DK SMITHSONIAN SUPERSIMPLE CHEMISTRY

Carbon Footprints Chemistry of the Earth 251

Carbon footprints measure the amount of Key Facts
greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere
by either a person, a product, or a company. ✓ A carbon footprint is the amount of
A person’s carbon footprint may be high if they ate
a lot of meat or drove a lot (see page 249), or low if greenhouse gases that are put into
they cycled to work every day. Diesel cars have a the atmosphere.
high carbon footprint because they burn fuel and
release greenhouse gases from their exhaust pipes. ✓ Carbon footprints can be measured

Reducing Using a phone to call or for people, products, or companies.
carbon footprints play games, or using
There are many things the internet on any ✓ Carbon footprints are difficult to
that can contribute to device, contributes to
a person’s carbon carbon footprints. check and measure.
footprint. Understanding
their own footprint can Farming,
help someone reduce it. cooking, and
eating out at
Using water to bathe, wash restaurants
clothes, or other things such contributes to
carbon footprints.
as a car contributes to
carbon footprints. Flying on planes
contributes to
Using energy to heat carbon footprints.
homes, schools, or
places of work Driving and
public
contributes to carbon transportation
footprints. contributes to
carbon footprints.

Making and
recycling paper
contributes to
carbon footprints.

Using lights, decorating,
and gardening in and
around the home
contributes to carbon
footprints.

Activities people do for fun that use
electricity, such as watching TV, going
to the gym, and shopping online,
contribute to carbon footprints.

252 Chemistry of the Earth Key Facts

Carbon Capture ✓ Reducing individual personal carbon

Governments have more power and resources footprints helps, but is not enough to
than individuals when it comes to reducing carbon prevent global warming.
footprints and combating global warming (see
page 250). They can increase tax on fossil fuels to ✓ Governments need to pass laws to
reduce their use, but this is not enough. Scientists
have designed a way to capture the carbon dioxide reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
that is released when fossil fuels are burned and
store it underground. This is called carbon capture. ✓ Carbon capture diverts carbon

Carbon capture dioxide that is released after burning
Power stations, factories, and refineries fossil fuels.
emit a lot of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. Governments implement ✓ The removed carbon dioxide is
carbon capture technology to reduce
the levels of carbon dioxide they emit. stored underground.

Carbon dioxide
molecules

Carbon atom

1. Carbon dioxide gas is Oxygen atom

captured during chemical

reactions with substances

called amines.

2. The carbon dioxide

is liquefied and piped
underground.

3. The carbon dioxide

is stored underground
in holes in the rocks.

Chemistry of the Earth 253

Nuclear Energy Key Facts

Some governments encourage the use of ✓ Governments can encourage the use of
alternative energy sources instead of fossil fuels.
Nuclear energy is one type of clean energy, alternative energy sources.
because no greenhouse gases are released in its
supply. However, nuclear power stations where ✓ Alternative energy sources don’t increase levels
nuclear energy is “made” produce a lot of
dangerous radioactive waste (see page 60). of greenhouse gases.

✓ Nuclear energy doesn’t produce greenhouse

gases.

✓ There are dangers associated with nuclear power.

Nuclear fission 2. Atom splits into
During nuclear fission, a neutron is fired at a large atom
to break it up. This also releases lots of energy. Nuclear smaller atoms and
fission is used in nuclear power stations to produce neutrons.
heat, which is harnessed to produce electricity.
energy
Neutron
3. Huge amounts of
1. A neutron collides
heat is released,
with a large atom. which is used to
generate electricity.
Neutron

Large atom

Smaller atoms are
radioactive waste.

Nuclear fusion 2. Nuclei fuse 3. Helium is a product
During nuclear fusion, two isotopes (see page 31) of
hydrogen molecules (see page 55) are smashed together together to form of the reaction.
to form one larger nucleus of helium to release a huge
amount of energy. This is how energy is produced in the a larger nuclei. Helium
Sun. Scientists have not yet found a way to control nuclear atom
fusion and use the energy produced safely on Earth.
energy
1. Two small Hydrogen-1 4. Huge amounts of

nuclei collide. energy are released.
Neutron
Atom

Hydrogen-2

254 Chemistry of the Earth Key Facts

Air Pollution ✓ Vehicles powered by fossil fuels release harmful

Most vehicles are still fueled by fossil fuels, substances called pollutants into the air.
such as gasoline and diesel. The combustion
of these hydrocarbon fuels (see page 202) ✓ Fossil fuels are made of hydrocarbons, which
releases dangerous pollutants, as well as the
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, into the air. produce pollutants when combusted.

Particulate pollution ✓ Examples of poisonous pollutants include carbon
Pollutant substances contain
tiny pieces of solids or liquid monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxide.
droplets suspended in the air,
such as this pollutant that
contains methane and carbon.

Methane molecule

Hydrogen
atom

Carbon atom

Carbon atom

Unburned Hydrocarbons Sulfur atom

The main pollutants are the gases carbon Oxygen atom Nitrogen atom
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides.
If there is a low supply of air or oxygen, Carbon atom Oxygen atoms Oxygen atom
hydrocarbons in the engines of vehicles
powered by fossil fuels may not combust Carbon monoxide Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen monoxide
properly. Unburned hydrocarbons can be just
as harmful as these gases (see page 255).

Chemistry of the Earth 255

Pollution Problems Key Facts

Pollutant particles in the air are toxic and can cause ✓ Pollutant particles are toxic and
long-term health problems. They are dangerous because
they are colorless, odorless, and typically can’t be seen. cause breathing problems.
They can impair our breathing and poison our blood. They
may also darken buildings, block machinery, and some ✓ Pollutant particles are normally
are flammable, presenting a fire risk.
colorless and odorless gases,

making them hard to detect.

✓ Pollutant particles may also cause

physical damage to buildings.

Breathing problems
Hemoglobin is a protein (see page 225) in human blood that
binds to oxygen which we breathe in, carrying it around our
bodies. Carbon monoxide molecules also bind to hemoglobin,
preventing it from carrying enough oxygen and causing us to
feel drowsy, become unconscious, or even die.

Hemoglobin

Carbon monoxide
particle

Heme molecule
that carries
oxygen

Global Dimming

Tiny pollutant particles that
are released into the Earth’s
atmosphere block the Sun’s
light. Over time, this has led
to less light passing through
the atmosphere, especially
in cities and industrial areas,
leading to global dimming.

256 Chemistry of the Earth Key Facts

Acid Rain ✓ Rainwater is naturally acidic because of

Natural rain contains a small amount of dissolved dissolved carbon dioxide.
carbon dioxide, so it is slightly acidic. However,
some parts of the atmosphere are polluted with ✓ Acid rain is even more acidic because of
gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide
from combustion (see page 163) of impurities in sulfur and nitrogen dioxide.
fossil fuels. When these gases dissolve in rainwater,
they make rain even more acidic, creating acid rain. ✓ Acid rain can be natural, but is more potent

Eroded statue when caused by human pollution.
When acid rain falls on statues
made of limestone, it reacts with Some parts of the statue
calcium carbonate in the rock have not been affected
and erodes it. by acid rain.

Limestone corrodes
and stains when

exposed to acid rain.

Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain can occur naturally 1. Acid rain reacts with metals, 2. Acid rain is poisonous to 3. If lots of acid rain falls in
in areas where volcanoes
erupt or plants decompose. rocks, and other materials. This plants. Acid rain damages rivers or lakes, it raises the
Both release carbon dioxide leaves, reducing the rate of
gas, which makes rainwater damages and erodes buildings photosynthesis and reduces acidity of the water. Most
acidic. However, the most root growth, preventing the
damaging acid rain is made of these materials. absorption of nutrients. animals can’t survive in
caused by human activity.
Industrial plants such as acidic conditions.
power stations pump large
amounts of gases, such
as sulfur dioxide, into
the atmosphere.

Using
Resources

258 Using Resources

Ceramics Key Facts

Ceramics are nonmetallic materials, such as china, ✓ Ceramics are made of nonmetals that
bricks, and glass. Their atoms are held together by
covalent and/or ionic bonds (see pages 80 and 74). have covalent and/or ionic bonds.
They are made by heating their components to very high
temperatures. Ceramics all have a similar set of useful ✓ Ceramics are made from heating
properties: they have high melting points, they are stiff,
brittle, and strong, and they are good insulators. substances at high temperatures.

Pottery ✓ Ceramics can contain metals bonded
Different types of clay are heated
to 1,832°F (1,000°C) and then to nonmetals with ionic bonds.
molded into pottery. Chemical
reactions occur during heating ✓ Ceramics have high melting points,
and cooling that bond the
molecules in the ceramic together. resist heat, and are unreactive.

Bricks ✓ Ceramics are stiff, brittle, strong,
Clay that contains impurities (see
page 38) is molded, dried, and and good insulators.
then heated to 2,192°F (1,200°C).
Different impurities will produce Borosilicate glass
different colored bricks. A mixture of the compounds silicon
dioxide and boron oxide is heated to
create borosilicate glass. This type of glass
can withstand rapid heating and cooling,
which makes it useful for experiments.

Soda-lime glass

A mixture of the compounds
silicon dioxide, sodium carbonate,
and calcium carbonate is heated
to 2,912°F (1,600°C) to create
soda-lime glass. It is the cheapest
form of glass.

Molecular Structure of Porcelain

Porcelain china Kaolinite crystal
is made by heating structure
a particular type of
clay to higher
temperatures than
when making pottery.
When it’s heated,
rigid crystals called
kaolinites form.

Porcelain china

Using Resources 259

Composites Key Facts

Composites are materials made of one ✓ Composites are materials made of one substance
substance enmeshed in another substance’s
fibers. Each substance has different properties. enmeshed in another substance’s fibers.
A composite usually has a combination of the
properties of each of its components. Together, ✓ A composite’s properties depend on the substance
these properties make the composite suited for
a particular use. it is made from.

✓ Some artificial composites are made for specific

purposes.

Fiberglass and carbon fiber Outer layer of resin
Glass or carbon fibers can
be embedded in a polyester Layers of fibers made of
resin to create a strong either carbon or glass.
composite. Fiberglass is
easily shaped, strong,
light, and slightly
flexible. Carbon fiber
is stronger and lighter
than fiberglass, but costs
much more to make.

Paralympic racing Plastic core for insulation
wheelchair and shock absorption.

Concrete Aggregate
Made of sand, cement, and
aggregate (small pieces of Steel rods
rock), concrete is a strong
composite often used in Concrete Reinforced concrete
buildings. Reinforced
concrete has steel rods added Lignin
to make it even stronger.

Natural composite
Cellulose fibers (see page
226) embedded in a natural
polymer called lignin in
wood is an example of a
natural composite.
This combination is much
stronger than the separate
substances on their own.

Wood Cellulose fibers

260 Using Resources Key Facts

Synthetic Polymers ✓ Synthetic polymers are made by

Synthetic polymers are artificial long chain molecules, joining together lots of small
made by joining many monomers together. These polymers molecules called monomers.
are used to make a wide range of items, equipment,
buildings, tools, and clothes. Synthetic polymers are ✓ Synthetic polymers are strong,
made to fit whatever purpose they need to fulfil.
light, flexible, and good insulators
of heat and electricity.

Low-density polyethylene Long chains of
Plastic bags are made using hydrocarbons called
polymers called low-density ethylene that contain
polyethylene, also called carbon and hydrogen
LDPE. It is strong, non- atoms covalently
toxic, and very flexible. bonded together make
up low-density
High-density polyethylene polyethylene.
Drain pipes are made using
polymers called high- Long chains of
density polyethylene, also hydrocarbons that
called HDPE. It is strong, contain carbon and
rigid, and waterproof. hydrogen atoms make
up high-density
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) polyethylene.
Electrical wiring is made
using polymers called Long chains of
polyvinyl chloride because it hydrocarbons that
is strong, hard wearing, and a contain carbon,
good insulator of electricity. hydrogen, and chlorine
atoms make up PVC.

Spandex Long chains of the
Sportswear is made using repeated monomer
polymers called spandex, or urethane (containing
Lycra, which is strong, durable, oxygen, carbon,
and stretches to fit. hydrogen, and nitrogen
atoms) bonded together
Nylon make up spandex.
Toothbrushes are made
using polymers called Long chains of oxygen,
nylon that are strong, carbon, hydrogen, and
flexible, and hardwearing. nitrogen atoms make
up nylon.

Making Polymers Using Resources 261

Condensation polymers (see page 222) form when two Key Facts
monomers bond together by releasing a small molecule,
such as water. These monomers have atoms called ✓ Condensation polymers are
functional groups that facilitate reactions between
monomers that keep joining together to form long formed by releasing a small
chains. Nylon is an example of a condensation polymer. molecule, such as water.

Making nylon ✓ Monomers for condensation
Nylon can be formed as a continuous chain. As each layer is
removed, the chain continues to form as more monomers in the polymerization have two
solution bond to the end of the chain. This will continue until all functional groups.
of the monomers have reacted, forming a long chain of nylon.
✓ Nylon is an example of a

condensation polymer.

Types of Plastics

Plastics are made of polymers. There are
two different forms of plastic, depending
on whether their chains are covalently
bonded or not (see page 80).

Nylon

The top layer of the Thermosoftening plastics, such as plastic bags,
reaction solution is don’t have covalent bonds between their chains.
a chemical called This means they melt easily and can be recycled
hexanedioyl (see page 268).
dichloride dissolved
in cyclohexane. Covalent
bond
Nylon forms
between the
two layers.

The bottom layer Thermosetting plastics, such as plugs, have
of the reaction covalent bonds between their chains. This means
solution is a they don’t melt easily, which is useful for electrical
chemical called appliances that may easily get hot.
1,6-diaminohexane
dissolved in water.

262 Using Resources

Alloys Key Facts

An alloy is a mixture (see page 32) of a metal with tiny ✓ Alloys are mixtures of metals
amounts of other metals or nonmetals (see pages 56–57).
Alloys can be more useful than the pure metals they are with other elements.
made of because they have new and useful properties.
Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, is much stronger than ✓ Alloys often have more useful
either of the pure metals alone. The structure of alloys
compared to pure metals is shown on page 89. properties than the pure metals.

✓ Alloys can be stronger, harder,

lighter, or less likely to corrode.

Magnesium-silicon alloys Magnesium atom
Bicycle frames are made Silicon atom
from an aluminum alloy
with combined magnesium
and silicon that make
them very light and strong.

Copper-zinc alloys Copper atom
Trumpets are made Zinc atom
of copper-zinc alloys
called brass that are
hard wearing and
resist corrosion.

Titanium-gold alloys Titanium atom
Watches and jewelry are Gold atom
made of titanium-gold
alloys that are stronger
and harder than pure gold.

Stainless steel Iron atom
Utensils are made from Chromium atom
stainless steel, an alloy of iron
and chromium that resists
corrosion (see page 264).

Sustainability Using Resources 263

A sustainable way of life aims to conserve finite Key Facts
resources (see page 266) so there are enough for
future generations to use. Sustainability also ✓ A sustainable way of life is about
considers resources that may never run out as
sources of energy (see page 267). Many preserving finite resources.
companies are now trying to be as sustainable as
possible, by developing alternative methods to ✓ Being sustainable means planning
minimize their use of finite materials.
for the future.
Bioleaching
Bacteria can be used to extract copper from ✓ Bioleaching and phytomining are
low-grade ores (rocks with tiny amounts of
copper in them). This costs less money and sustainable ways to collect copper.
is less damaging to the environment than
extracting copper from high-grade ores (rocks Phytomining
with lots of copper in them). This is bioleaching, Plants grown in copper-rich soils absorb
and it’s more sustainable because it extracts the copper into their roots, which is then
copper from sources that don’t require mining. transported to their leaves. The copper
can be extracted by burning the leaves
Bacterium This is a copper and collecting the ash, which contains
ion that has been soluble copper compounds. This method
absorbed by a is called phytomining, and is both
bacterium. economical and sustainable as it uses
little energy and none of the natural
reserves of copper ores.

This is a copper
ion that has been
absorbed by the plant.

Copper ions in water Copper ions in soil

264 Using Resources Key Facts

Corrosion ✓ Corrosion is the reaction of a metal

Most metals form a dull coating on their surface surface with substances around it.
when left out in the air. The coating is produced
by a reaction between the metal’s surface and a ✓ More reactive metals corrode
gas in the air (usually oxygen). The reaction
is called corrosion. For instance, the reactive more quickly.
metal sodium corrodes quickly, forming a dull
coating of sodium oxide around it. Silver, which ✓ The corrosion of a metal in air
is less reactive, corrodes slowly to form a black
surface layer of silver oxide. often forms a layer of metal oxide.

Corrosion over time
Our atmosphere contains
small amounts of different
gases. Over time, iron
nails react with oxygen to
form a layer of rust made
of iron oxide.

Rust appears on
iron nails as a

rough, red layer.

How Aluminum Corrodes A layer of aluminum
oxide forms a protective
Aluminum also reacts with oxygen in
the air and forms a layer of aluminum layer over aluminum.
oxide. However, this form of corrosion
does not crumble or erode like rust
does. The layer sticks to aluminum,
preventing further corrosion.

Aluminum

Preventing Corrosion Using Resources 265

Corrosion can destroy metals, which have to be Key Facts
replaced. Replacing metals can be expensive. The
easiest way to prevent corrosion is to coat metals ✓ Corrosion damages metals and
with a substance to block out air and moisture.
Different coatings work best for different objects. costs money.
For example, machines and tools are coated in oil
or grease, whereas cars are painted. ✓ Coatings prevent corrosion by

keeping out air and water.

✓ Types of coating include: oil

and grease, paint, tin plating,
and electroplating.

Preventing iron from Oil
rusting
You can set up an Boiled
experiment to show how water
different environments
affect the amount of
rust produced on an
iron nail. To prevent iron
from rusting, you need
to remove either water
or oxygen.

Rusted
iron nail

Calcium
chloride

An iron nail in a test tube of An iron nail in a test tube with An iron nail will rust if placed
boiled water won’t rust—the calcium chloride will not rust, in a test tube containing
layer of oil stops air reaching it. because calcium chloride absorbs both water and air.
water vapor from the air.
Protecting Metal

Materials such as steel can be
coated with another material
to protect them from rusting.
Steel factories often spray their
metal products with a powder
containing pigments and resin
to prevent rusting.

266 Using Resources Key Facts

Finite Resources ✓ Finite resources are in limited supply

A finite resource is a useful substance that is in and will run out.
limited supply, and may eventually run out. Most
manufacturing processes use finite resources ✓ Fossil fuels, metal ores, and minerals
such as fossil fuels, metal ores, and other
minerals. Fossil fuels like oil are not only used are all finite resources.
as sources of energy, but can also supply raw
materials for the chemical industry. ✓ Fossil fuels are sources of energy

Copper mines and chemicals.
Bingham Canyon mine in the
US is one of the largest ✓ Mining operations for finite resources
copper mines on Earth.
have pros and cons.

Trucks carrying
rocks produce lots
of noise, disturbing
local people.

This copper mine is
3,900 ft (1,200 m) deep.

Extraction Pros Cons
Creates useful products Uses up energy sources
The rate at which we use fossil fuels such as oil
and natural gas means we will run out in about Provides jobs Damages habitats
50 years. Supplies of coal will last just over 100 Improves local infrastructure Produces waste material
years. Mining and drilling operations for fuels,
minerals, or ores can have advantages and Extracts lots of fossil fuels Expensive
disadvantages. However, unless we can find an
alternative product, or stop using a particular
substance, we will just have to minimize the
problems associated with their extraction and
continue to search for new sources.

Renewable Resources Using Resources 267

Renewable resources are substances that can be used Key Facts
and will not run out in our lifetime. This is because we
can make more in a short amount of time, or because it ✓ Renewable resources are
is a natural energy source. For example, alcohol is made
by fermenting sugars from plants, and is used widely in substances that will not
the chemical industry. More plants can always be grown run out.
to make more sugars, so alcohol is a renewable
resource. Renewable resources provide an effective ✓ Renewable resources can
alternative to using finite resources.
be made from plants.
Renewable energy
There are many types of renewable ✓ Renewable energy supplies
resources. Natural processes are
the most reliable sources of energy, conserve fossil fuels.
as we do not have to make them.
Fermenting plant material
(biomass) can be used to
produce methane gas for fuel.

Wind turns turbines
to make electricity.

Solar panels Hydroelectric power
transform the stations use the
Sun’s light into
electrical energy. stored energy in the
water behind dams
to make electricity.

High temperatures below
Earth’s surface can be
used to heat water that
turns turbines.

Underwater turbines produce
electrical energy from the movement
of water in rivers and tides.

268 Using Resources

Recycling Key Facts

Recycling is the process of transforming finite resources (see ✓ Recycling means using
page 266) into new products. Materials are collected, sorted,
and recycled—this can be a difficult process, but it means materials more than once.
we do not depend on finite resources as much. Recycling
often uses less energy than sourcing finite resources. ✓ Recycling means we don’t use

Recycling glass 1. Glass is collected up finite resources.
Glass is easy to collect and
sort for recycling. Recycling at recycling points. ✓ Recycling can save energy
glass saves time and
money, and the recycled and fossil fuels.
product is almost
identical to 2. The glass is
the original.
sorted by color and
type, and crushed.

6. The recycled glass

bottles are ready to

be used again.

5. The glass sheets 3. The crushed glass

are then shaped is mixed together and
heated until it melts.
into bottles.
4. The glass is
Recycling Metals Aluminum is
rolled into formed into sheets.
Metals are recycled in a
similar way as glass. They sheets that can Aluminum is
are melted and molded into be shaped into crushed into
a different shape. new products. blocks.
Sometimes, they need to be
treated with chemical
processes to remove
impurities.

Using Resources 269

Life Cycle Key Facts

Assessment ✓ A life cycle assessment (LCA) considers

A life cycle assessment (LCA) looks at the environmental a product’s impact on the environment.
impact of a product at every stage of its life. Gathering
information for a full LCA can be time-consuming; ✓ There are four stages to an LCA;
however, it can help people make decisions about what
products they use, how efficient they are, and whether obtaining materials, manufacturing,
they should be using alternative products instead. uses, and disposal.

✓ An LCA helps to make decisions on how

to design, make, and recycle products.

LCA stages
There are four stages to an LCA; assessing what materials
are used to make the product, the process of making the
product, using the product, and disposing of the product.

LCA for plastic bags LCA for paper bags
Although making plastic bags uses up finite Paper bags are made from trees, which are a
supplies of crude oil and energy, LCA studies renewable resource (see page 267), so they
have shown that they have less effect on the may appear to be a “greener” alternative to
environment than some alternatives. plastic bags. However, manufacturing paper
bags uses a lot of energy.

The main raw A lot of energy is The main raw Large amounts of
material needed needed to make materials needed energy are used

is crude oil, polyethylene are wood when making
which is finite. from crude oil. and water, which paper bags.
are renewable.

Most plastic Plastic bags Paper products Paper bags
bags are not are reusable. can be recycled. break easily and
easily disposable are less likely to
and end up on
landfill sites. be reused.

270 Using Resources

Potable Water Key Facts

The water that we drink is called potable water. ✓ Water from rivers, lakes, and aquifers
Most of this water comes from rivers, lakes, and
aquifers (underground rocks that hold water). is stored in reservoirs.
This water contains impurities, such as stones,
leaves, mud, and dissolved substances such as ✓ Natural water contains insoluble solids,
salts, fertilizers, and microorganisms. Water is
stored in reservoirs and treated to remove these soluble substances, and bacteria.
impurities before it’s ready to drink.
✓ Potable water is water that is safe

to drink.

✓ There are four main stages to creating

potable water: grids, filtration,
chlorination, and storage.

How water is treated 1. The water passes Pure and Drinking Water
A clean, safe water supply
is essential. The water from through grids and Drinking water has all solid particles and
reservoirs is treated through microorganisms removed; however, it’s
a number of processes to sedimentation tanks not pure—it may still contain dissolved
make it potable. substances, such as salt. Distillation can be
to remove large used to produce pure water (see page 271),
which only contains water molecules.
objects such as twigs.
Water molecule
Impure water
Water molecule
Fine gravel
Sand 2. A filtration bed Impurities

Charcoal of gravel, sand, and Pure Impure
Clean water charcoal removes water water
small solid particles
from the water.

Disinfectant

Drinking
water

Chlorine Storage
gas tank

3. Chlorine gas 4. Within storage tanks, 5. Drinking water is

and disinfectant is fine, tiny particles settle then piped to homes.
bubbled through
the water to kill at the bottom.
bacteria. This is

called chlorination.

Seawater Using Resources 271

About 97% of Earth’s water is in the oceans. This Key Facts
water isn’t drinkable because it contains too much
salt. Seawater can undergo a process called ✓ We can’t drink seawater because
desalination to make it drinkable. Desalination can
take place in industrial plants that pass seawater it contains too much salt.
through membranes to remove the salt,
or may involve simple distillation (see page 49). ✓ The process of turning seawater into

Desalination pure water is called desalination.
Hot countries that don’t have easy access to
water set up desalination plants near the coast ✓ Desalination involves evaporating the
to produce drinkable water.
seawater and then condensing the
3. Small particles such as water vapor.

sand and algae are filtered 4. Seawater passes

out of the seawater. over a membrane that
blocks the passage of
2. Garbage is removed very small dissolved
minerals, such as salt.
from the seawater.

1. Seawater flows

through pipes to a

desalination plant.

Distillation in the Lab 5. Chemicals are

Distillation can be performed in added to the water,
the laboratory (see page 49) to making it safe to drink.
remove the salt from seawater.
The water vapor cools
The seawater is heated and condenses.
and the water evaporates.
The pure water
is collected.

Salt is left behind after the
seawater has evaporated.

272 Using Resources Key Facts

Wastewater ✓ Water contains harmful substances.
✓ Wastewater comes from the home,
Water is used every day, but a lot of it is wasted.
Billions of liters of wasted water ends up in drains industry, and agriculture.
and sewers. Wastewater from industry, agriculture,
or homes contains harmful substances—for Hydrogen
example, wastewater from homes containing atom
bacteria that can cause disease.
Nitrogen
Human wastewater atom
Water from our showers,
baths, and toilets can Ammonia molecule
contain harmful
nitrogen compounds, Carbon
such as ammonia. atom

Industrial wastewater Hydrogen
Wastewater that comes atom
from factories can
contain hydrocarbons Butane molecule
such as butane and
other toxic substances. Oxygen
This can flow into rivers atom
and lakes, poisoning Nitrogen atom
local wildlife.
Hydrogen
Agricultural wastewater atom
Water that flows from
farms can contain Ammonium nitrate molecules
fertilizers, causing algae
in lakes to grow over the
water surface. This
disturbs local ecosystems
by blocking sunlight from
reaching the lake bed,
causing plants and
animals to die.

Treating Using Resources 273
Wastewater
Key Facts
Water from bathrooms contains solid waste,
chemicals, and microorganisms that are carried ✓ Wastewater is taken to sewage
by drainpipes to larger sewage pipes. The water
is then collected and treated to ensure that it is treatment centers to be purified.
safe before it is released into the environment.
✓ The treatment removes solids,
Sewage treatment
The main stages in sewage treatment are chemicals, and harmful bacteria.
screening and grit removal, clarification, biological
treatment, aeration to break down sludge, and a ✓ After treatment, the wastewater can
final round of chemical treatment. After this, the
water can be released into rivers, lakes, or the sea. be released into the environment.

Nitrogen gas ✓ The main steps in sewage treatment
released.
are screening, clarification,
biological treatment, aeration,
and chemical treatment.

4. Water is then pumped

into a further tank, where
there is other bacteria
that break down any
further solids.

1. Wastewater Biological Aeration tank
treatment tank
pumped from

homes is screened

to capture any

large particles.

Sewage pipes 3. The water is then pumped Final tank

into a second tank which

contains bacteria that convert

harmful nitrogen compounds

into nitrogen gas.

Clarifier tank Sludge hopper 5. Water is pumped to

2. Wastewater is pumped Solids from the waste its final tank, where it
water are carried away to is treated with
to a clarifier tank, where chemicals to remove
a sludge hopper tank. harmful substances
solids settle at the bottom. before pumping it back
into seas and rivers.

Solids are removed and
then used as fertilizer.

274 Using Resources Key Facts

The Haber Process ✓ Ammonia is an important industrial

Ammonia (NH3) is a very important compound chemical.
(see page 33) in the production of fertilizers,
plastics, and dyes. It contains the elements ✓ The Haber process makes ammonia
nitrogen and hydrogen. Nitrogen is an unreactive
gas, so the process to create ammonia requires a using nitrogen in the air and hydrogen
catalyst (see page 184). The Haber process uses in methane.
iron as a catalyst to make nitrogen and hydrogen
react with one another to create ammonia. ✓ A catalyst of iron is used to speed up

How the Haber Unused nitrogen and the reaction.
process works hydrogen are pumped back
The Haber process is ✓ The ammonia is separated by cooling,
an industrial method of to the reaction chamber.
making liquid ammonia and the unreacted nitrogen and
from nitrogen and Reactor chamber hydrogen are recycled.
hydrogen gases.
Condenser
Nitrogen and
hydrogen gases

pumped into
reaction chamber.

1. Nitrogen and 3. Nitrogen and

hydrogen gases are hydrogen gases cool
compressed and and condense into
pumped into a liquid ammonia.

reaction chamber. 4. Liquid ammonia

2. Nitrogen and hydrogen are is collected.

heated by passing over a
heated catalyst of iron.

Equation N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
The reaction is reversible,
so only some of the
nitrogen and hydrogen is
converted into ammonia.

Reaction Conditions Using Resources 275

The chemical industry tries to produce as much product Key Facts
as quickly as possible, with the aim of making money.
This is called product yield. The Haber process is an ✓ In the chemical industry, conditions
efficient, reversible reaction that is slow and does not
produce much ammonia. However, scientists can still are chosen to produce the highest
improve this by changing the conditions for the reaction. yield in the shortest time.

Choosing conditions ✓ In the Haber process, a low
The graph shows that the highest yield of ammonia is
obtained at lower temperatures and high pressures. The temperature and a high pressure
conditions chosen for Haber plants are a compromise produce the highest yield.
between speed of the reaction, yield, and cost.
✓ The optimum conditions for the

Haber process are 200 atmospheres
pressure, 8,132°F (4,500°C), and the
use of a catalyst.

Yield of ammonia (%) 70
60 662°F
50 752°F
40 842°F
30 932°F
20 1,022°F

10

0
100 200 300 400

Pressure (atmospheres)

Industrial Catalysts The catalyst is broken
up into small pieces to
Catalysts are often used in industrial get the largest surface
reactions as they speed up the rate of area on which the
reaction by providing an alternative reaction can occur
pathway (see page 184). They keep (see page 183).
costs down because catalysts are not
changed by the reaction so can be Vanadium oxide crystals
used over and over again. Vanadium
oxide crystals are sometimes used in
the Haber process as catalysts.

276 Using Resources Key Facts

Fertilizers ✓ Plants use elements in the soil

Plants absorb certain elements in the soil that are to grow.
used to help them grow. Over time, these elements are
used up, so farmers and gardeners have to add them ✓ The three most important elements
back into the soil. They add chemical substances
called fertilizers, which contain soluble compounds are nitrogen, potassium, and
that include the elements needed by the plants. phosphorus.

Fertilizer compounds ✓ Fertilizers need to be soluble and
Artificial fertilizers contain different ratios (amounts)
of the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. supply the essential elements.
These elements are absorbed by plants in the form of
soluble compounds. They are called NPK fertilizers ✓ Many fertilizers are ionic
after their constituent elements’ symbols (see pages
52–53), and their colors vary depending on the compounds.
amount of each element in them.
How Fertilizers Work

On some farms, fertilizers are deposited
into the soil by machines. The soil is
then watered so the fertilizers can
dissolve and release elements into the
soil. As plants grow, their roots begin
to take up nutrients from the soil,
including these essential elements.

Element Function Nitrogen Essential element
Nitrogen Growth in the soil being taken up by
Magnesium Photosynthesis
Potassium Opens and closes stomata plant root
Phosphorus Photosynthesis and respiration

Producing Fertilizers Using Resources 277

Fertilizers can be made in the laboratory using simple Key Facts
equipment, or in industry. Giant vats (steel containers) hold
the exothermic reaction needed to produce fertilizers. Heat ✓ Fertilizers can be made
released by the reaction is used to evaporate water from the
fertilizer to make it even more concentrated (potent). However, in industry or in the lab.
making fertilizers in the laboratory is on a much smaller scale.
✓ Fertilizers produced
Making fertilizers in the laboratory
To make ammonium sulfate (a type of fertilizer), you in industry are more
need a conical flask, a titration tube, and either a concentrated and in
Bunsen burner or a water bath to heat your mixture. greater quantity.

✓ Fertilizers can be made in

the lab using titration and
crystallization.

1. Measure 25 cm3 of ammonia 2. Add two drops of methyl orange 3. Using a titration tube, add dilute

solution using a measuring cylinder, indicator. The solution will turn sulfuric acid slowly until the

and pour it into a conical flask. yellow, telling you it is alkaline. solution turns orange.

4. Record the amount of sulfuric 5. Repeat the experiment with the 6. Crystallize (see page 47)

acid added. Dispose of the solution same volumes of ammonia and the ammonia sulfate solution.

in a chemical waste container. sulfuric acid. Now that you know the The crystals are the fertilizer.

amount of sulfuric acid needed, you

don’t need to use the indicator.

ammonia + sulfuric acid ammonium sulfate

2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

278

Glossary

Accurate A measurement taken in an Anode A positively charged electrode. Carbon dioxide A gas found in air. Its
experiment is accurate if it is close to the molecules are made of one carbon atom
true value that you need to measure. Aqueous solution A solution containing and two oxygen atoms.
water and a dissolved substance.
Acid A compound that has a pH value less Carbonate A compound that contains
than 7, contains hydrogen, and releases ions Artificial A substance that doesn’t exist carbon and oxygen atoms, as well as atoms
of hydrogen when it is dissolved in water. in nature and is made by humans. of other elements. Many minerals are
carbonates.
Acidic A word used to describe a substance Atmosphere The mixture of gases that
Carboxylic acids A homologous series of
that has the properties of an acid. surrounds Earth. organic compounds that contain the
functional group −COOH.
Activation energy The minimum amount Atom The smallest unit of an element.
of energy that particles must have for them They are composed of protons, neutrons, Catalyst A substance that speeds up
to react. and electrons. chemical reactions but is not changed
during the reaction.
Addition reaction A chemical reaction in Atomic number The number of protons in
which two reactants combine to make a an atom of an element. Every element has a Cathode A negatively charged electrode.
single product. unique, unchanging atomic number.

Agent A substance that prompts an effect Axis One of the two perpendicular lines Cell (biological) A tiny unit of living matter.
by interacting with another substance.
showing measurements plotted on a graph. Cells are the building blocks of all living things.

Alcohol A homologous compound with the Bacteria Microscopic single-celled Cell (electrochemical) A piece of
functional group −OH. organisms that make up one of the equipment that produces electrical energy.
main kingdoms of life on Earth.
Algae Simple, plantlike organisms that live Many bacteria are helpful but some Charge The positive or negative electrical
in water and make their food by cause disease. energy attached to matter.
photosynthesis.
Base A substance that can neutralize Chemical Another word for a substance,
Alkali A compound that has a pH value an acid. generally meaning a compound made from
greater than 7 and produces OH− ions when several elements.
dissolved in water. Battery A device containing a collection
of chemical cells that react to produce Chemist A scientist who studies the
Alkaline A word used to describe a electrical energy. elements, the compounds, and chemical
substance that has the properties of reactions.
an alkali. Blood A fluid that circulates through the
bodies of animals delivering vital substances Chemistry The scientific study of the
Alkane A hydrocarbon with no carbon– to cells and removing waste. properties and reactions of the elements.
carbon double bonds in its molecules.
Boiling point The temperature at Chloride A compound that contains the
Alkene A homologous hydrocarbon which a liquid gets hot enough to element chlorine and one or more elements.
with carbon–carbon double bonds in change into a gas.
its molecules. Coal See fossil fuel.
Bond The attraction between atoms
Alloy A material made by mixing a metal that holds them together in an element Compound A chemical consisting of two or
with other metals or nonmetals. or a compound. more elements whose atoms have bonded.

Alpha particle A particle containing Brittle A word that describes a Concentrated A word used to describe a
two protons and two neutrons with a hard solid that shatters easily. high amount of one substance in relation to
2+ charge (a helium nucleus). other substances, particularly in a solution.
Bromide A compound containing the
Amino acid A smaller molecule that makes element bromine and one or more elements. Concentration A measure of the amount of
up larger protein molecules. solute dissolved in a solution.
Burette A piece of apparatus used to
Anhydrous A compound (usually a crystal) measure accurate volumes of liquids. Concentration gradient The difference
that doesn’t contain water molecules. between the concentration of a substance in
By-product An incidental substance one area and its concentration in another
Anion A negatively charged ion that is created during a chemical reaction that area. A large (steep) concentration gradient
attracted to the positive electrode (anode). isn’t useful. results in a fast rate of diffusion.

279

Condensation A process in which a Distillation A method of separating liquids Exothermic reaction A chemical reaction
that transfers energy to the surroundings,
substance changes from a gas into a liquid. from a solution. often in the form of heat.

Condense To change from a gas to a liquid. Drug A chemical taken into the Experiment A controlled situation set up by
body in order to alter the way the body scientists in order to test whether a
Conductor A substance that lets heat or works. Most drugs are taken to treat or hypothesis is true or not.
electricity flow easily through it. prevent disease.

Corrosion A chemical reaction that Electrode An electrical contact in an Filter paper A type of paper that blocks the
attacks a metal, or other solid object, electric circuit. Electrodes can have a passage of insoluble substances but lets
usually due to the presence of oxygen positive or negative charge. liquids pass through it.
and water.
Electrolysis The use of an electrical current Filtrate The liquid that has passed
Corrosive The way of describing a
substance that causes corrosion. to split compounds into elements. through a filter.

Covalent bond A bond that forms between Electrolyte A molten substance or dissolved Filtration A method of separating a liquid
two atoms that share two electrons
between them. solution that undergoes electrolysis. from an insoluble solid.

Cracking A reaction that breaks down large Electrons A negatively charged particle Flammable A word used to describe a
hydrocarbon molecules into smaller, more inside an atom. Electrons orbit the atom’s material that catches fire easily.
useful alkanes and an alkene. nucleus in layers called shells. They are
exchanged or shared by atoms to make Fluoride A compound in which the element
Crude oil See fossil fuel. bonds that hold molecules together. fluorine is bonded with one or more
elements.
Crystal A naturally occurring solid Electronic configuration The way electrons
substance that has atoms arranged in a are arranged in an atom. Formula (chemical) A chemical formula
regular three-dimensional pattern. shows the actual number of atoms in a
Electrostatic attraction The force of chemical compound.
Data A collection of information, such attraction between negative electrons and
as numbers, facts, and statistics, gathered positive nuclei within atoms. Formula (mathematical) A mathematical
during an experiment. formula is a rule or relationship written with
Element A pure substance that can’t be mathematical symbols.
Decompose To break down into broken down into a simpler substance.
simpler substances. Fossil fuel A fuel derived from the fossilized
Endothermic reaction A chemical reaction remains of living things. Coal, crude oil, and
Delocalized electrons Electrons that that takes in energy, usually in the form of natural gas are fossil fuels.
are free to move between the atoms of heat. See also exothermic reaction.
certain substances. Freezing point The temperature at which a
Energy A force that makes things happen. liquid turns into a solid.
Density The amount of matter held within a It can be stored, used, or transferred from
known volume of a material. one form to another. Functional group An atom, group of atoms,
or bond in an organic compound responsible
Diatomic A molecule that consists of Enzyme A protein made by living cells that for its properties.
two atoms. speeds up a chemical reaction.
Gas A state in which the particles
Dilute A word used to describe a Equilibrium A state where the forward of matter (atoms or molecules) aren’t
substance, usually a liquid, that is found in reaction happens at the same speed as the attracted to each other and can move
small amounts within a solution. backward reaction. freely. A gas can flow, take any shape,
and fill any container.
Dioxide A compound containing two atoms Ester A homologous series of compounds
of oxygen in its molecule. that contain the functional group −COO−. Gene An instruction encoded in the
molecule DNA and stored inside a living
Displacement A chemical reaction Ethene A compound containing two carbon cell. Genes are passed from parents to their
in which a more reactive element and four hydrogen atoms. Ethene is usually offspring and determine each living thing’s
displaces a less reactive element found as a gas produced by plants and inherited characteristics.
from its compound. serves as a hormone that triggers the
ripening of fruit. Group A set of elements in a column
Dissolve To become completely on the periodic table. Elements in a group
mixed into another substance. Evaporate To change from a liquid to a gas. have similar properties because each
In most cases, a solid, such as salt, element has the same number of electrons
dissolves in a liquid, such as water. Evaporation A process in which a in their outer shell.
substance changes from a liquid to a gas.

280

Halogen The elements in Group 7 of the Matter The material that makes up Nitrate A salt containing nitrogen
periodic table. everything around us. and oxygen anions.

Homologous A word used to describe Mean (average) A measure of average Nonmetal A type of element that is likely
functional groups that are the same. found by adding up a set of values and to react with another element by acquiring
dividing that by the total number of values. electrons in the outermost shell of its atoms.
Hormone A chemical produced by a gland
in the body that travels through the blood Melting point The temperature at which a Nuclei Plural of nucleus.
and changes the way certain target organs solid gets hot enough to turn into a liquid.
work, often with powerful effects. Nucleus The central part of an atom,
Membrane A thin lining or barrier that stops made up of protons and neutrons.
Hydrated A way of describing a compound some substances from passing through it
that has bonded with water molecules. but allows others to cross. Nutrients Substances that animals and plants
take in and that are essential for life and growth.
Hydrocarbon A compound containing only Metals A group of elements that share
hydrogen and carbon atoms joined together many similar properties. Ore A rock or mineral from which a
by covalent bonds. useful element such as a metal can be
Microorganism A tiny organism that can be purified and collected.
Hydroxide A type of compound seen only with the aid of a microscope.
containing hydrogen, oxygen, and Organic Derived from living organisms
normally a metallic element. Microscope A scientific instrument that or a compound based on carbon and
uses lenses to make small objects appear hydrogen atoms.
Hypothesis A scientific idea or theory. larger.
Organism A living thing.
Indicator A substance that changes color Mineral A naturally occurring inorganic
when placed in acidic or alkaline conditions. chemical, such as salt, often found in rocks Oxidation A reaction in which oxygen
or dissolved in water. Some minerals are is added to a substance or atoms in a
Insoluble The inability to dissolve in a liquid. essential to life. substance lose electrons.

Insulator A substance that doesn’t let heat Mixture A collection of substances that fill Oxide A compound in which oxygen is
or electricity flow through it easily. the same space but aren’t connected by bound to one or more other elements.
chemical bonds.
Iodide A compound containing the element Oxygen An element in Group 6 that is
iodine and one or more elements. Model A simplified representation of a real a gas at room temperature. It makes up
object or system that helps scientists 21 percent of air.
Ion When atoms lose or gain electrons, they understand how the object or system works.
become ions. Particle A tiny bit of matter, such an atom,
Mole The same amount of particles as there molecule, or ion.
Ionic bond A bond that forms between two are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
atoms of a metal and a nonmetal that Period A set of elements in a row on the
involves electrostatic attraction. Molecule A group of two or more atoms periodic table.
joined by strong chemical bonds.
Isotopes Two forms of an element with Periodic table A table that identifies all
different numbers of neutrons. Molten A word used to describe a known elements.
substance that is usually solid but has
Lattice The ordered structure of atoms. become a liquid after it has been heated pH A scale used to measure how
to high temperatures. acidic or alkaline a solution is.
Limiting reactant The reactant that is
completely used up first in a reaction. Monomer A small molecule that Photosynthesis The process by which
can combine to form larger molecules plants use the Sun’s energy to make food
Liquid A state in which the particles of called polymers. molecules from water and carbon dioxide.
matter (atoms or molecules) are only loosely
attached to each other and move freely. A Neutral A word used to describe Pipette A piece of apparatus used
liquid can flow and take any shape, but has something that has neither a positive to transfer liquids.
a fixed volume. or negative charge. Or a solution with
a pH value of 7 that is neither acidic Plastic A type of polymer that has a
Magnetic A word used to describe an object or alkaline. wide range of useful properties.
that produces a magnetic field, which
attracts certain materials to it and can attract Neutralization A chemical reaction Poisonous See toxic.
or repel other magnets. between an acid and a base.
Polymer A carbon compound with long,
Mass The amount of matter in an object. Neutron A particle with no charge chainlike molecules made of repeating units.
in the nucleus of an atom. Plastics are examples of polymers.

281

Precipitate A collection of small, solid Respiration The process by which Sulfate A compound containing
particles that form in solutions after a living cells transfer energy from sulfur and oxygen anions.
reaction between a substance dissolved food molecules.
in a solution and a substance added to Sulfide A compound containing
the solution. Room temperature 68°F (20°C). the element sulfur and one or more
other elements.
Precise A word used to describe a Rusting The corrosion of iron.
measurement made with a large number of Surface area The total area of the exterior
significant figures. A precise measurement Salt A compound that forms when of a solid object expressed in square units.
may not be accurate. an acid reacts with an alkali.
Symbol (chemical) A unique one- or
Pressure A measure of how hard Sample A small portion of a larger two-letter indicator that represents
a force pushes on a surface. Pressure substance that is tested. an element.
depends upon the strength of the force
and the area of the surface to which the Saturated (organic compounds) A word Synthetic A material made by humans
pressure is applied. used to describe a molecule that only to serve a specific purpose.
contains single covalent bonds.
Product A new substance that forms Temperature A measure of how
after a chemical reaction takes place Saturated (solutions) A solution is hot or cold something is.
between reactants. described as saturated when no more
solute can be dissolved in it. Theory A well established scientific idea that
Property A particular characteristic of explains some aspect of the real world and
an element or a compound, such as color Shell The pathway an electron has been tested by experiments.
or reactivity. orbits around a nucleus.
Toxic A word used to describe a substance
Protein An organic substance that Solid A state in which the particles that is harmful.
contains nitrogen and is found in foods of matter (atoms or molecules) are
such as meat, fish, cheese, and beans. bound to each other, so they remain Universal indicator A mixture of dyes
Organisms need proteins for growth in fixed positions. A solid has a fixed that turns a certain color along the pH scale
and repair. shape and volume. when it comes into contact with substances.

Protons A positively charged particle Soluble The ability to dissolve in a liquid. Universe The whole of space and
in the nucleus of an atom. Protons attract everything it contains.
negative electrons that circle the nucleus. Solute A substance that dissolves
in a solvent to form a solution. Vaccine A safe way of presenting the
Pure A word used to describe a substance antigens of a disease to the body so that if
that is composed of only one type of element Solution A mixture in which the the real disease appears, the body is primed
or one compound. molecules or ions of a solute are to fight it.
evenly spread out among the
Radiation An electromagnetic wave or molecules of a solvent. Vapor A gas that can easily be changed
a stream of particles emitted from a source back to a liquid, by cooling it or putting it
of radioactivity. Solvent A substance (usually a liquid) in under pressure.
which a solute dissolves to form a solution.
Reactant A substance that chemically Volume The amount of space an
reacts with others to form products. Strong acid An acid where most object takes up.
of the hydrogen ions from the acid
Reactive A word used to describe a dissolve in water. Weak acid An acid where only a
substance that reacts (loses its electrons) few of the hydrogen ions from the
easily with others. Structural formula A type of formula that acid dissolve in water.
uses symbols and straight lines to show the
Reduction When atoms in a substance bonds between atoms in molecules. x-axis The horizontal axis of a graph.
gain electrons.
Sublimation A process in which a y-axis The vertical axis of a graph.
Relative atomic mass (Ar) The average substance changes from a solid to a
mass of an element’s atoms, including all gas without becoming a liquid first.
of its isotopes compared to 1⁄12 the mass of a
carbon-12 atom. Substance A single compound or
a mixture of compounds.
Relative formula mass (Mr) The total mass
of a compound’s atoms compared to 1⁄12 the Sugar A carbohydrate with
mass of a carbon-12 atom. a small molecule.

282

Index

100 yield 128 alpha decay 60 bar charts 21 butanol 215, 216
alternative energy 253 barium 60, 232 butene 208, 210
A alternative reaction pathways 184 barium chloride 234 by-products 125, 126, 128
aluminum 29, 61, 74, 144, 149, bases 133
acid rain 256 C
acids 132 233, 264, 268 acid reactions with 139, 140
extracting in industry 156 DNA 224 calcium 60, 73, 144, 146
and bases 133, 142 amalgam 89 insoluble 142 calcium carbonate (chalk) 140,
carboxylic 219–20 amide links 225 neutralization 135, 139
dilute and concentrated 138 amines 252 batteries 175, 176 183, 186, 187, 189, 230,
indicators 134 amino acids 84, 225, 227 bauxite 156 234, 256, 258
ionization 137, 138 ammonia 81, 128, 233, 235, beryllium 60 californium 65
metal reactions with 145 beta decay 60 calorimetry 168, 169
neutralization 133, 135, 139 272, 274, 275, 277 binders 39 cancer 102
pH scale 130–1 testing for 231 bioethanol 217 carbohydrates 66, 218, 226, 247
reaction rates and ammonium sulfate 233, 277 biofuels 126, 215, 218 carbon 66, 67, 144
anerobic respiration 218 bioleaching 263 allotropes of 86
concentration of 189 anhydrous salts 121, 122, 191, biological treatment, waste water atoms 199, 201, 204–5, 219
reactions with bases 139 carbon cycle 245, 247, 249
reactions with metal carbonates 193 273 extracting metals with 148, 152
animals biomass 267 fullerenes 87
140 bismuth 61, 68 hydrocarbons 200
reactions with metal oxides and acid rain 256 bitumen 205, 206 nanotubes 87
carbon cycle 247 blast furnaces 148, 152 organic compounds 198, 199
hydroxides 139 greenhouse gases 249 blood 255 carbon capture 252
strong and weak 137 anions 73, 75, 137 Bohr, Niels 27 carbon dioxide
titrations 124, 136 testing for 234–5 boiling point 38, 49, 57, 58, 68, in atmosphere 245, 247, 248,
actinides 52, 65 anodes 153–6, 177 249, 250, 251, 252, 254,
actinium 65 antimony 68 71, 96, 98 256
activation energy 170, 171, 181, antiseptics 217 fractional distillation 50, 204 covalent bonds 80
aqueous solutions 98 simple molecules 83 molecules 82
184 electrolysis of 159 bond energies 172 neutralization 140
actual yield 127, 128 argon 71, 245 bonds testing for 230
addition polymers 206, 207, 209, arsenic 68 breaking in endothermic carbon fiber 259
artificial elements 61, 65 carbon footprints 251, 252
213–14, 222 atmosphere 245, 247, 248, 249, reactions 170, 171, 172 carbon monoxide 211, 216, 254,
addition reactions 209, 212, 213, chemical reactions 162 255
250, 251, 255, 256 compounds 33 carbonates
218 atom economy 125–6 covalent 80–1 metal 140, 165, 220
additives 39 atomic formulae 34 evaporation 47 testing for 234
aeration 273 atomic mass 26, 31, 54 forming in exothermic reactions carboxylic acids 198, 199, 216,
agriculture atomic models 27 219, 221, 222, 223
atomic number 29, 30, 52, 53 170, 171, 172 reactions 220
fertilizers 276–7 atomic structure 26, 55 formulas 34, 35 cars 249, 251, 265
waste water 272 atoms 26 hydration 121 fuel cell 176
air 32, 55, 246 hydrogen 224 catalysts 62, 102, 218, 221, 274,
corrosion 264 chemical reactions 111, 162 ionic 74 275
pollution 254 in compounds 33, 107, 108, metallic 88, 89 cracking 206, 207
alcoholic drinks 217, 218 molecular 82 and reaction rates 184
alcohols 198, 199, 210, 215–16, 113 organic compounds 200, 208, cathodes 153–60, 177
covalent bonds 80–1 cations 73, 75
217–18, 221, 222, 267 electron shells 28 209, 212, 213, 214, 215, testing for 232–3
alkali metals 58–9, 133 electronic structure 29 222 cellulose 226, 259
alkaline batteries 175 history of 27 peptide links 225 ceramics 258
alkaline compounds 59 ionic bonds 74 boron 61 cerium 64
alkaline earth metals 60 in mixtures 32 brass 89 cesium 58
alkalis 133 moles 109, 110 breathing problems 255 Chadwick, James 27
monomers and polymers 214 bricks 258 chain isomers 210
and bases 133 nuclear fission/fusion 253 bromine 70, 95, 98, 150, 154, charts 21
indicators 134 see also bonds; ions; molecules 155, 209, 212, 235 spectroscopy 239
pH scale 130–1, 133 autunite 65 bromine water 212 chemical analysis 229–39
titrations 124, 136 averages 18 bronze 89, 262 chemical formulas 34
alkanes 198, 199, 200, 201, Avogadro number 109 buckminsterfullerene 87 chemical reactions 41, 162
buildings, pollution and 255, 256
202–7, 209, 210, 212 B burettes 136
alkenes 198, 199, 200, 206, 207, burning 163, 164
bacteria 263, 270, 272, 273 butane 200, 210
208, 209–14 balances 187 butanoic acid 219
combustion of 211 ball and stick models 78
isomers 199, 210
testing for 212
allotropes 86, 87
alloys 56, 89, 262
shape memory 104

283

chemical reactions continued climate change 250 copper (II) sulfate 121, 139, 142, fractional 50
addition reactions 209, 212 coal 126, 266 193 simple 49
atom economy 125–6 cobalt 196, 233 water 270, 271
batteries 175 cobalt chloride paper 237 copper oxide 127, 142, 181, 246 DNA 66, 224
bonding 74, 76 collision theory 180, 181, 182, copper sulfate 107, 121–2, 142, dot and cross diagrams 76–7,
calculating energy changes 172
calculating masses in 116 183, 184 159, 191, 237 81, 151
calculating reaction rates 190 colors copper-zinc alloys 262 double covalent bonds 80, 81,
catalysts and reaction rates core, Earth’s 241
184, 274, 285 chemical reactions 162 corrosion 15, 264 82
collision theory 180, 181, 182, flame tests 232 double helix 224
183 indicators 134 preventing 265 drains 272
combustion 163 precipitates 233 covalent bonds 55, 80–1, 170, drilling operations 266
compounds 33 spectra 238–9 drinking water 270
concentration and reaction thermochromic and 248, 258 droughts 250
rates 182 hydrocarbons 200, 208, 209, dyes 44–5, 274
condensation polymerization photochromic pigments 103
222, 223 combustion 163, 164, 166, 179, 212, 213, 214, 215, 222 E
conservation of mass 111, 112 molecular formulas 118
endothermic 167, 170 229 network covalent solids 85, 86 Earth
energy transfer: combustion alcohol 216 nonmetals 80, 172 atmosphere 245, 248
alkenes 211 polymers 84, 261 carbon cycle 247
169 energy transfer 169 simple molecules 82, 83 carbon footprints 251
energy transfer: solutions 168 hydrocarbons 202 cracking 206–7 global warming 250
equations 36, 151 complex carbohydrates 226, 227 crude oil 179, 201, 203, 206 greenhouse effect 248
equilibrium 192 composites 259 fractional distillation 50, 204–5 human activity 249
equilibrium and concentration compounds 32, 33 crust, Earth’s 241, 242, 247 life on 245, 248
carbon 66 cryolite 156 pollution 254–6
196 chromatography 44–5 crystallization 48, 277 rocks 243–4
equilibrium and pressure 195 empirical formulae 118 water of crystallization 121–2 structure 241
equilibrium and temperature formulas 34 crystals 48, 79, 243 tectonic plates 242
hydrocarbons 200 cubic decimeters (dm3) 123
194 ionic 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 70 earthquakes 242
exothermic 166, 171, 184 isomers 210 D electric charge
fuel cells 176–7 mass of elements in 120
limiting reactants 115 moles 109, 110 Dalton, John 27 atoms 26, 27
neutralization 135, 139 organic 198 dams 11 ions 73, 75
oxidation 164 percentage mass 107, 108 data 10, 18, 21, 22, 23 electric motors 176
percentage yields 127–8 purity 38 deforestation 249 electricity
rates of 179 ratio of atoms in 118, 119, dehydration 121, 191 batteries 175
reaction conditions 275 Democritus 27 conductors 56, 58, 67, 88
reaction rates and acid 120 density fossil fuels 249
compressibility nuclear power 253
concentration 189 elements 68 renewable energy 267
reaction rates and changes in gases 93, 117 gases 93 voltaic cells 173–4
liquids 92 liquids 92 electrochemical reactions 176
mass 187 solids 91 solids 91 electrodes 153–60, 173
reaction rates graphs 185, 186, concentration 123 dependent variables 14, 17 electrolysis 153–5, 167
acids 138 deposition 96 of aqueous solutions 159
187, 190 and equilibrium 196 desalination 271 electroplating 160
reaction rates and precipitation and reaction rates 182 desertification 250 experiments 158
titration calculations 124 diagrams, equipment 16 extracting metals 154
188 titrations 136 diamines 223 industrial 156
reaction rates and surface area conclusions 22, 24 diamond 86 of water 157
concrete 259 diatomic elements 55, 70 electrolytes 153, 158, 173, 174
183 condensation 49, 50, 96, 97, dibromo compounds 209, 212 electron shells 28, 29, 52, 71,
reaction rates and temperature dicarboxylic acid 223
204, 271, 274 dichloropropane 209 73, 74, 76, 80, 88
181 condensation polymers 222–5, diesel 205, 251, 254 electronic structure 29
reaction rates and volume of diffusion electronics 102
227, 261 gases 95 electrons 26, 27
gas 186 conductors 56, 58, 67, 88 liquids 94
reversible 128, 191–6 control experiments 14, 17 dinitrogen tetroxide 194, 195 covalent bonds 80–1, 82, 83
side reactions 128 control variables 14, 17 diols 223 delocalized 86, 88
thermal decomposition 165 convection currents 241, 242 disaccharides 226 dot and cross diagrams 76–7
voltaic cells 173–5 conversion factor 20 displacement reactions 166 electrolysis 155
chlorination 270 cooling curves 97 group 7 150 elements 56, 57, 59, 60, 61,
chlorine 36, 70, 74, 75, 80, 235 copper 56, 63, 144, 173, 174, metal 152
displacement 150 dissolving 40, 42 66, 67, 69, 70
molecules 83 232, 233, 263 ionic compounds 79 fuel cells 177
testing for 236 displacement of 148, 152 distillation ionic bonds 74
chromatography 44–5, 227 mining 266 ions 73, 75
chromium 62, 262 copper (II) carbonate 165
clarification 273 copper (II) oxide 139, 142, 165
clay 258

284

oxidation 164 ionic 151, 155 francium 59 H
reactivity series 144 moles and 113 freezing point 96, 97
redox reactions 149 reversible reactions 191 fructose 226 Haber process 274, 275
voltaic cells 173–4 equilibrium 192 fuel cells 176–7 hemoglobin 255
electroplating 160, 265 and concentration 196 fuels 66, 206, 207, 217 hair 84, 225
electrostatic attraction 59, 70, 74, and pressure 195 half equations 155
and temperature 194 combustion 163, 166, 169, 202 halides, testing for 235
78, 79, 88 equipment 15, 16, 17, 23 crude oil 203–5 halite 243
elements 26, 29, 30 erosion 244, 256 fuel oil 205, 206 halogens 70
errors 23 fullerenes 87
actinides 65 esters 198, 199, 221, 222, 223 functional groups 198, 199, 210, addition reactions 209
compounds 33 ethane 200, 209 displacement reactions 150
group 0 71 ethanoic acid 219, 220, 221 215 health 12, 102
group 1 58–9 ethanol 40, 126, 215, 216, fungi 218 heat
group 2 60 chemical reactions 162
group 3 61 217–18, 221 G combustion reactions 163, 169
group 4 67 ethene 208, 209, 212, 213, 218 conductors 56, 58
group 5 68 ethical issues 11 gadolinium 64 crystallization 48
group 6 69 ethyl ethanoate 221 gallium 61, 67, 98 evaporation 47
group 7 70 europium 30, 64 gas syringes 186 exothermic reactions 166
isotopes 31 evaluations 24 gas-fueled vehicles 254 fractional distillation 50
lanthanides 64 evaporation 42, 43, 47, 49, 50, gases 93, 98 rock cycle 244
metals 56–7 shape memory materials 104
mixtures 32 121, 142, 271 atmosphere 245 simple distillation 49
percentage mass 107, 108 exothermic reactions 166, 167, changes of state 96 thermal decomposition 165
periodic table 52–4 and changing mass 112, 187 heating curves 97
purity 38 168, 169, 172, 202 diffusion 95 helium 54, 71, 239, 253
reactivity series 144 reaction profiles 171, 184 evaporation 47 high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
transition metals 62–3 reversible reactions 193, 194 greenhouse 248, 249, 250,
empirical formulas 118–20 experiments 10, 13–18, 24 260
endothermic reactions 165, 166, explosions 179 251, 252, 254 homologous series 198, 199
extraction, fossil fuels 266 harmful pollutants 254, 255 hormones 12
167, 168, 172 molar gas volume 117 human activity 247, 249, 250,
reaction profiles 170 F pressure 93, 117, 182, 195
reversible reactions 193, 194 produced in chemical reactions 251, 256, 272
energy factories 252, 272 hydrated salts 121, 122, 191,
activation 181, 184 fats 66 162
bond energies 172 fermentation 218 reaction rates and volume of 193
calculating energy changes 172 fertilizers 270, 272, 273, 274, hydrocarbons 200, 247, 254,
carbon footprint 251 186
chemical reactions 162 276, 277 simple distillation 49 260, 272
collision theory 180, 181 fiberglass 259 volume of 117 alkanes 201, 203–7
endothermic reactions 167, filtration 46, 141, 270, 271 gasoline 205, 206, 254 alkenes 208, 209–14
genetics 11, 224 combustion 202
170 precipitates 141 germanium 67 cracking 206–7
exothermic reactions 166, 171, finite resources 266, 268 giant ionic lattice 78, 79 crude oil 203
fire hazards 229 giant lattice 85 fractional distillation 204–5
202 fire triangle 163 glass hydrochloric acid 132, 135, 140,
finite resources 266 flame emission spectroscopy 238 borosilicate 258
heating and cooling curves 97 flame tests 232 recycling 268 168, 182, 183, 186, 187,
manufacturing 269 flammability 15, 201, 204, 206, glass continued 188, 189, 196, 234
nuclear 253 soda-lime 258 hydroelectric power 267
renewable 267 216 global dimming 255 hydrogels 105
temperature and reaction rates floods 250 global warming 250, 252 hydrogen 35, 37, 38, 55, 66,
flow glucose 226, 227 144, 274
181 glycogen 226 addition reactions 209
temperature and reaction rates gases 93 gold 30, 57, 88, 144, 262 atoms 200, 201
liquids 92 gold foil experiment 27 carboxylic acid reactions 220
continued solids 91 graphene 86, 102 fuel cells 176, 177
transfer: combustion 169 fluorine 70, 73, 74, 76 graphite 86 gas 145, 146, 147, 157, 159
transfer: solutions 168 forces of attraction 91 graphs 21 ions 73, 75, 132, 135, 137
transfer in reversible reactions formulas 34–5, 36, 37 rate of reaction 185, 186, 187, manufacture 125, 126
empirical 118 molecules 82, 253
193 homologous series 198 190 testing for 231, 239
see also heat formulations 39 grease 265 in water 162
environmental impact 11, 12, fossil fuels 203, 247, 249, 250, greenhouse effect 248, 249, 250, hydrogen bonds 224
hydrogen peroxide 184
102, 269 251, 252, 256, 266, 267, 251 hydrolysis of polymers 227
enzymes 184, 218, 225, 227 268 grids 270 hydroxide ions 133, 135, 177
equations 19, 36 fractional distillation 50, 204–5, grinding 41, 183 hypotheses 10, 13, 14, 22
206, 207 groups 52
atom economy 125 fractions 204, 206, 207
balancing 37 supply and demand 207
balancing using masses 114
half 155

285

I lead iodide 141 measurements 13, 18, 20, 23 molecules
lead nitrate 141 meat consumption 249, 251 DNA 224
ice 91, 96 lead-acid batteries 175 medicine 102 gas 117
igneous rock 243, 244 length, units of 20 melting glucose 226
impurities 38 lenses 238 hydrocarbons 204, 206
incomplete combustion 211 Lewis structures 81 ionic compounds 79 moles 109, 110
independent variables 14, 17 life cycle assessment (LCA) network covalent solids 85 polymers and monomers 213
indicators 134, 136 simple molecules 83 simple 82–3
indium 61 269 melting point 38, 57, 58, 68, 96,
industry life on Earth 245 moles 20, 109–10
light 97, 98 and equations 113, 114
blast furnaces 148 Mendeleev, Dmitri 54
catalysts in 275 combustion 163, 164, 166 mercury 239 monazite 65
electrolysis 156 photochromic pigments 103 metal carbonates 140, 165, 220 monomers 84, 213, 214, 222,
extraction of aluminum 156 lignin 259 metal hydroxides 59, 139, 146
fertilizers 277 limestone 140, 234, 256 metal oxides 59, 61, 112, 119, 224, 225, 227, 260, 261
Haber process 274 limewater 230, 234 monosaccharides 226
reaction conditions 275 limiting reactants 115, 116 139, 147, 148, 164, 165 moscovium 68
waste water 272 line graphs 21 metallic bonds 88, 89, 170
infrared radiation 248 liquids 92, 98 metals 58–65 N
ink 44–5, 49 changes of state 96
insolubility 46 diffusion 94 actinides 65 nanoparticles 100–1
insoluble bases 142 evaporation 47 alloys 56, 89, 262 uses and risks 102
insoluble salts 141 filtration 46 corrosion 264–5
instrumental analysis 239 fractional distillation 50, 204–5 displacement reactions 152 nanotubes 87
insulin 225 simple distillation 49 electrolysis 153–6 naptha 205
intermolecular forces 83, 224 lithium 58, 59, 73, 74, 144, 146, electroplating 160, 265 natural composites 259
iodine 70, 93, 150, 235 extracting with carbon 148 natural gas 202, 266
ionic bonds 74, 170, 258 232 group 1 (alkali metals) 58–9, neodymium 64
ionic compounds 59, 61, 62, 64, lithium oxide 118 neon 71, 239
lithium-ion batteries 175 133 network covalent solids 85, 86
70, 78, 276, 7960 litmus 134 group 2 60 neutral substances 130, 131
empirical formulas 118 litmus paper 231, 235, 236 group 3 61 neutralization 124, 133, 135,
ions 57, 62, 73 livermorium 69 group 4 67
acids 132, 137 living things 66 group 5 68 139, 140, 166
anions 73, 75, 234–5 low-density polyethylene (LDPE) group 6 69 energy transfer 168
cations 73, 75, 232–3 metals continued neutrons 26, 27, 31, 66
electrolysis 153–4, 173 260 ionic bonding 74 Newlands, John 54
empirical formulas 118 lumps 41, 183, 187 ions 75 nickel 63
ionic bonding 74 lanthanides 64 alloys 160
ionic equations 151, 155 M metallic bonding 88, 89 nihonium 61
ions continued ores 241, 266 nitinol 104
ionic properties 79 magma 243, 244 properties of 56–7 nitrates, testing for 235
ionic structures 78 magnesium 31, 60, 74, 75, 76, reactions with acid 145 nitrogen 32, 66, 68, 235, 245,
periodic table 75 reactions with steam 147
iron 32, 33, 35, 57, 89, 144, 77, 144, 145, 147, 182, 276 reactions with water 146 273, 274, 276
magnesium oxide 112, 119–20, reactivity series 144 nitrogen compounds 272, 273
145, 149, 179, 233, 241, recycling 268 nitrogen dioxide 194, 195, 256
264, 265, 274 128, 164 redox reactions 149 nitrogen oxide 235, 254
displacement with carbon 148, magnesium-silicon alloys 262 transition 62–3 noble gases 74, 80
152 magnetism 57 metamorphic rock 243, 244 nonmetal oxides 164
steel 262 mantle, Earth’s 241, 242 methane 126, 200, 201, 202, nonmetals
isomers 199, 210 manufacturing 269
isotopes 31, 53, 253 mass 248, 249, 254, 274 in alloys 89
issues, scientific 11 fuel cells 176 covalent bonds 80, 172
balancing equations using 114 methanoic acid 219 ionic bonds 74
K calculating the reacting mass 120 methanol 215, 216 ions 75
calculating in reactions 116 methyl orange 134 in metal displacement reactions
kaolinites 258 changing 112 methylpropane 210
keratin 84 concentration 123 microorganisms 245, 270, 152
kerosene 205 conservation of 111, 112, 162, network covalent solids 85
krypton 71 273 properties of 57
187 minerals 65, 241, 243, 266 reactivity series 144
L moles 110 mining 266 NPK fertilizers 276
of reactants and products 119 mixtures 32 nuclear energy 253
landfill sites 249, 269 reaction rates and change in nuclear fission 253
lanthanides 52, 64 chromatography 44–5 nuclear fusion 253
lanthanum 64 187 formulations 39 nucleotides 224
lead 67, 145, 154, 155 and solubility 42, 43 separating 46–7 nucleus 26, 27, 28
and volume of gas 117 mobile phase 44, 45 nylon 222, 260, 261
water of crystallization 122 molar gas volume 117
math skills 19 mole ratio 113, 116
matter, states of 90–8 molecular formulas 118
mean 18
mean reaction rate 184, 190
mean titer 136

286

O phosphorus 68, 276 endothermic reactions 170 recycling 268
photochromic pigments 103 equilibrium 192 renewable 267
observation 10 photosynthesis 247, 249 exothermic reactions 171 sustainability 263
oceans 245, 247, 271 phytomining 263 percentage yield 127–8 respiration 247
pigments 39 profitability 126 results, validity of 13
acidification 249 propane 200, 201 reversible reactions 128, 191
octinoaxates 12 thermochromic and propanoic acid 219 energy transfer 193
oil 265, 266, 269 photochromic 103 propanol 210, 215, 216 equilibrium 192
organic chemistry 197–227 propene 208, 209, 214 Rf value 44, 45
organic compounds 198–9 planning 17 protease 227 risk 12
plants proteins 66, 84, 225, 227 rock cycle 244
alcohols 215–16, 217–18 protons 26, 27, 30, 31 rocks 241, 243
alkanes 200–1, 202–7 acid rain 256 purity 38, 49, 270 rubidium 58
alkenes 208, 209–14 carbohydrates 226 rust 89, 179, 264, 265
carbohydrates 226 carbon cycle 245, 247 Q Rutherford, Ernest 27
carboxylic acids 219–20 fertilizers 276
esters 221 phytomining 263 qualitative errors 23 S
hydrocarbons 200, 202 renewable resources 267 quantitative chemistry 106–28
naming 199 plastics 66, 84, 260, 261, 269, quantitative errors 23 safety 15
proteins 226 salts
osmium 30 274 R
oxidation 149, 164, 176, 177, plate boundaries 242 hydrated/anhydrous 121, 122,
pollution radioactive decay 60 191, 193
179, 216 radioactive waste 253
oxygen 35, 37, 38, 66, 69, 98 acid rain 256 radioactivity 65, 241 making insoluble 141
air 254 radium 60 making soluble 142
in atmosphere 32, 245 problems 255 radon 71 metal 145, 220
combustion 163, 166, 202 polonium 69 rain 245 neutralization 135, 139, 140
and corrosion 264, 265 polyamides 222, 223 pure samples 141, 142
electrolysis 157, 159 polychloro(ethene) (PVC) 260 acid 256 in water 270, 271
fuel cells 176, 177 polyesters 222, 223 random errors 23 samarium 64
oxygen continued polyethylene 213, 222 ratios 19 sand 46, 243, 244
ions 73, 75 polymers 84 raw materials 126, 266, 269 saturated hydrocarbons 200
measuring percentage in air addition 207, 213–14 reactants 36, 41 scanning electron microscopes
condensation 222–5, 227
246 hydrolysis of 227 bond energies 172 100
metal reactions with 112 making 261 chemical reactions 162, 179, 187 scientific method 10–24
molecules 81, 82, 83 shape memory 104 concentration of 189, 196 screening 273
oxidation 164 synthetic 260 endothermic reactions 167, seawater 271
testing for 229 polypropylene 214 sedimentary rock 203, 243
in water 55, 162 poo 247 170 sedimentation tanks 270
porcelain 258 equilibrium 192 selenium 69
P position isomers 210 exothermic reactions 166, sewage 272, 273
potable water 270 shape
paint 39, 265 potassium 58, 59, 73, 144, 146, 171
paper 251, 269 limiting 115, 116 changeable 57
paraffin, cracking 207 232, 276 reaction chambers 274 gases 93
particles potassium iodide 141 reaction conditions 275 liquids 92
potential difference 173, 174, reaction rates see chemical solids 91
collision theory 180, 181, 182, 183 shape memory materials 104
gases 93, 95, 96 176 reactions side reactions 128
liquids 92, 94, 96 pottery 258 reactivity significant figures 18
movement of 181, 182 powders 41, 183, 187 silicon 67, 262
nanoparticles 100–2 power stations 252, 253, 256 elements 59, 60, 61, 64, 65, silicon dioxide 85
solids 91, 96 praseodymium 64 66, 69, 71 silicon wafers 67
patterns 22 precipitates 111, 141, 188, 233, silver 144, 160
pentene 208 nanoparticles 101 silver nitrate 235
peptide links 225 234 reactivity series 144, 145 simple molecules 82–3
percentage mass 107–8 precipitation reactions 188, recycling 268, 269 simple voltaic cells 173
percentage yield 127–8 redox reactions 149 skin, synthetic 102
percentages 19 233 refineries, oil 204, 207, 252 smart materials 103–5
periodic table 29, 30, 52–3 rehydration 191 smells, ester 221
history of 54 precision 13 relative atomic mass (Ar) 31, 53, sodium 36, 58, 74, 75, 76, 77,
ions 75 pressure
periods 52 107, 109, 114, 119, 144, 146, 232, 239, 243
pH scale 130–1, 132 chemical reactions 182 relative formula mass (Mr) 107, sodium chloride 78–9, 159
dilute and concentrated acids and equilibrium 195 sodium hydroxide 123, 124, 131,
gases 93, 117, 182 109, 110, 114, 116, 122,
138 rock cycle 244 125 135, 168, 233
indicators 134 prisms 238 renewable resources 267 sodium thiosulfate 188
strong and weak acids 137 product yield 275 repeatability 13, 17 soil 276
phenolphthalein 133, 134 products 36 repeating units 213, 214, 222 solar panels 267
phosphates 224 atom economy 125–6 reproducibility 13
bond energies 172 resources 126
chemical reactions 162, 179, finite 203, 266, 268

187

287

solids 91, 98 tectonic plates 242 volatility 201
changes of state 96 tellurium 69 volcanoes 242, 245, 256
formed in chemical reactions temperature voltage 173, 174
162 voltaic cells 174
surface area 41, 183 calorimetry 168, 169
chemical reactions 162, 181 batteries 175
solubility 42, 216, 276 on Earth 248, 250 simple 173
calculating 43 endothermic reactions 167, voltmeters 173, 174
volume
soluble salts 142 168 gases 93, 117
solutes 40, 42, 43, 47, 48 and equilibrium 194 liquids 92
temperature continued solids 91
concentration 123 exothermic reactions 166, 168, units of 20
solutions 40, 42, 43, 48, 49,
169 W
50 gases 93, 117
concentration 123, 181, 196 and solubility 42 waste disposal 269
solutions continued and states of matter 91, 92, 93, waste water 272–3
dilute and concentrated acids
96, 97 waste products 125, 126, 253
138 thermochromic pigments 103 water 37, 38, 42, 44, 92
energy transfer 168 terbium 64
precipitates 188, 233 thallium 61 acidity 256
solvent front 45 theoretical yield 127, 128 adding 237
solvents 39, 40, 42, 43, 123, 217 thermal decomposition 165, 167 carbon footprint 251
evaporation 47 thermal energy 267 changes of state 96
filtration 46 thermite reactions 149, 152 chemical reaction 162
sourness 132 thermochromic pigments 103 and corrosion 265
spandex 260 thermosetting plastics 261 covalent bonds 80
spectra 238–9 thermosoftening plastics 261 dilute and concentrated acids
spectroscopy 238–9 Thomson, J.J. 27
starch 226, 227 thorium 65 138
state thulium 64 electrolysis 157, 158
changes of 96, 97 time, units of 20 evaporation 47
predicting 8 tin 67 hydrogels 105
state symbols 36, 98 tin plating 265 metal reactions with 146
stationary phase 44, 45 titanium 62 molecules 35, 40, 55, 82, 83
steam 47, 96 titanium-gold alloys 262 neutralization 135, 139, 140
metal reactions with 147 titrations 136, 277 pH 131
steel 89, 262, 265 calculations 124 potable 270
storage, water 270 torbernite 65 seawater 271
storms 250 toxicity 15, 255 simple distillation 49
strontium 60, 232 transition metals 35, 53, 62–3 solubility 42
structural formulas 34, 81, 213 transportation 251 testing for 237
subatomic particles 26 transport proteins 225 vapor 47, 49, 146, 147, 202,
sublimation 96
successful collision 180, 181, U 245, 248, 250, 265, 271
waste 272
182, 183, 184 uncertainty 23 water of crystallization 121–2
sucrose 226 units 20 weather 245
sugars 218, 224, 226, 227 universal indicator 130, 134, 230, extreme 250
sulfates, testing for 234 weathering 244
sulfur 32, 33, 69, 188 235 weight, units of 20
sulfur dioxide 254, 256 unsaturated hydrocarbons 200 whole number ratio 118, 119,
sulfuric acid 142, 221 uranium 65
Sun 120, 122
V wind turbines 267
energy from 247, 248, 250 word formulas 34
light from 255 vaccines 102
sunglasses 103 valency 35 X
sunscreens 12, 102 validity 13, 24
surface area to volume ratio vanadium 63 xenon 71
increasing 41 vanadium oxide 275
nanoparticles 101, 102 vapor Y
and reaction rates 183
sustainability 263 cracking paraffin 207 yeast 218
sustainable development fractional distillation 204
water 47, 49, 146, 147, 202, Z
126
symbols, elements 53 245, 248, 250, 265, 271 zinc 61, 144, 145, 173, 174,
variables 14, 17, 22 233, 262
T viscosity 201, 204, 206

tables 18

288

Acknowledgements

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Martyn F. Chillmaid (br/used 2 times). Bblood (c). 96 Dreamstime.com: Library: (c). 187 Science Photo (ca). 275 Dorling Kindersley: Ruth
36 Science Photo Library: (tc). 38 Andreykuzmin (c); Romikmk (crb); Library: Trevor Clifford Photography (c). Jenkinson / RGB Research Limited (bc).
Alamy Stock Photo: Evgeny Karandaev Nikkytok (crb/Dense steam); Valentyn75 188 Alamy Stock Photo: sciencephotos 276 Science Photo Library: Martyn F.
(clb). Science Photo Library: Vitaliy (clb). 98 Science Photo Library: Turtle (c). 191 Science Photo Library: Martyn Chillmaid (c)
Belousov / Sputnik (br); Martyn F. Rock Scientific (c). 100 SuperStock: F. Chillmaid (cr, c). 192 Science Photo All other images © Dorling Kindersley
Science Photo Library (c). 102 Alamy Library: Turtle Rock Scientific / Science For further information see: www.
Stock Photo: James King-Holmes (clb). Source (c). 193 Science Photo Library: dkimages.com
JOHN ROGERS/UNIVERSITY OF Giphotostock (cr, cl).