DK EYEWITNESS TREE

FEASTING ON LEAVES Life among the leaves
Many leaves are eaten by insect
larvae. Some, like these beetle Most of the animals that live on trees are invertebrates, or
larvae, feed just on the cells
between the leaf veins. animals without backbones. Every tree is home to vast numbers of
microscopic nematode worms, and also to thousands or even
millions of insects. For example, nearly 300 species of insects live
on mature oak trees; more than a hundred are moths whose
caterpillars live on or even in oak leaves. To combat this drain on
their resources, trees use chemical weapons in their leaves and
wood, and many produce a second flush of leaves in midsummer.
This makes up for the losses that they suffer in spring.

Adult gall wasp Gall falls from LEAF GALLS
leaf in late Galls develop on leaves as well as
summer; larva on stems. Button-shaped oak
develops in spangle galls each contain a single
leaf litter larva of a wasp; bean galls on
willow leaves are caused by the
larva of a sawfly.

Oak Oak
marble apple
gall
gall

Spangle galls Bean galls on
on oak leaf willow leaves

GALLS AND GROWTHS LEAF INSECTS
Galls (swellings) are created when These remarkable
a tree reacts to an intruder - often tropical insects are
the larva of a tiny wasp. The larva perfectly camou­
turns this abnormal growth to its flaged to look like the
advantage by living and feeding leaves they live among.
within the protective layer
formed by the gall.

TREETOP PREDATOR
The pine marten is one of the few
predatory mammals that lives among
the treetops. It feeds at night on

roosting birds, eggs,
insects, and fruit.

Paper case THE PAPER NEST
In spring, a queen wasp starts on the task of nest
Wasp nest hanging from tree Entrance to nest building. She chews wood fibers and mixes them
with saliva, shaping the pulp into shell-like
layers of paper which she hangs from a branch
or hole in a tree. After her first batch of eggs
hatch, the queen takes no part in further nest­
building. The young wasps carry on the task and
also collect food for the queen, who spends all
her time laying more eggs to increase the size of
the colony.

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50

Purple FUNGUS ATTACK
emperor Leaves are often attacked by fungi.
These sycamore leaves have been
Pine beauty attacked by tar spot fungus - a sign
moth that the tree grew in unpolluted air.

White Oak eggar
admiral moth

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS WINTER QUARTERS Infected patches
The caterpillars of woodland Every autumn, monarch turn black and
butterflies and moths feed on the butterflies migrate expand
leaves of trees or ground plants such southward to Mexico,
as violets and bramble. Although where they spend the
most do little damage, the pine winter crowded
beauty moth is a serious pest in together on pine tree
conifer plantations. trunks. All the
monarchs in North
America fly to the
same few pine woods
every year.

Acorns attacked Weevil More and more patches
by weevils FEEDING ON SEEDS of fungus appear during
Seeds and nuts are the summer; over half
Hazelnuts eaten attacked both on the the leaf may be
by voles tree and on the ground. covered by the time it
Weevils are specialist falls in autumn
seed-eaters; some bore
holes in acorns with
the aid of their long,
probing “snouts.”

HOME AMONG THE BRANCHES Chaffinch Leaf-eating mammals
The tangled lower branches of Cherry leaf eaten
small trees provide cover for the by caterpillar The only large mammals to live
nests of birds like the chaffinch. and feed on trees are found in the
This finch makes its nests from tropics, where trees are in leaf all
moss, lichen, and hair. year. Leaves are somewhat hard
to digest, so the animals spend
much of the day eating to get
enough nourishment.

Insect pupa THREE-TOED SLOTH
attached to This bizarre South American ani­
oak leaf mal spends most of its life hanging
upside down.
INSECT KOALA BEAR
ONSLAUGHT Koalas live almost entirely on euca­
The caterpillars of micromoths are so
small that they can squeeze between lyptus leaves (p. 13).
the upper and lower surfaces of
Cherry leaf leaves, tunneling as they feed. HOWLER
mined by MONKEY
micromoth Slow-moving
caterpillar South American
howler monkeys use their tails
as a fifth limb. This helps them
to climb through the treetops in
search of leaves.

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51

Life in the leaf litter Magnolia leaf skeletons
LEAF SKELETONS
Every autumn a mature oak tree Sometimes the leaf rots a little and then dries out
may shed something like a quarter before the tougher veins and midrib begin to
of a million leaves. Why then decompose. This produces a leaf skeleton.
doesn’t the ground beneath trees
become piled high with leaves as HIDING AMONG THE LEAVES
one autumn follows another? The answer is that Toads often hibernate under logs
once on the ground, leaves break down and decay. surrounded by leaves and leaf litter.
When a leaf falls, it becomes part of the leaf Although they are not true
litter - the top layer of ground that is made up woodland animals, they find plenty
of whole leaves and leaf fragments. As the leaf is to eat on the woodland floor before
buried by other leaves, bacteria and fungi feed on they enter hibernation. In North
it, causing it to decay. Finally, all that remains of America many kinds of
the leaf is a crumbly substance called humus. salamanders, which are also
This provides nutrients for growing plants, amphibians, use damp leaves as a
and so the substances in falling leaves are refuge in the heat of summer.
continually recycled.

MIXED LEAF LITtER BEECH LITTER
This litter is from a mixed Beech leaves rot very slowly. When they do
deciduous forest, and contains oak, eventually decay, they produce more acid
maple, and beech leaves. The rate at humus than that in a mixed forest.
which the leaves of different species rot Germinating
varies. The leaves of maples, for example, rot quite quickly.
Damp conditions will speed up the rotting process. ash seeds

Springtail -
a wingless insect

THE END PRODUCT GERMINATING Millipede Pseudoscorpion
The black specks seen here are humus - treë remains that have SEEDS Centipede A HIDDEN WORLD
been completely broken down. As leaves break down, Scavengers like pseudo­
the minerals they Pill millipedes scorpions and the
contain are released. animals that feed on
These minerals can them live in leaf litter.
then be absorbed by
other plants, including
trees themselves.

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52

Thuidium tamariscinum, HORIZONTAL GROWTH
a moss The wood anemone
spreads through the
humus with
underground stems. On
gray days, its delicate
flowers droop and close up
for protection from rain.

MOISTURE LOVERS EARLY INTO Winged ant WOODLAND BUILDERS
Mosses are small, FLOWER Nest of wood ant In deciduous forests,
flowerless plants that In deciduous forests, most species of ant nest
reproduce by releasing millions of tiny spores. small plants such under logs and tree
Many mosses live in damp woodlands. as primroses flower before the tree stumps; in coniferous
LIVERWORTS leaves open, when plenty of light still forests, wood ants build
These simple plants reaches the ground.
do not produce high mounds of
flowers. They are BANDED SNAILS pine needles.
common in damp The patterns and colors of these
woodland on the snail shells are for camouflage.
banks of streams.

Fern fronds The coniferous forest floor
unrolling in
spring The scales and needles of conifers take longer to decompose
than the leaves of broadleaved trees, and the humus they
produce is quite acid. Together with the year-round shade in
thick coniferous forests, the acid leaf litter prevents many
plants from establishing themselves. Where gaps between the
trees let in light, acid-tolerant plants such as ferns spring up.
Fungi thrive in coniferous leaf litter and produce large
numbers of toadstools in the autumn.

Ground beetles

Cones gnawed Pine leaf litter
by squirrels
Forest floor fungi

Bilberry
in flower

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53

Pollution and disease

The complicated processes that
power a tree’s growth need clean
air if they are to work efficiently.
Across many parts of the world, the
air is now highly polluted by fumes from cars, and
gases from factories and power stations. These
fumes reach high into the atmosphere and mix with
water and other chemicals to form rain that can be
as acid as vinegar. Although there is much
argument about the processes involved, there is
little doubt that this “acid rain” is responsible for
the decline of many forests.
A DYING FOREST
Acid rain damage was first noticed in the early 1970s, largely
through its disastrous effect on the wildlife of Scandinavian lakes.
Since then it has hit coniferous forests throughout central Europe,
HEALTHY TREE especially in Germany and Switzerland.
The damage caused by pollution It is also an increasing problem in
such as acid rain strikes both North America, particularly in the
coniferous and broadleaved trees. It industrialized northeast United States
is easiest to see in conifers, such as and in eastern Canada.
the yew, because conifer scales and
needles normally stay on the
tree for a number of
years. As a result, any
signs of sickness have
A FUTURE IN DOUBT a chance to build up. Long shoots indicate
Churchyard yew healthy growth

trees are often
centuries old. Acid
rain caused by air
pollution may Discoloration of leaves -
now threaten this may be a direct
their survival. effect of acid rain, which
enables ozone in the
Deep green color shows atmosphere to disrupt
that the leaf is full of the chemistry of the
chlorophyll, the substance leaves
which is essential in
harnessing the sun’s energy
(pp. 26 and 46)

Healthy leaves survive CITY DWELLER
well back on each twig The London plane fares better in
and along the branches polluted urban air than many
other trees. Whereas most city
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved. trees become blackened with
54 grime, it sheds the outermost
layers of its bark in large patches,
revealing cream-colored young
bark underneath.

DYING TREE Dieback of leading
This yew branch is from a tree that is losing its shoots
battle for survival. It is difficult to say exactly what
is causing the damage: drought and severe frost The “tinsel effect” - a sign
may be partly to blame, or a disease caused by a of sickness, in which the
virus. But acid rain and other forms of pollution area behind the tip of each
make the tree more vulnerable to damage, and twig loses its leaves
so are at least indirectly responsible
for its death.

DARK-COLORED MOTHS
After the Industrial Revolution, the
pepper moth’s dark form became
more common largely because it was
better camouflaged against tree
trunks blackened by soot.

How acid rain forms SICK TREE
Acid rain affects the
Acid rain is produced MIXING WITH WATER leaves directly, dis­
largely by two gases - oxides Sulfur and nitrogen rupting the production
of sulfur and nitrogen. oxides form an acid of chlorophyll. It also
These are released by solution when they weakens the tree by
factories, power stations, meet water in the altering the chemistry
and cars. When the gases mix atmosphere. of the soil that
with water in the atmosphere, surrounds its roots.
they form tiny droplets of INDUSTRIAL HAZARD TRAFFIC FUMES POISONOUS SOIL
acid. These fall as acid rain, Fossil fuels - coal, oil, Leaded gasoline Acid rain releases toxic
which attacks plant leaves and gas - release oxides releases lead, which metals, such as
and alters the chemistry of of sulfur and nitrogen is poisonous to both cadmium, from the soil.
the soil. when they are burned. plants and people.
The chief way that acid
rain can be prevented is by
reducing the emission of
sulfur and nitrogen oxides.
Special devices, for example,
are now built into some car
exhaust systems.

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55

From tree to timber

Before the arrival of steam-powered and then gasoline­
powered engines, turning trees into timber required a great deal
of labor. Felling a tree using axes was the easy part; the log then
had to be sawed by hand, a process that took many days. Today,
almost all the work is done by machines. Power saws make short
work of the thickest trunks, and then giant, hydraulically
operated jaws handle them on their way to the sawmill. Once
at the mill, a log is loaded onto a sliding cradle
and is sliced into boards by a giant band
saw. The way that a log is sawed
depends on the type of timber and
what it will be used for. Two simple
methods of cutting are shown here;
many other methods, like sawing “in the
THE SPRING LOG RUN round,” produce a complex pattern of
Water power was the traditional way to boards and smaller timber. All these
get logs to the sawmill in North methods are designed to get the greatest
America. Breaking up log jams was a amount of good quality wood from a log.
skilled business that called for perfect Nothing is wasted: whatever is left over
balance. Log runs like the one shown will end up as chipboard or pulp.
here caused great environmental FOREST SAWMILL
damage to the water and the banks of As settlers moved farther and farther
rivers; today they are rarely seen. westward in North America, logging
“THROUGH AND THROUGH” SAWING camps and sawmills were set up to
This is the simplest way of sawing a provide timber for their houses, barns,
log. However, the way the cuts and wagons.
are made through the grain
means that the boards that it Grain direction varies
produces are liable to warp, in different boards
so it is rarely used
with expensive
timber.

(c) 2011 Dorling Kinders5le6y. All Rights Reserved.

QUARTER SAWING
This method of sawing is complicated
and rather wasteful, but it
produces boards that have a
decorative grain and retain
their shape well.

WOODWORKING
Logs are sawed when still “green,” or full of sap.
Before it can be used, the timber must first be
seasoned, or left to dry. This process may take
well over a year unless a heated drying kiln
is used to speed it up by driving out most of
the moisture. The seasoned timber is then
sawed again into workable lengths.
This engraving of a cabinetmaker’s
shop shows the final stages in the
timber’s journey - planing, carving,
gluing, and joining.
MAKING VENEERS
A veneer is a thin layer of wood.
Veneers of expensive hardwoods
are used for decoration and to cover
cheaper timber. Softwood veneers
are glued together in a thick
sandwich to form plywood. Veneers
are traditionally cut in three
different ways.

SLICING
This is used
with woods such
as walnut and maple to produce
decorative grain patterns.

Radial boards all
run at right angles
to the growth rings

SAWING These segments are
Cutting ve­ cut into smaller-sized
neers with a boards
circular saw is done only on woods
that are particularly hard.

PEELING
Many veneers are cut
by rotating each log
against a stationary
blade to produce a
long, continuous sheet
of wood.

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Working with wood

People who work with wood traditionally divide it into two types - “hardwood,”
which comes from broadleaved trees, and “softwood,” which comes from conifers.
Sometimes these two words can be misleading. Yew, for example, is a softwood,
but it is actually as hard as oak. Balsa, on the other hand, is a hardwood. The
hundreds of different types of timber produced by the world’s trees vary
enormously. The heaviest wood, grown by an African tree related to the olive, is so
dense that it sinks like a stone in water. At
the other end of the scale, balsa is so light Light pinkish
that a four-inch (ten-centimeter) cube of it coloring typical
can weigh as little as 1.5 oz (40 g). of freshly cut
cherry wood
Melanesian
wood Planed
carving cherry wood

Planed yew Close grain
produced by
slow growth

Unplaned
yew

Knot

Dense knots CHANGING COLOR
typical of Many woods change color when they are
yew wood exposed to the air. Freshly cut cherry wood is
light with just a tinge of pink. As time goes by,
cherry wood grows darker, until, in very old
pieces of furniture, it becomes a deep red.

THE GUNSMITH’S WOOD
The rich color and swirling grain of polished walnut
makes it one of the cabinetmaker’s most prized
THE BOW MAKER’S WOOD THE MERRY MAYPOLE materials. It is also traditionally used to
Yew grows very slowly, and this gives the wood great Dancing around a wooden pole is a make the stocks of
weight and strength. Thin, springy yew branches were custom that dates back to pagan guns: walnut can be
once used for making longbows. Today, wood from yew times. The pole has been made worked into a
trunks is often cut in thin layers and used as a from a variety of comfortable shape,
decorative veneer. different woods. and it can stand,

without splitting,
the jolt of a gun
THE VERSATILE LARCH being fired.
Wherever a cheap, tough wood
is needed, larch is often the
ideal choice. The best quality
wood is used in furniture

making and boat
building; much
of the rest ends
up as pulp that is
used in the
manufacture
of paper.

Planed
walnut

Noticeable Rough, unplaned Unpolished
growth rings larch is used in walnut
in planed building
wood construction

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58

Noticeable
growth rings
revealed by
planing

Grain “inter­
locked,” or
banded in
alternating

directions - a
common feature

in tropical
timbers

Unplaned Unplaned wood
hickory showing color
produced by
NATURE’S SHOCK ABSORBER prolonged ex­
It takes a very heavy blow to shatter a piece of ash wood, and posure to air
this makes ash ideal for the handles of axes and spades. In TROPICAL TREASURE
Europe, ash wood was always the first choice for the Mahogany became highly prized after Spanish sailors
handles of tools until hickory started to be exported from brought back a gift of Caribbean mahogany for King Philip II
North America. Hickory is an even better shock in the 16th century. Since then, 400 years of reckless felling
absorber than ash. have all but exhausted the stock of wild mahogany, and with
it, much of the world’s best hardwood forests.

SKILLED WOODWORKER Planed iroko Natural chemicals
This engraving is one of a series protect iroko from
that depicts different skills. It attack by fungi
shows a turner, a craftsman who
makes “turned” wooden objects using Unplaned iroko
a lathe. The craft dates back to the
ancient Egyptians, who made many
turned chair legs and stools of
surprising quality.

Planed oak

Sap-conducting pores
appear as tiny
streaks in the grain
of oak

Unplaned oak

WITHSTANDING THE ELEMENTS
Woods vary in the way they stand up to rain and
decay. A garden bench made of beech would
collapse within a few years, while one made of the
tropical timber iroko would last for decades. Iroko
is often used as a substitute for teak.

HEART OF OAK
Oak is one of the strongest and most durable
timbers in the world. Huge beams of oak were
once used in building. To support the dome of St.
Paul’s Cathedral in London, for example, Sir
Christopher Wren ordered oak beams nearly
50 ft (15 m) long.

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Tree care and management

Natural woodlands have been “managed” by people GRAFTING
By grafting shoots from one tree on
since prehistoric times, chiefly by special techniques such as to the branches or trunk of another,
coppicing (regularly cutting trees at ground level), it is possible to introduce good
pollarding (lopping the tops of trees), and selective felling characteristics, such as healthy
of trees so that various kinds of timber can be produced as a fruit or a strong trunk.
renewable crop. Tree planting probably began with species
like the olive and date palm (pp. 39 and 43), which were
grown for their fruit. In the wild, trees often become
damaged or distorted by overcrowding, disease, and
exposure to wind and rain, so tree cultivation also involves
keeping them healthy and vigorous. Thinning out trees
reduces the competition for light and nutrients, so that
those that are left grow better. Pruning and grafting help to
shape a tree, prevent disease, and increase fruit yields.

Trunk before branch
is pruned

Hole left by wood
rotting after branch
has fallen away,
leaving damp wood
vulnerable to
attack by fungi

“Collar”

Trunk after branch
is pruned

Site of successful pruning,
where stump of pruned
branch has been covered
by new wood and bark

PRUNING WATER TRAPS
This technique is mainly practiced on fruit trees Where branches have broken off
or on trees with large branches that are unsafe. and not healed, holes can be left
When pruning a branch, a tree surgeon will first that hold pools of water. The
cut through the branch about 19 in (50 cm) decayed wood has to be scraped out
from the trunk. Removing most of the branch before the hole is treated and
takes away most of the weight. This is important, blocked. Likewise, where branches
as the weight of the falling branch may tear away meet to form natural cups, water
strips of bark and sapwood, giving fungi a may collect and provoke fungal
perfect opportunity to attack the tree and attack. This type of water trap can be
possibly kill it. Then a cut is made, either a “flush dealt with by cutting a drainage
cut,” close to the trunk, or sometimes a cut at the channel through the wood, or by
“collar,” the point where the branch begins to permanently inserting a metal tube
widen just before meeting the trunk. The which drains off the water.
exposed wood is then treated with a
waterproofing agent and a fungicide. As the tree
grows, the wood will become covered with a
layer of living wood and protective bark.

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60

Coppicing and pollarding

Coppiced trees are regularly cut at ground level so that
they produce a cluster of straight stems which can
be harvested and used as poles or for fencing.
Pollarded trees regularly have their tops cut off;
these produce long,
straight branches from
shoots that are too
high to be damaged by
cattle and deer.

Year-old wands
which will be
harvested

HAZEL POLES WILLOW WANDS
Split poles from Pollarded willows produce
coppiced hazel woods “wands” - flexible year-old
are still used for branches used in basket­
making woven making. Patterned basketry
wooden fences. is made by using wands
from different types of
Trunk of young willow. The bark may either
pollarded willow be left on the wand or
COPPICED STOOL stripped off before weaving.
This hazel stump, HAZEL COPPICE
known as a “stool,” is In days gone by,
producing a new set of coppiced hazel trees
shoots after being were often grown
coppiced. beneath oaks in
“coppice and standard”
woodland. The hazel
provided a regular crop
of poles, while the oaks
provided timber. Hazel
coppice is cut about
every five years.

(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.

Botanist Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker Looking at trees
(1817-1911) collecting trees and
plants in the Himalayas For anyone interested in practical natural history, study­

ing trees can be a fascinating year-round hobby. Trees have
two useful characteristics; unlike animals, they don’t move
around, and unlike most other plants, they don’t die back in the
winter. As a result, it is easy to follow the progress of the same
trees throughout the year. Because many different parts of
trees can be dried and stored almost indefinitely, it is easy to
build up a collection that will help you to identify different
species and understand how they grow.

Unbreakable
lens for
use outdoors

Large
magnifying
glass for
indoor use

A selection of FIELD GUIDES AND SKETCHES TREES IN CLOSE-UP
colored crayons Many species of tree can look quite A magnifying glass will enable
is useful for similar. A good field guide will help you to tell them apart and provide you to see structures like the
making tree interesting information. Drawing, however, is probably the best way of different parts of wind-pollinated flowers and
“portraits” learning the distinctive shapes of different trees. the tiny seeds of trees such as the birches.

TAKING PHOTOGRAPHS Plastic bags are good for
One of the most interesting collecting, but paper
ways to photograph trees is to bags,  which allow
take pictures of the same moisture to escape,
tree in all the seasons are better for storing
of the year.

Large plastic bags for collecting leaves,
leaf-litter, and seeds

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62

MEASURING STICK Bark rubbings
This, or a ruler, can be Bark
used for measuring
small objects like Wax crayon BARK RUBBING
leaves, as well as Taking bark rubbings is a simple and enjoyable
estimating a tree’s way to build up a record of your neighborhood’s
height. trees. First, pin a large piece of strong paper to
the tree. Then, using a wax crayon, rub lightly
MEASURING A TREE’S HEIGHT over the surface so that the raised parts of the
Holding a stick at arm’s length, line bark leave a mark on the paper. You may find
up the top with your friend’s head, it easier to start on young trees with
and mark the place that lines up smoother bark.
with his or her feet. To get the
height of the tree, multiply your Pressed leaves dry
friend’s height by the number of out in two to three
times you can fit the marked length weeks, retaining
of stick into the tree’s height. their shape
Amateur plant
collectors,
c. 1840

Leaf
press

PRESSING LEAVES Sheets of blotting
Normally leaves curl up and discolor as they dry out, but if they are paper absorb mois­
pressed, they keep their shape and some of their color. You can press ture from the leaves,
leaves either with a leaf press or by putting the leaves between sheets speeding up the dry­
of blotting paper and then placing them under a pile of books. ing process

(c) 2011 Dorling Kind6er3sley. All Rights Reserved.

Did you know?

Oak tree AMAZING FACTS Matches

Acorn and An ancient yew tree in France has a Aspen trees
oak leaves girth of more than 33 ft (10 m). In the One Canadian aspen tree can be
A mature oak tree grows 250,000 18th century, a French barber used turned into a million matchsticks.
leaves every year. In a good year it the tree’s hollow trunk as his workplace. A fully grown birch tree can
also produces about 50,000 acorns. More than 32 million Christmas produce a million seeds in one year.
The leaves of the African raffia palm trees are sold each year in the United The talipot palm produces a
can be as long as 83 ft (25.3 m). States alone. flower spike that is an amazing
33 ft (10 m) high. The palm flowers
When flood deposits raise the only once before it dies.
level of the ground, most trees die
because their root systems are
smothered, but coastal redwoods are able
to grow a new root system. Some have
survived a rise in ground level of up to
30 ft (9 m). Redwoods can also survive
for a long time in a flood.

The chapel oak at Allouville-
Bellefosse in Normandy, France, is an
amazing ancient oak tree that has
two chapels inside its hollow trunk. The
first chapel was established in 1669, and
later a second chapel was built above it,
along with a wooden entrance stairway.
The oak is not as healthy as it once was,
but is still an impressive sight, visited
by thousands of people every year.

In New York City, scientists have The giant lime tree in Heede is The baobab tree has soft, spongy
discovered that air pollution can the biggest tree in Germany and wood that stores water absorbed
sometimes make trees grow bigger. probably the biggest lime tree by the roots. Elephants sometimes
Some New York trees are twice the size of in Europe. Its enormous trunk has a rip the tree open with their tusks to drink
identical trees planted 62 miles (100 km) girth of 56.7 ft (17.3 m). when water is scarce
away, in the country. About 272 million trees are cut People in England have less
The needles on the world’s longest­ down in the United States each woodland to enjoy than almost
living tree, the bristlecone pine, can year to produce newspapers and any other European country. Only
live for 20 to 30 years. magazines – roughly one tree per person. eight percent of England’s landscape is
covered in trees, while in Europe the
average is 30 percent.
Over the next ten years, China is
planning to plant 169,884 square
miles (440,000 square km) – an area
about the size of Sweden – with trees in an
attempt to repair some of the damage that
was done by logging in the last century.

The bark of a giant sequoia tree
can be up to 20 in (50 cm) thick.
When exposed to fire, the giant
sequoia’s bark chars to form a heat shield,
protecting the tree.

The Major Oak, Sherwood Forest Country Park, England The Major Oak in Sherwood Forest
Country Park, England, weighs
about 23 tons and has a girth of 33 ft
(10 m) and a spread of 92 ft (28 m). It is the
biggest oak tree in Great Britain.

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64

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

QWhat information can
you get from looking
at tree rings?

ATree rings provide
information about the
climate in the past. They can
show the effects of specific
environmental events,
including volcanic eruptions.
Dendrochronology is the
science of dating trees from
their rings.

The tree line in the Alps QDo all tree roots grow Each ring A slice of tree trunk,
underground? represents a period showing tree rings
QWhat is the tree line? of growth (not
AThis term refers to the height above AMost trees grow roots always a year)
under the ground, but
sea level at which trees cannot grow. the banyan tree also sends QWhen is the best time of year
It changes according to latitude. The roots known as pillar roots to transplant a tree?
tree line in the Alps is between 6,561 ft down from its branches.
(2,000 m) and 8,202 ft (2,500 m). In Wales AIn the summertime, a tree is busy
the tree line is at about 1,640 ft (500 m), Pillar roots on a banyan tree making food and growing. In the
but in northern Scandinavia, it can be fall and winter, the tree is resting, so if
as low as 820 ft (250 m). you need to move a tree, it’s best to wait
for cool weather.
QHow much timber do you need to
make paper? QWhere does resin come from?

AIt takes approximately 2 tons of AResin is a sticky liquid that is
timber to make 1 ton of paper. produced by certain pine trees.
It is used to make turpentine.

Record Breakers

Inside a paper-making factory General Sherman T ’  

QWhy are tree fruits often red? A giant sequoia known as General Sherman
ATree fruits are designed to be attractive located in California’s Sequoia National Park
is the largest tree in the world. It is about 275
to animals so they can be dispersed. ft (83.7 m) tall, its girth is 25 ft (7.6 m), and its
Many berries turn red when their seeds are volume is 52,500 cubic feet (1,486 cubic meters).
ripe because birds prefer red food.
T     
QHow do mangroves cope with all the
salty water they absorb? A Mendocino coastal redwood in California
is the world’s tallest tree at 360ft (112 m).
ABlack mangrove trees get rid of a lot
of the salt through their leaves, which T ’  
can be covered in white salt crystals.
The oldest trees in the world are bristlecone
pines. Some are thought to be 6,000 years old.

T     

A row of magnificent beech trees in Scotland
forms the highest hedge in the world. Planted
in 1745, the hedge is 120 ft (36 m) high and
about a third of a mile (half a kilometer) long.

G B’  

The Fortingall Yew in Tayside, Scotland,
is thought to be more than 3,000 years old.
It is Britain’s oldest tree.

(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
65

Identifying trees

I      to identify a tree accurately, and there

are so many different types of trees that only a portion can be
shown here. However, an important first stage in the process of
identification is to work out whether a tree is a conifer or a
broadleaf. This section explains the main differences between the
two groups and shows common examples from each group.

CONIFERS

To identify a conifer, you need to look at its “fruit” and leaves. If a Cones
tree bears cones, you can be sure it is a conifer. The fruit of most turn
conifers is a cone with woody scales, although in some trees, such brown
as the juniper, the scales are so fleshy that the fruit looks more like a
berry. Most conifers are evergreen (they keep their leaves in winter)
but a few are deciduous (they lose their leaves in autumn). In spring,
an evergreen conifer’s pale young leaves grow alongside the dark old
leaves. Conifer leaves are usually either needlelike or small and
scalelike. The leaves often smell sweet and resinous.

Leaves Cones have
are soft upright
scales

T   is an evergreen

tree. Its very small, scalelike leaves are

dark green.

Needles grow Leaves
in pairs grow in
whorls
T    is a typical
T   has needlelike
conifer. It is evergreen, has long,
needlelike leaves, and its fruit is a round leaves but is a deciduous conifer. The
brown cone. bright green leaves turn yellow
in autumn.

Fruit turns red
as it expands

Cone has
pointed scales

T   bears a T   

berrylike fruit instead of a is evergreen and has prickly
typical cone. Its evergreen, pointed toothlike leaves growing
leaves grow on either side of the shoot. all around the shoot.

(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
66

BROADLEAVED TREES

Broadleaved trees all bear flowers and produce their seeds inside fruits,
not inside cones. The fruits of broadleaved trees vary widely, depending
on the way in which the seeds are dispersed. They can be rough,
smooth, or spiny; edible or inedible; woody or fleshy; and come in
many different colors. Most broadleaved trees have broad, flat leaves.
Many are deciduous, but some are evergreen.

T   is a

deciduous tree with simple leaves.
Its pink flowers are conspicuous and
its fruit is fleshy.

Leaf has T    is T    has divided
rounded
lobes deciduous. It has compound leaves, with leaves and is deciduous. Its yellow-green
each leaf made up of five sharply toothed flowers are conspicuous, and its fruit is a
T    is deciduous. Its leaflets. Its large white, pink, or red flowers long, brown hanging pod.
are very conspicuous. Its fruit, sometimes
leaves are simple, which means that they called a conker or buckeye, is a type of nut.
are undivided. The flowers are green and
inconspicuous. The fruit is an acorn, which PALMS
is a type of nut.
Palms are broadleaved trees, but they have a number of special
Bright red features. Their trunks hardly ever branch, and they do not have true
berries are bark. Palm leaves are often shaped like giant feathers or fans and can
large and last for many years. Palm flowers are often small and green, but the
fleshy fruit can be very large. Most palms need a warm environment and
grow in the tropics.
T   is an evergreen tree
T   has fan-shaped leaves
with simple leaves. Its small white
flowers are inconspicuous, but its fruit is that can be 4 ft (120 cm) across. It has yellow
a bright red berry. Many holly trees have flowers and its fruit is a small blue-black
spiny leaves. berry. It tolerates chilly weather, but is
usually found in warm, sunny places.

T    T  

is an evergreen tree. It has blue- is a typical tropical species
grey leaves and small creamy of palm. It needs warm
white flowers.
temperatures and a lot of
water. It has giant,

featherlike leaves and
its fruit is the coconut.

(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
67

Find out more TAKE CARE OF TREES

T      out more Join a local volunteer group and help clean up wooded
areas and maintain trees to ensure that they remain healthy
about trees. You could go on a visit to an and provide a good habitat for local wildlife. Old trees may
arboretum or botanical garden, and see how need pruning, or even felling, and young trees need planting
many different trees you can identify. and ongoing care.
Investigate which trees are native to your area
and which ones have come from other parts
of the world. You could take care of wooded
areas in your region by joining a nature or
environmental group, or you could support
a charity that plants trees or works to
re-establish woodland in areas where
it has been destroyed.

In the fall, arboretum
visitors can see
spectacular displays
of color

VISIT AN ARBORETUM

An arboretum is a garden that focuses specifically on
the cultivation of trees and shrubs. It is a great place
to view trees from many different parts of the world.
Many arboretums were started in the 19th century,

so they now contain lots of large, mature trees.
Sometimes trees are grouped according to the
climate in which they naturally grow; in other
displays, they are planted according to the season in
which they look most interesting.

EXPLORE EDEN’S BIOMES
Visit the giant biomes at the Eden Project in
Cornwall, England, to see trees and other plants
from the steamy rain forests and from the warm
temperate regions of the world. The Eden Project
is an exciting place to visit, and also works to
increase awareness of the effect people have on
their environment. The center has ambitious plans
for future developments. To find out more, visit
www.edenproject.com.

(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.

68

PLANT A TREE Places to visit
In many parts of the world, charities are working to plant more
trees. Find out more about some of these charities and support UNITED STATES NATIONAL ARBORETUM,
them either by volunteering or by fundraising. Tree Aid is a charity WASHINGTON, D.C.
that is working to put trees back in parts of Africa where their www.usna.usda.gov
removal has caused major problems. Trees for London has planted One highlight is the National Grove of State
more than 43,000 trees in London over the last ten years, and more Trees, featuring groups of trees that re-create
the feel of American forests. In other
than 15,000 volunteers have helped create collections, visitors can see magnolias,
community gardens and school wildlife gardens. dogwoods, dwarf conifers, and many other
trees and plants.
Cardboard Newspapers BROOKLYN BOTANIC GARDEN,
BROOKLYN, NEWYORK
HOW MUCH WOOD DO YOU USE? (718) 623-7200
Every piece of paper of cardboard we use comes www.bbg.org
from a tree. So do many other items. Keep a tally The cherry esplanade and the bonsai collection
over the course of a week of all the things you use are highlights of this famous botanic garden.
that are made, directly or indirectly, of wood. See Specialty gardens and a children’s area make
it a wonderful place to visit.
if you can think of ways to cut down on ATLANTA BOTANICAL GARDEN
how much wood you use. AND SMITHGALL ARBORETUM,
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
Pencil Paper (404) 876-5859
www.atlantabotanicalgarden.org
NATIVE TREES Just 25 years old, this botanical garden gives
A good way to increase your knowledge of trees is to start a leaf visitors a chance to watch trees and plants
collection (see page 63). By collecting the leaves, and by making grow and develop over time. Smithgall
bark rubbings and sketching the fruits and the tree shapes, you Arboretum, in nearby Gainesville, is a
168-acre satellite garden.
will learn to identify a large number of trees. As you do THE MORTON ARBORETUM,
so, figure out which trees are native to your area and LISLE, ILLINOIS
which have come from somewhere else. Some very (630) 719-2400 
successful trees may have been imported by www.mortonarb.org
explorers or traders centuries ago. The 1,700-acre arboretum recently added a
children’s garden and a maze garden. The
USEFUL WEB SITES collection includes more than 3,300 kinds of
trees, shrubs, and other specimens displayed in
• Learn about a year in the life of a tree and more from this educational garden, woodland, wetland, and prairie settings.
and entertaining Web site: www.domtar.com/arbre/english/start.htm ARBOR DAY FARM,
NEBRASKA CITY, NEBRASKA
• This environmental organization helps people in developing www.arbordayfarm.org
countries to plant fruit trees, and they also have educational Here, on the former estate of Arbor Day
programs for children: www.treesforlife.org founder J. Sterling Morton, you can visit an
interactive tree-themed museum, watch apple
• E xplore Joshua Tree National Park in California and its desert cider being pressed, and climb up to a
environment: www.nps.gov/jotr/ treehouse, 50 feet (15 m) above the forest floor.
ARBORETUM NATIONAL DES BARRES,
• Learn all about trees with the Illinois State Department of FRANCE
Natural Resources: www.inhs.uiuc.edu/chf/pub/tree_kit/ www.engref.fr/barres.htm
This well-established arboretum has an
• Discover The Methuselah Tree, the oldest living tree, at this site: extensive collection of trees from around
www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/methuselah/ the world.
• Visit the Web site of the USDA Forest Service, the government
The visitors’ center at
agency responsible for managing the country’s national forests and the Arboretum
grasslands: www.fs.fed.us
• Visit Carly’s Kids Corner, brought to you by the National Arbor National des Barres,
Day Foundation, to play games, learn cool facts, and discover France
how you can make a difference by planting trees at home:
www.arborday.org/kids/carly/
• Redwoods are big—really big! Find out more at:
www.treesofmystery.net/sequoia.htm

(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
69

Glossary Catkins

ANTHER The part of a stamen that CHLOROPHYLL HARDWOOD The wood
produces pollen The green pigment of any broadleaved tree, such
in plants that traps the as oak, beech, or ash
BARK A skin of hard, dead tissue that energy of sunlight and uses HARDY Able to survive in
protects the living inner parts of the tree. it to make sugars through difficult conditions. Hardy
The bark stretches as the trunk or branch photosynthesis plants can live outdoors
grows. Some trees have smooth bark, which COMPOUND LEAF throughout the winter.
stretches easily. Other trees have grooved, A leaf composed HEARTWOOD The hard wood at
cracked bark. Most trees replace their bark of two or more the center of the tree. Heartwood is
from time to time. separate leaflets; mainly made up of dead cells and helps
grows from a support the tree.
BLOSSOM The flowers of a tree, especially single bud HUMUS Dark brown organic
of one that produces edible fruit CONE The round, scaly “fruit” matter in the soil; improves the
fertility of the soil and helps it to
BRACT The leaflike structure just below carried by a conifer tree. There are two retain more water
a flower types of cone: The small, soft male KERNEL The edible seed contained within
cones produce and release the shell of a nut or the stone of a fruit
BRANCH A secondary woody stem coming pollen, then shrivel and die. LATERAL bud The bud at the side of a
from the trunk of a tree. Once a branch has The larger female cones become trunk that develops into flowers or a twig
grown, it will always stay at the same height. woody as they get older. Their bearing either leaves or leaves and flowers
scales contain ovules that LEADING BUD The bud at the tip of a
BROADLEAVED Bearing broad, develop into seeds when branch that develops into shoots to make
flat leaves fertilized by pollen. The mature the branch longer
seeds then fall from the cones. LEAF A green, usually flat, blade attached
BUD The swelling on a plant Cone CONIFER A cone-bearing tree with to a tree. Leaves make food for the tree by
made up of overlapping, photosynthesis. In late summer and early
immature leaves or petals. small needlelike or scalelike leaves. autumn, the chlorophyll in the leaves of
Most buds are protected by Most conifers are evergreen. deciduous trees breaks down so that the
a layer of thick scales. In COPPICING Cutting back a tree at ground other colors in the leaf can be seen.
warmer climates, trees level so that it grows lots of straight stems, LEAF SCAR The mark left on a branch
produce buds through the which are often harvested and used in fences by a fallen leaf from the previous
year, or grow without CROWN The rounded, top part of a growing season
forming buds. In colder broadleaved tree LEAFLET A small leaf, or part of a
climates, trees produce buds DECIDUOUS A tree that loses its leaves compound leaf
that open in the spring. in fall LEAF LITTER A layer of partly
DIOECIOUS Having male and female decomposed leaves and twigs. Over time,
CAMBIUM A thin layer of cells flowers on separate plants. Only the female leaf litter decays to form humus.
that covers the whole of a tree, just plants produce seeds. LIGNIN The substance found in the cell
underneath its bark. The cambium makes a EVERGREEN A tree that keeps its leaves walls of woody tissue that makes the tree
tree grow. When its cells multiply – usually in winter hard and stiff
in spring and summer – the tree’s trunk, FRUIT The ripened ovary of a flowering LOBE A rounded section of a leaf
branches, and roots get longer and fatter. plant, containing one or more seeds MAST The fruit of forest trees, such as
GERMINATION The sprouting of a seed or beech and oak
CANOPY High-level foliage in a forest, spore. Some seeds germinate very soon after MONOECIOUS A plant that has both male
formed by the crowns of the trees they are shed; others survive all winter and and female reproductive organs, either in the
germinate in the spring. same flowers or in separate ones
CATKIN A cluster of bracts and tiny GIRDLE SCAR The mark on a branch
flowers, usually male. Catkins release showing where one season’s growth ended
and the next season’s began
millions of pollen grains in GIRTH The circumference or distance around
spring or early summer. a tree’s trunk
GRAFTING Attaching a shoot from one
CELLULOSE A tree onto the cut stem of another one. This
substance that cultivation technique combines the best
forms a major features of both plants.
part of the cell
walls of trees
and many
other plants,
strengthening
the stems,
roots, and
leaves. Plants
make cellulose
from the
glucose that is
produced by
photosynthesis.

A deciduous tree

(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
70

A twig from a POLLARDING Cutting the top off a tree to DISPERSAL The way in which a tree
coniferous tree encourage more bushy growth; can also be spreads its seeds around. Birds and other
bearing needles used to reduce the size of large trees animals disperse many seeds by eating fruits
POLLEN A sticky or dusty substance or berries and passing the seeds in their
and cones produced by a flower’s anthers; contains the droppings. Squirrels and other mammals
plant’s male sex cells hide nuts as a food store, and some of them
NATIVE A plant germinate. Some seeds can also be dispersed
that originates in a POLLINATE To transfer pollen from by wind or water.
particular place the anthers to the stigma of a flower. SEPALS The parts of a flower that protect the
NATURALIZED A plant Animals, usually insects, pollinate many developing flower bud
that has adapted successfully flowers, while others are pollinated by SIMPLE LEAF A leaf that is not divided
to a foreign environment the wind. into leaflets
NECTAR A sugary fluid produced SOFTWOOD The wood of any coniferous
by flowers; attracts insects such as PRUNING Cutting branches off tree, such as pine and cedar
bees and butterflies that pollinate the a tree; used to improve the shape of SPREAD The area occupied by a tree,
flower while collecting the nectar a tree or to remove large branches that including all its branches
NEEDLES The long, narrow, stiff leaves are no longer safe STAMEN The male, reproductive part
of coniferous trees RECEPTACLE The top of the flower stalk of a flower, consisting of filaments (stalks)
NUT A dry fruit containing one seed that bears the parts of the flower. After bearing anthers
encased in a woody wall. A nut does not pollination, the receptacle may swell to STIGMA The upper part of the ovary.
naturally burst open to disperse the seed. form the fruit. Pollen passes through the stigma to enter
Some examples are acorns, buckeyes, ROOT The part of the plant that anchors it the ovary.
hazelnuts, and walnuts. in the soil and absorbs water and minerals.
OVARY The female part of the flower that Old, woody roots anchor the tree, while the STYLE The slender part
produces the ovules young roots absorb most of the moisture. of the ovary that bears
OVULE A cluster of cells inside a flower’s Roots have the same layers of tissue as the the stigma
ovary. After fertilization, each ovule trunk and branches.
develops into a seed. ROOT HAIRS Fine white hairs Variegated
PALMATE A leaf with five lobes that near the tip of a root that soak leaf
spread out in the shape of a hand up water and dissolved
PARASITE A plant or animal that lives minerals TOOTHED
in or on another plant or animal SEEDLING The young tree that A leaf with sharp
PHOTOSYNTHESIS A process that uses develops from a seed indentations along
the energy from sunlight to turn carbon SAP Water containing its edge
dioxide and water into sugars, fueling dissolved minerals that is TRUNK The main stem of a tree. On most
the plant’s growth; takes place only in green carried from the roots to the conifers, the trunk grows straight to the top
plants, which use chlorophyll to trap the leaves in tiny pipelines in the of the tree. On most broadleaved trees, the
sunlight’s energy sapwood trunk does not reach the top, but divides
PIGMENT The substance that gives color to SAPLING A young tree that is into branches that spread out at the base
another material about 6 ft (1.8 m) tall with a trunk of the crown.
that is 1–2 in (2.5–5 cm) thick VARIEGATED Refers to a leaf that displays
SAPWOOD The soft wood in a two or more colors on its surface. Chlorophyll
tree, situated just inside the cambium layer. is absent in the non-green parts of a leaf.
Sapwood is made up of living cells and WOOD The hard, fibrous substance
contains tiny pipelines that carry sap. In beneath the bark in trees and shrubs. Wood
tropical climates, the layer of sapwood consists mainly of cellulose, which is a tough
thickens all year. In cooler climates, a new material made from a type of sugar.
layer usually forms only in early summer.
SEED The mature, fertilized ovule of a
plant, containing the embryo and its food
store inside a seed case. Some seeds are
contained in fruits and berries, others in
nuts, and still others in pods or cones.

Leaf litter

(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.

Index cedar 2, 30, 31, 44 field work 62, 63 lemons 39 Persian ironwood 46 spices 42
blue atlas 2, 30 filberts 40 lichens 8, 21 petrified wood 48 spruce 10, 11, 30, 31, 44
A Japanese 44 fir 30 lignin 26, 70 photosynthesis 71 Norway 10
Western red 4, 44 Douglas 44 lime 41, 64 pine martens 50 squirrels 20, 41, 53
acacia 28 cellulose 26, 70 flowers 32–37 liverworts 53 pines 4, 10, 30, 31, 33, 45, sumac 18, 31
acid rain 55 cherry 23, 26, 34, 46, 51, fly agaric 19 51 swamps 18, 31
acorns 2, 8, 14, 20, 41, 51 38 fossils 10, 23, 31 MN bristlecone 16, 64, 65 sycamore 3, 16, 36, 46, 51
acorn woodpeckers 20 cherry plum 39 fruit 38–43, 67, 70 lodgepole 3
Adam and Eve 38 chestnut fungi 3, 19, 20, 48, 49, 51 mace 42 London 54 T
alder 32, 40, 41 horse 23, 24, 29, 35, 40, magnolia 2, 25, 26, 52 Scots 4, 10, 11, 45
algae 20 46, 67 GH mahogany 59 stone 66 tamarind 42
amber 23 sweet 26, 40 mangoes 43 sugar 45 temperate zone 17, 19, 68
animals 50, 52 chlorophyll 26, 46, 47, 70 galls 41, 50 mangroves 18, 65 Weymouth 2, 45 thuja 31
burrowing 19 chocolate 43 germination 14, 15, 52, 70 maple 4, 8, 20, 23, 26, 27, plane 25, 27, 33, 41, 55 timber 56, 57, 65
destruction 51 Christmas conifers 11, giant bamboo 7 28, 36, 40, 46, 47, 57 plums 2, 39 toads 52
pollination 34–37 31, 64 ginkgo 2, 27 Japanese 26, 27 poisonous fruit 38, 40, 41 toadstools 49
ants 53 cinchona 22 Glastonbury thorn 36 Norway 20–21 pollarding 61, 68, 71 treecreepers 20
apples 2, 3, 32, 35, 38, 39, cinnamon 23 grafting 60, 70 snake bark 27, 47 pollen 32, 33, 36, 71 tree ferns 7, 13
67 coco-de-mer 43 growth 16, 17 sugar 46 pollination 8, 32–37, 71 tropical zone 12, 13, 18,
ash 3, 6, 16, 22, 25, 28, 29, coconut 13, 42, 43 patterns 9, 11 syrup 23 pollution 54, 55, 64 42, 43
41, 59 color 26, 30, 38, 46, 47, 58 rings 8, 10, 16, 17, 59, 65 maypoles 58 poplar 25, 26 trunk 6, 16, 20, 21, 71
cones 10, 11, 32, 44–45, hardwood 58, 70 medlars 39 pressing leaves 63 tulip 27, 37, 41, 47
B 66, 70 hawthorn 36, 38 medullary rays 17 primroses 53 turning 59
conifers 7, 10–11, 18, 23, hazel 2, 3, 23, 31, 61 micromoths 8, 51 pruning 60, 71
badgers 18, 19 30, 31, 32, 53, 66, 70 heartwood 16, 17 minerals 48, 52 pseudoscorpians 52 VWY
banyan 6, 13, 65 conkers 35, 40 Hercules club 29 mistletoe 21, 49 quinine 22
baobab 37, 43, 64 coppicing 61, 70 hickory 28, 33, 47, 59 monkey pots 42 veneers 57
bark 6, 11, 22–23, 70 cork 22, 47 holly 4, 11, 26, 67 monkey puzzle 32, 66 R walnut 28, 33, 57, 58
damage 20 cultivation 34, 35, 39, 60, honey locust 67 monkeys 51 wasps 50
rubbing 63 61 Hooker, Joseph 62 mosses 21, 48, 53 rabbits 19 wayfaring 25
Barringtonia 42 cycads 7 hop 28 moths 51, 55 rain forest 12, 13 weeping fig 12
bat pollination 37 cypress 10, 18, 30, 31, 32, hornbeam 32 mulberry 38 redwood 16, 22, 30, 31, weevils 21, 51
beech 8, 9, 14, 15, 22, 25, 44 hornbills 21 mythology 6–7, 11, 38 64, 65 wellingtonia 4, 6, 16, 17,
40, 52, 65 Italian 66 hummingbirds 37 needles 10, 11, 30, 31, 53, religion 6, 11 23, 31, 44
copper 26 Lawson 4, 32, 44 71 resin 10, 23, 65 willow 2, 14, 26, 50, 61
mast 25, 40 Monterey 2 IJK nuthatches 21 robinia 28 dwarf 16
beetles 21, 48, 50 sawara 30 nutmeg 42 root caps 19 wind pollination 32
berries 38–39 swamp 18, 31 insects 20, 48, 50–51, 52, nuts 40–43, 51, 71 root hairs 19 wing-nut 28, 40
bilberry 53 53, 55 rootlets 14, 15, 18, 19 witch’s brooms 24
birch 23–25, 41, 64 D pollination 34–36 O roots 6, 12, 14, 17, 18–19, wood 48, 56–57, 71
birds 20, 21, 37, 38, 39, 51 iroko 59 71 uses 58–59, 69
food 39 damsons 39 ivy 48 oak 3, 6, 8, 14, 25, 27, 47, breathing 18 wood anemones 53
nests 51 Daphne 7 judas 26, 36 50, 51, 52, 59, 64 pillar 13, 65 woodlice 48
pollination 37 dates 43 juniper 31 cork 22 stilt 18 worms 19
seed dispersal 38 decay 48, 49, 52–53, 54, 55 kapok 37, 43 English 8, 25, 33 rowan 2, 4, 28, 36, 38 yew 10, 16, 23, 30, 32, 38,
bitternut 28 deciduous 6, 8, 46, 53, 70 katsura 26 sessile 67 rubber 22 54, 58, 64, 65, 66
blackthorn 35, 39 deciduous conifer 18, 66 Kentucky coffee 29 Turkey 25, 41 Yggdrasil 6
branches 9, 10, 16, 65, 70 deer 48 koala bears 13, 51 olives 39 S
brazil nuts 42 destruction 16 oranges 39
breadfruit 42 disease 50, 51, 54, 55, 60 L orchids 21 sap 20, 71
broadleaves 7–9, 12, 28, dispersal of seeds 38, sapwood 16, 17, 48, 71
32, 67 40–42, 71 laburnam 28, 41 PQ sawing 56–57
bromeliads 21, 49 dogwood 37 larch 4, 30, 31, 32, 44, 58, scales 10, 30–31, 53
buckeyes 29 drip tip 12 66 palm 7, 12, 13, 32, 42, 43, scent 31, 34, 36, 37
buds 24–25, 70 laurel 7 64, 67 seasons 12, 30, 46, 47
butterflies 51 EF leaf litter 8, 10, 52–53, 70 African raffia 64 seed cases 14
leaves 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, chusan 67 seedlings 14–15, 71
C elder 37, 38 26–31, 46–47, 50–51, 70, coconut 67 seeds 14, 38–43, 71
embryo 14 71 talipot 64 sequoia 6, 17, 31, 44, 64,
cambium 16, 17, 22, 70 environment 8, 16, 18 pressing 63 papaya 43 65
catalpa 27, 37 eucalyptus 12, 13, 22, 67 variegated 26 parasites 21, 71 sloths 51
catkins 32, 33, 40, 70 evergreen 10, 66, 70 legends 6, 7, 11, 38 pear 4, 25 snails 53
ferns 21, 48, 53 softwood 58, 71

Acknowledgments

The author and publisher would like to thank: Arboretum national des Barres: 69br Linda Gamlin: 16tl Silvestris/Frank Lane: 54
The curator and staff, Westonbirt Arboretum; BPCC/Aldus Archive: 7b, 12ml, r; 22t; 45t David Grewcock/Frank Lane: 48tr Still Pictures: Paul Harrison 69tl
Simon White of the Botanic Gardens, Bath; Linda BTCV: Dave Donohue 68tr Brian Hawkes/NHPA: 16b Kim Taylor/Bruce Coleman Ltd: 53b; 55
Gamlin; George Wiltshire; Forestry Commission; Chris Beetles Ltd: 10m Michael Holford: 6t; 58t Roger Tidman/Frank Lane; 61m
Alice Holt Lodge; and Marika Rae for their G I Bernard/Oxford Scientific Films: 24mr Eric and David Hosking: 16mr; 21 tm Rodger Tidman/NHPA: 14
advice and help in supplying specimens for Bridgeman Art Library/Bonhams: 6bl E A James/NHPA: 9mr Norman Tomalin/Bruce Coleman Ltd: 18m
photography. Mark Ricks of Tree Services of Bath Dr Jeremy Burgess/Science Photo Library: 32b J Koivula/Science Source: 23m L West/Frank Lane: 46
for supplying and transporting the large Jane Burton/Bruce Coleman Ltd:24ml Frank Lane: 16ml; 50ml Christian Zuber/Bruce Coleman Ltd: 42ml
specimens. Ken Day for supplying sawn sections Robert Burton/Bruce Coleman Ltd: 48m R P Lawrence/Frank Lane: 24b Jacket credits
and prepared timbers. Arthur Chater, Caroline Jim Clare/Partridge Films Ltd/OSF:20ml, mr Laura Lushington/Sonia Halliday Front cover: Tl: Mary Evans Picture Library;
Whiteford, Gary Summons, and Chris Owen at Eric Crichton/Bruce Coleman Ltd: 32m; 36m B: Eric Soder/NHPA.
the Natural History Museum. Ray Owen for Corbis: Robert Estall 64bl; Eric and David Photographs: 42r All other images © Dorling Kindersley
artwork. Gabrielle Bamford for typing. Hosking 66cra; Paul A Souders 67clb; Markow John Mason/Ardea: 49m For more information see:
Picture credits: Tatiana 65clb G A Mather/Robert Harding: 16tr www.dkimages.com
The publisher would like to thank the following Stephen Dalton/NHPA: 21mb G J H Moon/Frank Lane: 9ml Illustrations by: Coral Mula; Mick Loates and
for their kind permission to reproduce their J Deane/Bruce Coleman Ltd: 21t M Newman/Frank Lane: 48tl David More of Linden Artists
photographs: Mansell Collection: 19b; 41b; 53t Oxford Scientific Films: David Cayless Picture research by: Millie Trowbridge
(a=above, t=top, b=bottom, m=middle, l=left, Mary Evans Picture Library: 6br; 12t; 23t; 37m; 68crb; John Gerlach/AA 65bc; Ronald Toms
r=right) 38t; 43mr; 51m, br; 56tl; 57t; 59; 60t; 62t 68bl
Alamy Images: Roger Fletcher 65c Fine Art Photographic Library: 8m; 11b Fritz Prensel/Bruce Coleman Ltd: 13t
Heather Angel; 18b; 61b Jeff Foott/Bruce Coleman Ltd: 51t Photos Horticultural: 64tr, 65tr
John Freeman: 56tr Hans Reinhard/Bruce Coleman Ltd: 19m; 21b;
50mr

(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
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