dopamine 73 electroencephalography ethmoid bone 54 fatty acids 100 and consciousness 180
and addiction 130, 245 euphoria 130, 134 fatuous love 134 and creativity 171
and aging 214 (EEG) 6, 12, 202 eustachian tube 90 fear decision-making 169
anticipation 130 brain death 238 evolution 48–49 dreams 189
and attention deficit elephants and aging 214 adaptive behaviors 129 emotions 128
brains 49 of language 147 body language 144 imaging 17
hyperactivity disorder 246 impossible drawing 175 sense of smell 98 facial expressions 127, 136 intelligence 168
bipolar disorder 239 embodied cognition 138 sense of taste 100 hemispheres and 128 memory 156, 157, 160, 161
and brain “clocks” 190 embolus excitatory neurotransmitters 73 hypothalamus and 126 visual pathways 84, 85
and desire 130 stroke 229 and personality 200 and moods 129 visual perception 88
and emotions 127, 128 transient ischemic attacks 228 and subjective time 190 phobias 127, 240 frontal-polar cortex, imaging 16
“falling in love” 134 embryonic disk 208 excitement, and aging 214 feedback mechanisms functional brain imaging 12
genetic influences 197 emotions 39, 124–131 exercise neuroendocrine system 114 functional disorders 223
and humor 171 amygdala 187 and aging 215 proprioception 104 functional magnetic resonance
Parkinson’s disease 234 artificial intelligence 217 effect on brain 38, 44 feelings see emotions
and patternmaking 173 body language 144 exorcism 222 feigning disease 243 imaging (fMRI) 7, 12, 13
reward system 115, 130 and brain maturity 212 female brain 198 fungi, brain abscesses 228
and schizophrenia 244 cerebral cortex 67 femininity fusiform gyrus
substantia nigra 58 conflicting emotions 137 female brain 198
thrill-seeking 131 and sexual attraction 134 emotions 129
dorsal horn, pain signals 106 fetus, development of hearing 93
dorsal pathway, vision 84–85, 89
dorsal root, spinal nerves 42
dorsal striatum 58

258

fusiform gyrus continued greebles 83 hippocampus 53, 65, 209 I intelligence 168–169 INDEX
face recognition 139 Greece 8 artificial hippocampus 161, 219 artificial intelligence 217
imaging 31 gray matter 44 cellular organization 59 “I,” self-consciousness 192 decision-making 169
and consciousness 180 “ice-pick” lobotomy 11 IQ (“intelligence quotient”) 168,
future prospects 216–217 bilingualism 149 and depression 239 illness see diseases and disorders 170
cerebral cortex 68 dreams 189 and size of brain 44, 168, 205
G spinal cord 42 emotions 126, 127 and individual disorders
in thalamus 60 general anesthetics 112 illusions intention
GABA see gamma-aminobutyric grief 129 imaging 24 mirroring 123
acid complicated grief 130 limbic system 64, 65 cognitive illusions 174–175 self-consciousness 193
growth of brain 39 memory 65, 156–163, 164, 213 Mona Lisa illusion 85
Gage, Phineas 8, 10, 141 growth hormone (GH) 61, 114 and novelty-seeking 200 motion 85 interior globus pallidus 53, 54
Galen 8 gustatory areas 101 reading 152 visual perception 87 intestines, hormones 114
Gall, Franz Joseph 9, 10 gymnasts 105 smell and 99 imagination intimacy 134
Galvani, Luigi 8 gyri (gyrus) 54, 209 spatial memory 162 and creativity 170 intoxication test 162
Gamma waves, and creativity 170 cerebral cortex 66, 67, 69 and literacy 152 intracranial cavity 44
gamma-aminobutyric acid Hippocrates 222 imaging techniques 6–7, 9, intraparietal sulcus 169
H histamine 73, 106 introspection 192
(GABA) 73 history 12–13, 222 invertebrates, evolution
and emotions 127 hematoma 225 immune system
epilepsy 226 subdural 229 investigating the brain 8–9 of brain 48
and sleep 188 neuroscience 10–11 autoimmune diseases 235, 238 investigating the brain 8–9
ganglia see nuclei hemorrhage 225 histrionic personality brain abscesses 228 ion channels, in hippocampus 65
ganglions, sensory nerves 42 hemorrhagic stroke 229 encephalitis 227 ions, nerve impulses 72, 73
gender differences subarachnoid hemorrhage 229 disorder 245 implants IQ (“intelligence quotient”) 168,
emotions 126, 127 subdural hemorrhage 229 HM (Henry G. Molaison) 11, 159 artificial hippocampus 161, 219
and facial symmetry 134 Holmes, Gordon Morgan 9 bionic eyes 218 170
influencing the brain 198 hair cells, in ear 90, 91, 94 homeostasis 114 cochlear 91, 94 iris, eye 80
stria terminalis 126 hairs Homo erectus 49 early experiments 10 iron, in basal ganglia 214
general anesthetics 112 Homo habilis 49 implicit memory 157, 160 ischemic stroke 229
generalized anxiety disorder 240, “goose bumps” 113 Homo neanderthalensis 49 impulses see nerve impulses Italian language, dyslexia 153
touch receptors 102 homosexuality 198 impulsive ADHD 246 itching 102
242 hallucinations hormones inattentive ADHD 246
generalized seizures 226 schizophrenia 193, 244 incubi 189 J
genes and genetics 196–197 supernatural experiences 173 and brain changes 211, 213 incus 90
halothane 112 and day length 190 individuality 38, 198 jamais vu 163
and addictions 245 hands and emotions 126, 127 infatuation 134 jaw bones 53
Alzheimer’s disease 231 anarchic hand syndrome (AHS) feedback mechanisms 114 infections jealous delusional disorder 244
attention deficit hyperactivity neuroendocrine system 114–115 encephalitis 227 joints, proprioceptors 104
57 oxytocin 135 meningitis 227 judgments, morality 140–141
disorder 246 bionic arms 219 pituitary gland 61 inferior colliculus 62, 95, 118 Jung, Carl 187
autism spectrum disorders 249 gestures 145 pituitary tumors 230 inferior temporal lobe, visual “junk” DNA 196
and individuality 38 handedness 57, 199 twins 199
and intelligence 168 manual dexterity 247 hospital addiction syndrome 243 pathways 85 K
and language 147 phantom limbs 104 Human Brain Project (HBP) 75 inflammation 106
and personality 200 touch receptors 103 human genome 196, 197 Ke Jie 217
personality disorders 245 happiness, facial expressions 137 humor 171 brain abscesses 228 kidneys
tests in pregnancy 236 “hard” problems, vision 88 “humors,” history of mental encephalitis 227
genetic diseases hatred 128 meningitis 227 hormones 114
Huntington’s disease 234 Hawking, Stephen 235 illness 8, 222 influencing the brain 198–199 thirst 115
motor neuron disease (MND) 235 head hunger 115 information knee, patellar spinal reflex 116
schizophrenia 244 cranial nerves 43 Huntington’s disease 234 creativity 170 knowledge
Tourette’s syndrome 243 injuries 6, 225 hydra 48 dreams 189 and aging 215
geniculate nuclei 53, 60 see also face; skull hydrocephalus 237 illusions 174 self-consciousness 192
genome 196, 197 headaches 224 hydrogen atoms, magnetic processing 38 taxi drivers 162
Geschwind’s territory 148 hearing 90–95 sensations 39
gestures 145 cerebral cortex 67 resonance imaging 13 signaling speed 39 L
ghosts 173 conversation 150 hyperactive ADHD 246 infrared light, hearing 94
ghrelin 115 development of 93 hyperkinesia 119 inheritance patterns 197 L-dopa 173
glands hearing loss 91 hyperlexia 153 inhibitory neurotransmitters language 38
neuroendocrine system 114 perception of sound 92–93 hyperthymesia 164
see also adrenal glands; heart hyperventilation 127 73, 190 autism 223
hormones 114 hypnosis 186, 222 injuries bilingualism 149
pituitary gland panic responses 127 hypochondria 242 brain imaging 13
Glasgow Coma Scale 238 regulation of heart rate 112 head injuries 225 Broca’s area 10, 148
glial cells 44, 68, 70, 71 heart attack, referred pain 107 and creativity 170 and language problems 149 conversation 150–151
heat, thermoreceptors 102, 113 hypocretins 238 pain 106–107 definition 146
cerebellum 63 Helmholtz, Hermann von 8 hypodermis 102 inkblot test 201 development 209
cerebral cortex 67 hemiplegia 236 hypoglossal nerve 43 “inner ear” 157 developmental milestones 247
global aphasia 149 hemispheres hypokinesia 119 “inner speech” 39 dyslexia 153
globus pallidus 58, 117 and aging 215 hypomania, and creativity 170 insomnia 188 evolution of 147
glossopharyngeal nerve 43, 101 basal nuclei 58 hypothalamus 53, 55, 56, 61 instability, postural 119 gender differences 198
glucagon 114 missing 205 instincts genes 147
glucose 45 split brain 11, 204 anticipation 130 collective unconsciousness 187 and handedness 199
and aging 215 tumors 230 appetite control 115 empathy and sympathy 140 language areas 148–149
PET scans 12 see also left hemisphere; right dreams 189 language 146 language problems 149
glutamate 73 emotions 126, 127, 128 morality 140–141 and memory 157
glutamic acid 73 hemisphere functions 113 insula 66 origins of 146–147
glycine 73 Hensen’s cells 90 gender differences 198 and cooperative behavior 200 and perception 147
Golgi, Camille 9 herbivores, sense of taste 100 hormones 114 conflicting emotions 137 reading and writing 152–153
Golgi cells 63 heroin limbic system 64 and disbelief 172 specific language impairment 248
Golgi complex 70 narcolepsy 238 emotions 128, 129 and thinking 179
“goose bumps” 113 addiction 130 neuroendocrine system 114 imaging 22 Wernicke’s area 10, 148
gorillas, brains 49 pain relief 107 oxytocin 135 self-awareness 138, 139 larynx, and evolution of
grammar 146 Herpes simplex virus 227 sleep-wake cycles 115 sense of taste 101
of gestures 145 heterosexuality 198 and stress 199 insular cortex 108 language 147
grand mal epilepsy 226 hierarchy of brain 53 stress response 240 insulin 114, 115 lateral Brodmann areas 67
Grandin, Temple 249 hindbrain 53, 62 thermoreceptors 113 insulin-like growth factor lateral corticospinal tract 118
grandiose delusional disorder 244 hippocampal fold 69 hysteria 242 lateral geniculate nucleus 80, 81
granule cells, cerebellum 63 and creativity 170 (IGF) 196

259

INDEX lateral hypothalamic area 113 longitudinal fissure 66 melanocyte-stimulating hormone mimicry movement and control 110–123
lateral hypothalamic nucleus 115 loss of control 193 (MSH) 61, 114 mirror neurons 11 attention 183
lateral lobes, cerebellum 63 loss, emotions 128 personality development 200 blindsight 79
lateral sulcus 66 Lou Gehrig’s disease 235 melatonin 114, 178 cerebral palsy 237
love 134–135 circadian rhythm 63 mind executing a movement 118–119
asymmetry 57 lucid dreams 189 sleep-wake cycles 115 consciousness 178–179 illusions 85
Einstein’s brain 205 lumbar puncture 227 dualism 178 mirroring 122
laughter 171 lumbar region, spinal nerves 42 membranes mind-control technology 216 motor disorders 119
and visual illusions 87 lumbar vertebrae 42 cell membrane 70 mirror neurons 11 multiple sclerosis 235
learning 154–165 lungs see also meninges theory of 139 neuroendocrine system 114–115
anticipation 130 nuclei 58
flavor-aversion learning 101 panic responses 127 memory 38, 156–165 mind reading 217 parkinsonism 234
intelligence 168 regulation of breathing 112 accessing memories 159 mind/body problem 178 planning 116–117
long-term potentiation 197 luteinizing hormone (LH) 61, 114 Alzheimer’s disease 231 mindfulness 187 proprioception 104
memory 156, 157 anticipation 130 “ministrokes” 228 reflex actions 116
reading and writing 152 M artificial hippocampus 161, 219 mirror illusion, phantom limbs 104 regulation 112–113
learning disability 248 association 159 mirror neurons 11, 122–123, 139 unconscious action 120–121
Down syndrome 236 macaques, language areas 147 autism 249 mirror writing 153 vision 85, 89
language problems 149 McEwan, Ian 244 cerebral cortex 67 mitochondria 70
left hemisphere 53 McGurk effect 78 collective unconsciousness 187 mixed cerebral palsy 237 “Mozart effect,” listening to music
bilingualism 149 machines and conversation 150, 151 mixed delusional disorder 244 93
and conversation 151 déjà vu and jamais vu 163 modeling, digital 75
functions 57 artificial intelligence 217 dementia 230 modiolus 90 MRI (magnetic resonance
and language 146 brain-machine interfaces 216 distribution in brain 158 modules 38 imaging) 7, 9, 13, 14–35, 74,
split brain 204 consciousness 219 and emotions 126 Molaison, Henry G. (HM) 11, 159 222
left-handedness 57, 198, 199 macular degeneration, eyes 218 forming memories 158 molecules 41
legs “mad cow disease” 231 head injuries 225 multi-infarct dementia 230
executing a movement 118 madeleine effect, sense of smell hippocampus and 65, 156–163, neurotransmitters 73 multi-sensory perceptions 39
motor neuron disease 235 164, 213 smell 96, 97 multitasking 182
phantom limbs 104, 193 99 HM (Henry G. Molaison) 11, 159 Mona Lisa illusion 85 multiple sclerosis (MS) 71, 223,
lemurs 138 madness, and creativity 170 inability to store 159 monism 178
lens, eye 80 magnetic encephalography (MEG) laying down a memory 160–161 Moniz, Egas 9, 11 235
lentiform (lenticular) nucleus 58 location of 161 monkeys multipolar neurons 71
Leonardo da Vinci 174 7, 12, 13 long-term potentiation 158, 197 and facial symmetry 134 Munchausen’s by proxy 243
leptin 115 magnetic resonance imaging movement memory 120 language areas 147 Munchausen’s syndrome 243
letters multiple personalities 201 monoamine oxidase, and muscles
reading and writing 152–153 (MRI) 7, 9, 13, 14–35, 74, 222 oxytocin and 135
visual processing 79 male brain 198 and personality 200 depression 239 cataplexy 238
Lewy body dementia 230 malingering 243 phobias 127 monoamines 73 executing a movement 118–119
Libet, Benjamin 9, 11, 191, 193 malleus 90 post traumatic stress disorder moods 129 facial expressions 136–137
lie detection 217 mamillary body 55 164, 241 motor disorders 119
life, quality of 134 principles of 156–157 bipolar disorder 239 motor neuron disease 235
life-support machines 238 and emotions 126 reading 152 and decision-making 169 moving 117
lifestyle, and aging 215 functions 58, 64 recall and recognition 84, mood disorders 168 multiple sclerosis 235
ligaments, proprioceptors 104 memory 156 neurotransmitters and 197 paralysis 236
light mammals, brains 49 162–163 morality 140–141, 210 proprioceptors 104, 105
after-images 174 manic-depressive illness 239 short- and long-term memory morphine sleep paralysis 189
hearing light 94 manual dexterity, developmental addiction 130 music 196
optogenetics 203 156 pain relief 107 amusia 248
seasonal affective disorder 239 milestones 247 sleep and 188 mosaicism 236 creativity 170
sleep-wake cycles 115 mapping the brain 10, 74–75 smell and 99 Moscow Brain Research Institute hearing 93
vision 80, 82, 88 maps spatial memory 162 mutation 197
liking 130 storage 158–159 205 myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME)
limbic lobe 64, 65, 66 “body maps” 192, 193 super memory 164 motion see movement and
limbic system 64–65, 74, 211 spatial memory 162 suppressing 164 225
and desire 130 marijuana, and schizophrenia 244 types of 157 control myasthenia gravis 236
emotions 39, 126 Mars, canals on 174 unusual memory 164–165 motor control myelin sheaths 68, 70, 210, 212
“falling in love” 134 masculinity men
functions 57 male brain 198 emotions 126, 127 brain development 210 and aging 214, 215
hypothalamus and 113 and sexual attraction 134 influences on the brain 198 cerebral cortex 67 manufacture of 71
and recognition 163 massa intermedia 198 male brain 198 developmental milestones 247 multiple sclerosis 71, 235
smells and 64, 96, 98, 99 material universe, and and sexual attraction 134 executing a movement 119 myelinated axons, nerve impulses
and stress 199 meninges multiple sclerosis 235
limbs consciousness 178 skull 45, 54 nuclei 58 72
executing a movement 118 maternal love 134 spinal cord 42 paralysis 236 myelination 210–211, 212
phantom 104, 193 mathematics 205 meningitis 227 Parkinson’s disease 234 myelomeningocele 237
prosthetic 104, 219 maxilla 53 meningocele 237 motor cortex Myers-Briggs personality test 201
lipids 44 mazes, spatial memory 162 MENSA 168 and consciousness 180 myoclonic seizures 119, 226
listening ME (myalgic encephalomyelitis) menstrual cycle 99 disorders 119 mysophobia 240
Broca’s area 148 mental disorders 211, 222–223 executing a movement 118
conversation 150 225 and intelligence 168 pain signals 108 N
literacy 152 “meaningfulness” 186 Merkel’s disks 102 planning movement 117
literal-mindedness 172 measles virus 227 mesencephalon 53 self-awareness 139, 192 nanorobots 218
liver, alcohol addiction 245 medial Brodmann areas 67 Mesmer, Franz Anton 8, 222 speech 151 narcissistic personality disorder
lobes, cerebral 66 medial frontal cortex 184 metabolic rate, and heat
see also individual lobes medial frontal gyrus 140, 217 motor nerves 245
lobotomy 11 medial preoptic nucleus 113, 198 production 113 bionic arms 219 narcolepsy 188, 238
location, attention to 183 median sulcus 62 metastases, brain tumors 230 disorders 119 nasal cavity 53
locked-in syndrome 63 medicine microexpressions 136 executing a movement 119 nature and nurture 196–197
Lomo, Terje 9 microglia 71 reflex actions 116 navigation, spatial memory 162
long-term memory 156, 158, biotechnology 218–219 microtubules 70 spinal cord 42 Neanderthals 49
see also drugs mid-frontal area, and “Near Death Experiences” 187
160–161 meditation 187 motor neuron disease (MND) 235 neck, motor neuron disease 235
long-term potentiation 158, 197 medulla 53, 56, 62 numbers 169 motor tics, Tourette’s syndrome Necker cubes 87
functions 57, 63 midbrain 53, 55, 62 necrophobia 240
pain signals 106 243 neglect 85
sense of taste 101 disorders 119 mouth Neisseria meningitidis 227
MEG (magnetic encephalography) limbic system 64 neocortex 74, 138
migraine 224 facial expressions 136–137 nerve fibers 68
7, 12, 13 Milner, Brenda 9 motor neuron disease 235
Meinhof, Ulrike 205 sending information to nuclei 58
Meissner’s corpuscles 102 pain fibers 107
melanin 58 thalamus 60
melanocortin 115 sense of taste 100, 101
speech 151

260

neocortex 74, 138 Parkinson’s disease 234 optical illusions 174 parietal cortex continued pinna 90, 94 INDEX
nerve fibers 68 neurotransmitters continued optimism, personality markers 200 self-consciousness 192 Piraha Indians 147
optogenetics 203 unconscious action 120 pituitary gland 53, 56, 61
nuclei 58 and personality 200 orbital frontal gyri 19
pain fibers 107 sleep-wake cycles 188 orbitofrontal cortex 68, 213 parietal lobe 66, 69 emotions 126
spinal cord 42 and time 190 altered brain states 186 hormones 114
see also axons; dendrites neurotubules 73 anticipation 130 emotions 128 hypothalamus and 113
nerve impulses 42, 72–73 neurulation 208 and body language 144 imaging 28 neuroendocrine system 114
nerve tracts, in brain stem 62 nicotine addiction 130, 245 conduct disorder 248 intelligence 168 oxytocin 135
nerves nightmares, post traumatic conflicting emotions 137 memory 156 pain relief 107
cranial nerves 43 and consciousness 180 morality 140 stress response 240
paralysis 236 stress disorder 241 decision-making 169 out-of-body experiences 173, 187 thirst 115
spinal nerves 42 Nixon, Richard 136 emotions 128 unconscious movement 117 tumors 230, 232
nervous system 40–43 nocebo effect 109 morality 140 visual pathways 84 placebo effect 109
aging 214 noise and obsessive-compulsive plaques, aging brain 214, 215
damage to 107 parietal-temporal junction, and plasticity 38, 197
evolution of 48 hearing 93 disorder 241 consciousness 180 Plato 8
nervousness 129, 240 Tourette’s syndrome 243 sense of smell 97 pleasure 127, 130–131, 135
networks, neural 41 nonpathological disease orexins 238 parkinsonism 234 pons 53, 56, 62
NeuraBASE 75 organ of Corti 90, 91, 94, 95 Parkinson’s disease 234 pontine nucleus,
neural correlates of consciousness feigning 243 organelles 70
noradrenaline (norepinephrine) orgasm 135 nuclei problems 58 cerebellum 117
181 orphans 135 pacemakers and 219 position, proprioception 104
neural crest 208 73, 239 orthonasal smell 96, 97, 101 and time 190 positron emission tomography
neural groove 208 noradrenergic receptors 130 ossicles, ear 90, 94 partial seizures 226
neural plate 208 nose otitis media 91 partitions and zones 56–57 (PET) 7, 12, 13
neural progenitor cells 71, 197 otosclerosis 91 passion 134 post traumatic stress disorder
neural tube 208 facial expressions 136–137 out-of-body experiences (OBEs) passivity, sadness 129
sense of smell 96–97, 101 patellar spinal reflex 116 (PTSD) 164, 241
defects 237 transnasal surgery 232 187 pathological disease feigning 243 posterior cingulate cortex
neurites 70 nosophobia 240 parietal lobe and 186 patternmaking 172–173
neurocranium 54, 66 novelty-seeking, personality and spiritual transcendence 172 Pavlov, Ivan 205 imaging 34
neuroendocrine system 114–115 supernatural experiences 173 Penfield, Wilder 9, 10, 103 morality 140
neurofeedback 202 markers 200 ovaries, hormones 114 Penrose triangle 175 pain signals 108
neurogenesis 71, 197, 212, 213, nuclei 53, 58–59 overt attention 182 perception posterior cranial fossa 55
oxygen 45 backdating time 191 posterior nucleus, hypothalamus
215 in brain stem 62 regulation of breathing 112 brain development 210
neuroglia 68 in hypothalamus 61, 113 oxytocin 61, 135 and consciousness 179 113
neuromuscular junction 119 in thalamus 60 and fear 127 illusions 174–75 posterior parietal complex 108
neurons 41, 70–71, 210 nucleus accumbens 115, 130 functions 114, 213 language and 147 posterior temporal sulcus
numbers 169 multisensory perceptions 39
aging 44, 214–215 dyscalculia 248 P self-awareness 180 morality 140
Alzheimer’s disease 231 language and 147 visual perception 84, 86–87 self-awareness 139
attention 183 visual processing 79 pacemakers 218, 219, 243 peripheral nervous system (PNS) postnatal depression 213, 239
in cerebral cortex 68, 69 nurture see nature and nurture Pacinian corpuscles 102 postural instability 119
connectivity 39, 168 nutrition see food pain 106–109 40–41, 74 potassium ions, nerve impulses 72
epilepsy 226 nyctophobia 240 evolution of 48 potentiation, forming memories
general anesthetics 112 brain surgery 39, 109 persecutory delusional disorder
hippocampus 65, 212 O experiencing 108–109 158, 161, 197
learning 156, 157 headache and migraine 224 244 precuneus, imaging 34
memory 156, 158, 160, 161 Obama, Barack 199 inability to feel 109 persistent vegetative state 238 predictions 169, 173
mind reading 217 objective time 190 morality 140, 141 personality 38, 200–215 prefrontal cortex 66, 74, 209, 210,
mirror neurons 11, 122–123, 139 objects, recognition 83 pain relief 107
motor neuron disease 235 obsessive-compulsive disorder phantom limbs 104 learning 200 211, 212
multiple sclerosis 235 receptors 39, 102 multiple personalities 201 and brain “clocks” 190
nerve impulses 42, 72 (OCD) 164, 241, 242 reflex actions 116 and obsessive-compulsive conscious movement 117
neural networks 41 obsessive-compulsive personality social rejection 139 and consciousness 138, 180,
neurogenesis 71, 197, 212, 213, types of 107 disorder 241
disorder 245 pair bonding 134 personality assessment 201 192, 193
215 occipital bone 53, 54, 66 pancreas, hormones 114 personality disorders 245 decision-making 169
nuclei 58–59 occipital cortex 121 panic perspective illusions 175 and depression 203, 239
plasticity 197 occipital lobe 66 panic attacks 240 pessimism 211 and doing two things at once
regeneration 39, 71 phobias 127, 240 PET (positron emission
signal transmission 38 imaging 33 papillae, taste buds 100 168
spinal cord 42 octanoic acid 96 paradox illusions 175 tomography) 7, 12, 13 and dreams 189
spindle cells 126 octanol 96 parahippocampal gyrus 64, 65 petit mal epilepsy 226 emotions 128
synapses 71 oculomotor nerve 43 paralysis 236 phantoms morality 140
in thalamus 60 odors, sense of smell 96 motor cortex damage 119 post traumatic stress disorder
and time 190 olfaction see smell sleep paralysis 189 phantom limbs 104, 193
types of 71 olfactory bulb 64, 96, 101 paranoia visual phantoms 181 241
neuropathic pain 107 olfactory cortex and creativity 170 phenylethylamine, “falling in reward system 130
neuropeptide (NPY) 115 paranoid personality social rejection 139
neuroscience, history of 10–11 emotions 126 love” 134 thalamus and 60
neurostimulation 202–203 functions 97, 101, 213 disorder 245 phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) 100 pregnancy
neurosurgery 232–233 memory 162 paranoid schizophrenia 244 pheromones 99 prenatal depression 239
neurotransmitters 38, 71, 73 olfactory epithelium 97 paraplegia 236 philosophy, investigating the diagnostic tests during 236
and aging 214 olfactory nerve 43, 55, 101 parasites, brain abscesses 228 premotor cortex
Alzheimer’s disease 231 olfactory receptors 96 parenthood 213 brain 8 conscious movement 117, 118
anxiety disorders 240 olfactory tract 97 parietal bones 54 phobias 127, 240 decision-making 169
bipolar disorder 239 oligodendrocytes 69, 70, 71, parietal cortex phonological deficit hypothesis, thalamus and 60
and depression 239 attention 182 prenatal depression 239
and desire 130 212, 213 disorders 119 dyslexia 153 primary auditory cortex 30, 95
and emotions 128 olivary nuclei 53 and dreams 189 photoreceptors 80, 81 primary geniculate nucleus 95
executing a movement 119 olives 53 executing a movement 118 phrenology 10 primary motor cortex 117, 118
“falling in love” 134 omnivores, sense of taste 100 false memory 164 physical skills primary visual cortex
gene expression and 196 ophidiophobia 240 maths enhancement 203 and consciousness 180
and mood 197 opiate drugs 107, 130 pain signals 108 brain development 210 imaging 35
nerve impulses 72, 73 opiate system developmental milestones 247 visual perception 88–89
disorders 222 primates
pain relief 107, 130 pia mater and language 146, 147
sugar addiction 115 skull 56 sexual attraction 134
optic chiasm 53, 80, 88 spinal cord 42 social behavior 138
optic disk 80, 81 pictures, visual perception 86–87 prions, Creutzfeldt-Jakob
optic nerve 43, 80, 88, 208 piloelection 113
optic radiation 80, 81, 88 pineal gland 55, 62, 114, 178 disease 231
optic tracts 80 sleep-wake cycles 115

261

INDEX procedural memory 157, 160 repolarization, nerve impulses 72 and creativity 170 plasticity of brain 38 impairment 149
“processing gap,” and doing two reptiles, brains 48 schizotypal personality disorder 245 skin spectrums, mental
“reptilian brain” 48 Schumann, Richard 239
things at once 168 residual schizophrenia 244 Schwann cells 71 dermatomes 42 disorders 223
production aphasia 149 resting-state networks 184 sclera 80, 81 injuries 106 speech
progesterone 114 reticular activating system (RAS) Searle, John 179 itching 102
progressive bulbar atrophy 235 seasonal affective disorder proprioceptors 105 anatomy of 147
projective tests, personality 201 112 scalp 54 conversation 150–151
prolactin 61, 114, 213 reticular formation 112 (SAD) 239 structure 102 development of 93
proprioception 102, 104–105 sebaceous glands 102 touch receptors 102 dyslexia 153
propylthiouracil (PROP) 100 altered brain-states 186 seeing 88–89 skull 53, 54 hearing 93
prosencephalon 53 and consciousness 180 seizures and cerebral cortex 66 hyperlexia 153
prosopagnosia 85 and dreams 189 craniotomy 11, 232 language areas 148
prostheses 104, 218–219 reticular laminar 90 epilepsy 181, 226 fractures 225 origins of language 146–147
proteins 197 reticulospinal tract 118 status epilepticus 226 head injuries 225 problems 149
retina 80, 81 selective attention 182 phrenology 10 stuttering 149
accumulation in brain 215 bionic eyes 218 self protection of brain 45 Wernicke’s area 92
Alzheimer’s disease 231 neurons 71 agency and intention 193 and size of brain 44 Sperry, Roger 9, 11
amino acids 73 optic nerve 43 consciousness and 179, 180, trepanation 8 sphenoid bone 53, 54
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease 231 optogenetics 203 sleep 188–189 spina bifida 236
narcolepsy 238 seeing 88 192–193 and aging 215 spina bifida occulta 237
Proust, Marcel 99 sending information to losing the 193 brain waves 181 spinal accessory nerve 43
Pseudomonas 228 social behavior 138–139 circadian rhythm 63 spinal cord 42, 53, 208
psychasthenia, and creativity 170 thalamus 60 split brain experiments 11 consolidation of memories 161 cerebrospinal fluid 45
psychoanalysis 222 retronasal smell 96, 101 selfishness 141 dreams 189 disorders 119
and dreams 189 Rett syndrome 249 semantic memory 157, 160 narcolepsy 238 executing a movement 118–119
psychopaths 141 reward 130–31 semicircular canals, ear 90 sleep paralysis 189 lumbar puncture 227
psychosis 223 sensations 39 sleep-wake cycles 115, 188 motor neuron disease 235
psychotic deviation, and and aging 214 cerebral cortex 67 sleeping drugs 189 neural-tube defects 237
altruism 141 and consciousness 179 sleepwalking 188 pain signals 106
creativity 170 emotions 127 laying down a memory 160 smell, sense of 96–99 reflex actions 116
puberty 211 and humor 171 multiple sclerosis 235 brain areas 101 spinal tracts 118–119
pulvinar 158 sex, love, and survival 134–137 “sensed presence” 172 chemistry of 96 spinal nerves 40, 42
punch-drunk syndrome 225 rhinal sulcus 65 senses 76–109 and emotions 126 patellar spinal reflex 116
pupil, eye 80, 88, 144 rhombencephalon 53 attention 182–183 limbic system 64 spindle cells 126
Purkinje cells 63 ribosomes 70 dermatomes 42 perception of smell 98–99 spiritual experiences 172, 173
pus, brain abscesses 228 right hemisphere 53, 55 ears 90–95 smiling 129, 137 split brain 11, 204
putamen 52, 54, 58 emotions 128 eyes 80–89 smoking, nicotine stammering see stuttering
functions 57 information sent to brain 38 stapes 90, 91, 94
body memory 120 and language 146, 151 mixed senses 78 addiction 245 state-dependent memory 162
memory 156, 157 split brain 204 pain 106–109 smooth endoplasmic status epilepticus 226
planning movement 117 right and wrong 140–141 proprioception 104–105 stem cells 197, 218
pyramid 53 right-handedness 57, 198, 199 smell 96–99, 101 reticulum 70 stereocilia 90
pyramidal decussation 118 rigidity, motor disorders 119 spinal cord 42 sniffing, sense of smell 96 stereograms 83
risk-taking 141, 197, 211 synesthesia 78 social brain 134–143 stereoscopic smell 98
Q Ritalin 246 taste 100–101 stereotactic brain surgery 232
rituals touch 102–103 autism spectrum stimulus and reward 130
quadriplegia 236 altering consciousness 186 sensory aphasia 149 disorders 223, 249 stomach
quality of life 134 collective unconsciousness 187 sensory cortex hormones 114, 115
Rizzolatti, Giacomo 9, 11 emotions 127 developmental milestones 247 panic responses 127
R robots 216–217 laying down a memory 160, 161 expressions 136–139 storage, memory 158–159
and mirror neuron system 139 phantom limbs 104 personality markers 200 strange brains 204–205
Ramón y Cajal, Santiago 9 nanorobots 218 sensory nerves 208 the self and others 138–139 Streptococcus 228, 241
rapid eye movement (REM) Rockefeller Plaza (New York) 175 reflex actions 116 social awareness 138–139, 184 stress
rods, retina 81, 88 spinal cord 42 social groups 134 anxiety disorders 240
sleep 188, 189 romantic love 134 serotonin 73 and size of neocortex 138 family experiences 199
Rasmussen, T. 9 root hair plexus 102 bipolar disorder 239 social phobia 240 and intelligence 168
rats, investigating the brain 8 rootlets, spinal nerves 42 and body dysmorphic disorder sodium ions 65, 72 post traumatic stress disorder
reaction pathways 120–121 Rorschach inkblot test 201 soldiers, bonding 135
reading 152–153 rough endoplasmic reticulum 70 242 soma, neurons 70, 71 (PTSD) 164, 241
rubrospinal tract 118 and depression 239 somatic delusional disorder 244 shell shock 241
dyslexia 153, 248 Ruffini corpuscles 102 genetics and 197 somatic sensory system, stress response 240
hyperlexia 153 and obsessive-compulsive stria terminalis 126
reality, and consciousness 178 S proprioception 104–105 stress headaches 224
recall and recognition 162–163 disorder 241 somatization disorder 242 stria terminalis 126
receptor cells sacral region, spinal nerves 42 sex 134–135 somatosensory cortex 103 striatum, and social behavior 200
sense of smell 96–97 SAD (seasonal affective disorder) sex hormones 114, 127 stroke 203, 228, 229
thermoreceptors 102, 113 sexual orientation 198 executing a movement 118 brain remodeling 197
touch 102 239 shape-shifting illusions 174 pain 108 and language problems 149
recognition 163 sadness 128, 129 shell shock 241 phantom limbs 104 motor disorders 119
faces 83, 84, 85, 139, 163 shivering 113 self-consciousness 192 neurostimulation 203
objects 83 adaptive behaviors 129 short-term memory 156, 161 sense of taste 101 speech problems 151
oxytocin and 135 facial expressions 137 shrinking-body illusion 174 Sophie (robot) 216 vascular dementia 230
visual perception 89 Salem witch trials 172 sign language, primates 146 sound structures of the brain 52–55
recollection, memory 156 Sally-Ann test 139 signal transmission 38, 39 attention 183 stuttering 147, 149
red nucleus, cerebellum 117, 118 salt, thirst 115 Silbo language 146 subarachnoid hemorrhage 229
referred pain 107 satisfaction 130 simple partial seizures 226 dyslexia 153 subarachnoid space 56
reflex actions 116 savants, autistic 164–165, 174, 249 simulation 74–75 hearing 90, 91, 92–95 aging 214
and body language 144 scalp singing 151 language 146 lumbar puncture 227
regeneration, neurons 39, 71 nerves 54 sinoatrial node 112 localization 92 spinal cord 42
regulation, movement and control skin 54 sixth sense 104–105 seeing with (soundscapes) 89 subcutaneous tissue,
scanning the brain 12–13, 14–35 size of brain 44 Tourette’s syndrome 243
112–113 skepticism, and patternmaking spastic cerebral palsy 237 pain signals 107
Reissner’s membrane 90 and aging 214 spasticity 119 subdural hematoma 229
rejection, social 139 173 and evolution of brain 49 spatial awareness 65 subdural hemorrhage 229
relaxation 186 schizoid personality disorder 245 and intelligence 44, 168, 205 spatial memory 162 subfornical organ 115
religion 172 schizophrenia 185, 203, 223, 244 skills spatial relationships, visual
renin 115 brain development 210
repetitive behavior 223 and agency 193 pathways 85
catatonia 190 spatial skills 157
specific language

262

subjective time 190 telencephalon 53 transient ischemic attacks 228 unconscious vision 84 vision continued INDEX
substantia nigra 58 temperature, thermoreceptors thymus gland 114 unconsciousness 192 visual neurons 78
thyroid gland 114 visual pathways 84–85
and brain “clocks” 190 102, 113 thyroid-stimulating hormone collective unconsciousness 187 visual perception 86–87, 88–89
Parkinson’s disease 58, 234 temporal bones 54 coma 238 visual phantoms 181
planning movement 117 temporal lobe 66 (TSH) 61, 114 epileptic seizures 226
subthalmic nuclei 53, 55, 58 tics 119 general anesthetics 112 visual cortex 81, 82–83
planning movement 117 altered brain states 186 head injuries 225 and consciousness 180
succubi 189 and consciousness 180 Tourette’s syndrome 243 sleep 188 and dreams 189
sugar addiction 115 and conversation 151 timbre, music 93 understanding 179 imaging 35
suicide 197 imaging 21 time 190–191 undifferentiated schizophrenia and memory 157, 158, 161
sulci (sulcus) 54, 209 memory 156, 157 tiredness 115 mind reading 217
cerebral cortex 66, 67, 69 morality 140 244 reading 152
Sumerians 8 olfactory cortex 101 chronic fatigue syndrome 225 unipolar depression 223 and recognition 163
“superhighway,” intelligence 168 reading 152 tobacco, addiction 130 unipolar neurons 71 thalamus and 60
superior colliculus 53, 62 and the supernatural 173 Tomatis, Alfred 93 United States of America, cultural visual perception 88–89
attention 182 visual pathways 84 tone deafness 248
emotions 129 weird experiences 172 tongue influences 199 visual word-recognition area 152
superior olive, hearing 95 temporoparietal junction 69 vocal tics, Tourette’s syndrome
superior sagittal sinus 56 self-awareness 139 sense of taste 100 V
superior temporal sulcus tendons, proprioceptors 104, 105 speech 151 243
and body language 144 tennis players 120–121 tonic seizures 226 vacuoles 70 voices, autism spectrum
conflicting emotions 137 tension headaches 224 tonic-clonic seizures 226 vagus nerve 43
and numbers 169 testosterone 199, 211, 213 top-down processing 79, 87 disorders 249
supernatural 173, 187 thalamic bodies 60 touch, sense of 102–103 pacemakers 219 volume of brain 44
superstition 172–173 thalamus 53–56, 60 mirroring 122 values, morality 140 vomeronasal region (VMO) 99
“supertasters” 100 altered brain states 186 Tourette’s syndrome 243 Van Gogh, Vincent 170–173
supplementary motor cortex and consciousness 180 tower illusion 175 variant CJD 231 W
conflicting emotions 137 and dreams 189 trait tests, personality 201 vascular dementia 230
conscious movement 117, 118 emotions 126, 127, 128 trances 186 vase-face illusion 174 Wada test 146
and consciousness 180 functions 57, 58 transcortical motor aphasia 149 vassopressin 135 wanting 130
disorders 119 gender differences 198 transcortical sensory aphasia 149 “vegetative” centers 57 water
pain signals 108 general anesthetics 112 transcranial direct current veins, arteriovenous
support cells 68, 71 hearing 94, 95 in brain 44
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) imaging 26 stimulation (tDCS) 203 malformation 229 thirst 115
laying down a memory 160 transcranial magnetic stimulation ventral pathway, vision 84–85, 89 water on the brain
113, 115 limbic system 64 ventral pontine syndrome 63
surgery memory 156 (TMS) 171, 203 ventral striatum 128 (hydrocephalus) 237
and obsessive-compulsive transient ischemic attacks ventral tegmental area (VTA) 115, weight of brain 44
brain 109, 232–233 Wernicke, Karl 9, 10
deep brain stimulation 218, 233 disorder 241 (TIA) 228 130 Wernicke’s area 10, 92, 148
fetal 236 pain relief 107 translocation, chromosomes 236 ventricles 57
general anesthetics 112 pain signals 108 transnasal surgery 232 aphasia 149
lobotomy 11 planning movement 117 transsexuals, stria terminalis 126 aging 215 conversation 150
surprise post traumatic stress disorder trauma cerebrospinal fluid 45, 57 whistles, Silbo language 146
adaptive behaviors 129 hydrocephalus 237 white blood cells 45, 106
facial expressions 136 241 and epigenetic changes 197 ventriloquists 174 white matter 44, 69
survival, sex, love and 134–135 sense of taste 101 laying down a memory 160 ventrolateral prefrontal cortex 169 aging 215
sustained attention 182 and stress 199 post traumatic stress disorder ventrolateral preoptic nucleus 188 cerebellum 62, 63
swearing, Tourette’s syndrome Tourette’s syndrome 243 ventromedial nucleus, spinal cord 42
visual perception 88 (PTSD) 164, 241 in thalamus 60
243 The Matrix (film) 180 traumatic disorders 222, 223 hypothalamus 113 Williams syndrome 248
sweat glands 99, 102 theory of mind (ToM) 139 traumatic memory 164 ventromedial prefrontal cortex Willis, Thomas 8
Swift, Jonathan 205 empathy and sympathy 140 trepanation 8, 11 Wiltshire, Stephen 164–65
Sylvian fissure 57, 66 thermoreceptors 102, 113 triangle (VMPC) wine tasters 100
symbols thinking 39, 166–175 imposed 174 and belief 172 women
belief and superstition 172–173 Penrose 175 morality 140 emotions 126, 127
collective unconsciousness 187 brain-machine interfaces 216 tribar 175 vermis 63 female brain 198
communication 146 cognitive illusions 174–175 trigeminal nerve 43, 53 vertebrae 53 and sexual attraction 134
dreams and 189 and consciousness 179 facial pain 107 spina bifida 237 words 146
reading 152 controlling prostheses 218, 219 sense of taste 101 spinal nerves 42 “inner ear” 157
symmetry of brain, and language creativity 170–171 “trigger points,” facial pain 107 vertebrates, evolution of brain 48 Tourette’s syndrome 243
decision-making 169 trisomy 21 (Down Vesalius, Andreas 8 see also language
146 emotions 126 vestibular canal 90, 94 working memory 156, 157, 161
symmetry of face, and sexual humor 171 syndrome) 236 vestibulocochlear nerve 43, 90 worms 48
intelligence 168–169 trochlear nerve 43 vestibulospinal tract 118 worrying 240
attraction 134 language and 179 trust, oxytocin 135 vibrations hypochondria 242
sympathy 140 number sense 169 truth telling 217 hearing 90, 91, 94, 95 writers, creativity 170
synapses 70, 71 self-consciousness 192–193 tryanophobia 240 touch receptors 102 writing 152–153
Third Eye 178 tumors 230 virtual reality dysgraphia 153
memory 158 thirst 115 “brain-in-a-vat” 180 dyslexia 153, 248
nerve impulses 72, 73 thoracic region, spinal nerves 42 surgery 232 pain relief 109 hyperlexia 153
neural networks 41 thoracic spinal cord 53 tunnel of Corti 90 virtual body 193 mirror writing 153
synaptic cleft 71, 73, 119 thought see thinking turtles, brains 48 viruses
synaptic vesicles 73 threat, emotions 128 twins encephalitis 227 XYZ
synesthesia 78, 164 three-dimensional brain meningitis 227
genetics 199 visceral pain 107 X-rays, computed tomography
T imaging 12 religion 172 vision 80–89 (CT) 12
three-dimensional vision 83 “two minds” 82 bionic eyes 218
tangles, aging brain 214, 215 tympanic canal 90 bottom-up/top-down Yakovlevian torque 57
taste 100–101 paradox illusions 175 tympanum 90, 94 yawning 138
thrill-seeking 131, 200, 214 processing 79 zones and partitions 56–57
laying down a memory 160 throat U cerebral cortex 67, 68
taste associations 101 developmental milestones 247
tau 215 and evolution of language 147 “uncanny valley” 217 infant brain 209
taxi drivers, spatial memory 162 motor neuron disease 235 unconscious mind multiple sclerosis 235
technology 218–219 speech 151 reactions to visual stimuli
tectorial membrane 90 thrombus decision-making 11
teenagers stroke 229 emotions 127 120–121
emotions 39 memories 160 seeing 88–89
teenage brain 211 proprioception 104 split brain 204
psychoanalysis 222 visual agnosia 85
sensory information 79 visual attention defects 85
unconscious action 116, 117,

120–121

263

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