DK THE SOCIOLOGY BOOK

WORK AND CONSUMERISM 249

See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ Michel Foucault 52–55 ■ R.W. Connell 88–89 ■ Globalization and
Roland Robertson 146–49 ■ Robert Blauner 232–33 ■ Jeffrey Weeks 324–25 gender well-being

I n recent decades, despite a big which has led to more women The economic changes created
growth in the participation of entering the global workforce, by globalization and the new,
women in the workforce in Caraway claims that this flexible requirements of labor
Southeast Asia, the gender division underestimates the power of markets are thought to benefit
of labor has been redrawn rather gender in labor markets. Instead, women. Although feminization
than eliminated. US feminist and ideas and practices about men and “opens the door of job
sociologist Teri Lynn Caraway women providing distinct forms of opportunity to women,” as
studied industries in Indonesia labor—what she terms “gendered Teri Lynn Caraway puts it, the
in her book Assembling Women: discourses”—play a key role in the outcome is mixed. Caraway,
The Feminization of Global feminization process. Sylvia Walby, and Valentine
Manufacturing. Building upon the Moghadam have all shown
work of Michel Foucault, she says Conditions for feminization that female workers are
that gender in the workplace is Caraway says three conditions are far more likely to suffer ill
fluid and constantly renegotiated, necessary for the feminization of health. Moreover, women’s
and it is even influenced by the industrial labor to occur. First, disproportionate burden of
ideas of femininity and masculinity when demand for labor exceeds domestic work means that
held by factory managers, who may supply (for example, when there employment outside the home
determine machine operations that are insufficient male workers), places greater strain on them.
suit male or female workers. industry turns to women. Second,
only when family planning and German sociologist Christa
Caraway rejects mainstream mass education are available Wichterich argues, in The
economic theory because it can women enter the workforce. And Globalized Woman (2007),
views individuals as rational and third, work for women becomes that rather than liberating
genderless, reflecting the male, possible when barriers such as trade women into the workplace,
middle-class characteristics of unions—which protect male- globalization has bred a new
those who developed it. She also dominated workplaces from being underclass. She shows how,
dismisses Marxist analyses undermined by cheap female labor— from Phnom Penh to New
because they prioritize social are no longer effective. In Indonesia, York, women’s lives have
class over gender. Whereas the this happened when the state been devastated by having
conventional wisdom is that weakened Islamist organizations to respond to the demands
employers pay women lower wages, and trade unions, both of which are of transnational corporations,
potential opponents of female labor. surviving in low-paid
Female factory workers in employment, and coping with
Indonesia, like these garment workers Caraway notes the general the erosion of public services.
in Sukoharjo, receive equal wages with assumption that some employers
men. According to Caraway’s research, pay more to men because they Employers feminize their
this is not the case in East Asia. perceive their work to be superior, workforces only if they
while others consider women to be imagine women are more
unreliable in the long-term (due to productive than men.
motherhood or marriage). In fact, Teri Lynn Caraway
Caraway argues, both are examples
of complex “gendered cost benefit
analysis”; how female workers
are perceived and treated, and
therefore why women are seen as
better for certain types of labor, can
be explained by wider cultural
ideals, values, and beliefs about
gender roles within a society. ■

THE ROLE
INSTITUT

OF
IONS

252 INTRODUCTION

Karl Marx says religion Max Weber explains Antonio Gramsci uses the In Asylums, Erving
is “the sigh of the the process of term “hegemony” to Goffman describes

oppressed creature... the secularization and explain how the views of how “total
opium of the people” in his rationalization of the dominant class institutions”
essay “A Contribution to modern society in The reorder people’s
Protestant Ethic and become seen by the rest personalities and
the Critique of Hegel’s the Spirit of Capitalism. of society as “common
Philosophy of Right.” sense” and indisputable. identities.

1844 1904–05 1930S 1961
1897 1911 1949 1963

In Suicide, Émile Durkheim In Political Parties, In Social Theory and In Outsiders, Howard
introduces the idea of Robert Michels argues Social Structure, Robert S. Becker suggests
K. Merton proposes that that any behavior
“anomie” to account for that bureaucracies can be considered
differing suicide rates, render democratic “anomie” is at the deviant if society
root of deviant labels it as such.
revealing this personal act government behavior.
as a social phenomenon. impossible to achieve.

F or centuries, the dominant Enlightenment and the economic and so on. The new institutions
institutions in Europe were demands of industry. The social formed a prominent part of the
the Church and the ruling cohesion based on community social structure of modern society,
class of monarchs and aristocrats. values and shared beliefs gave and sociologists have sought
It was not until the Renaissance way to new secular institutions, to identify the roles they play
that the authority of the Church and government of society was in creating and maintaining
was challenged by humanist ideas transferred to representatives social order.
and scientific discovery, and of the people. Together with
republican democracy began to this secularization came a Bureaucracies, however, are
threaten claims of a God-given, rationalization suited to the organized for efficiency and
inherited right to rule. The age increasingly material nature of consequently tend to follow a
of Enlightenment thought further modern society. Industrialization, hierarchical structure. As Robert
weakened these institutions, and and the capitalism that grew from Michels pointed out, this leads to
in the 18th century the old order it, required a much greater degree their being ruled by a small elite, an
was overturned with political of administration, and the idea of oligarchy, which, far from helping to
revolutions in the US and France, bureaucracy spread from the sphere promote democratic government,
and an Industrial Revolution of commerce to government too. actively prevents it. As a result,
spreading from Britain. people feel as much under the
The institutions of modern control of the new institutions
Secularism and rationalism society evolved from these as they did under religious and
A recognizably modern society bureaucracies: financial and monarchical rule. Michel Foucault
rapidly emerged, which was business institutions, government later examined the nature of
shaped by the rational ideas of the departments, hospitals, education, the (often unnoticed) power of
the media, the police, armed forces, institutions to shape society and

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 253

Bryan Wilson Stanley Cohen’s Folk Ivan Illich, Paul Willis’s
discusses the Devils and Moral in Medical Nemesis: Learning to Labor
diminishing social
role of religion Panics is inspired by The Expropriation describes how
media coverage of of Health, claims that the education
in Religion medical establishment
in Secular Society. violent clashes reproduces and
between mods and constitutes a “major perpetuates class
threat to health.”
rockers in 1964. distinctions.

1966 1972 1975 1977
1970–84 1973 1976 1988

Michel Foucault Jürgen Habermas’s In Schooling in Capitalist In The Time of Tribes,
discusses how Legitimation Crisis explains America, Samuel Bowles Michel Maffesoli says
governments use how institutions can lose the and Herbert Gintis say that individualism is
policies to shape education instills attitudes declining as people
citizens and right to exercise social
control if they do not have and dispositions via a try to create new
society. the confidence of the people. “hidden curriculum.” social groupings.

the behavior of its individual population still identify themselves example of this is our increasing
citizens—imposing social norms, as belonging to a recognized reliance on medicine as a means of
and stifling individuality. Jürgen faith community, and in many curing all ills, as described by Ivan
Habermas was similarly critical of places religion is increasingly Illich. Education, too, came under
institutional power, but argued that becoming a social force. scrutiny as an institutional means
this can only be wielded so long of fostering social attitudes and
as the institutions are trusted by Individualism and society maintaining a desired social order.
the people. More recently (and As well as studying the nature and
controversially), Michel Maffesoli scope of institutions in society, But it was Émile Durkheim who
has suggested that as people sociologists in the latter part of the recognized the conflict between
become disillusioned with 20th century have taken a more individualism and institutional
institutions, they form new social interpretive approach, examining expectations of conformity. His
groupings along tribal lines, with the effects of these institutions on concept of “anomie,” a mismatch
corresponding new institutions. the individual members of society. between an individual’s beliefs and
Max Weber had warned of the desires and those of society, was
The social influence of religious stultifying effects of bureaucracy, taken up by Robert K. Merton in his
institutions, described famously trapping people in the “iron cage” explanation of what was considered
by Karl Marx as “the opium of the of rationalization, and later Erving deviant behavior. Howard S. Becker
people,” declined with the growth Goffman described the effects developed this further, suggesting
of bureaucracies, and during the of institutionalization, when that any behavior could be
20th century most states had (at individuals have become so used to considered deviant if an institution
least nominally) a form of secular living with an institution they can labels it as such, and, according to
government. Nevertheless, today no longer do without it. A particular Stanley Cohen, the modern media
some 75 percent of the world’s demonizes things in just this way. ■

RELIGION

IS THE SIGH OF THE

OPPRESSED

CREATURE

KARL MARX (1818–1883)



256 KARL MARX Economic hardship
prevents most people
IN CONTEXT from achieving comfort
and true happiness in
FOCUS
Religion this world.

KEY DATES Religion distorts Religion provides
1807 German philosopher this reality and encourages false hopes and says
Georg Hegel’s work The people to work hard, passively that true happiness can
Phenomenology of Spirit only be attained in the
introduces the concept accept their lot, and
of alienation. endure suffering. heavenly afterlife.

1841 The Essence of Although it provides solace,
Christianity by German religion is the sigh of the
philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach
draws on Hegel’s idea of oppressed creature, the heart
alienation and applies it of a heartless world.
critically to Christianity.

1966 Religion has lost its
authority, according to British
sociologist Bryan Wilson in
Religion in Secular Society.

2010 German sociologist
Jürgen Habermas, in An
Awareness of What is Missing:
Faith and Reason in a Post-
Secular Age, muses on why
religion has failed to disappear.

A ccording to the German opposite), the social structures qualities, so they unconsciously
philosopher Georg Hegel, and institutions that people worship themselves. This prevents
liberty in a full sense create to serve them can instead them from fully realizing their own
consists of participation in certain come to control and even enslave potential; the divine is no more
ethical institutions. More infamously, them. The process of rational self- than a projection of alienated
he also said that only in the state discovery can lead to “alienation”— human consciousness. Karl Marx’s
“does man have rational existence.” a concept of estrangement that went collaborator, Friedrich Engels,
He believed that Christianity was on to have a profound influence on acknowledged that Feuerbach’s
the perfect (“consummate”) religion the social sciences. The Essence of Christianity had
for the emerging age of modernity a profoundly liberating effect on
because it reflected its spirit or Ludwig Feuerbach, a German them both in the 1840s.
geist—faith in reason and truth. philosopher and former student
However, because of the process of of Hegel’s, used the concept of Man makes religion
contradiction known as “dialectic” alienation to criticize religion. Karl Marx’s father had converted
(in which, by its own nature, Feuerbach argues that people from Judaism to Christianity
something can contain its endow God with human qualities merely to ensure his job security,
and then worship him for those

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 257

See also: Auguste Comte 22–25 ■ Karl Marx 28–31 ■ Friedrich Engels 66–67 ■ Sylvia Walby 96–99 ■
Max Weber 220–23 ■ Bryan Wilson 278–79 ■ Jürgen Habermas 286–87

Religion is used by those in them, are not natural or inevitable that serves capitalist interests,
temporal charge to invest but can be overthrown. Until then, including religion, has to be
themselves with authority. religion will remain as a symptom contested, and ultimately done
Christopher Hitchens of the disease caused by material away with. The replacement will
deprivation and human alienation, be a humanist society based on
British-US writer (1949–2011) which creates such pain for its socialism and communism.
sufferers that they need the solace
and yet he instilled in his son a provided by religion. According to Marx, religion
belief that religion is necessary for is “consolation and justification”
morality. However, from a relatively Like the French philosopher for the existing state and society.
young age, Karl Marx criticized Auguste Comte, for whom religious Churches proclaim that the
the idea that a spiritual realm was belief is an infantile state of reason, authority of the ruling class is
needed to maintain social order. Marx believes in society progressing ordained by supernatural authority,
He later became convinced that scientifically toward secularism. thus the lowly position of the
secularization (decline in the social However, Marx is more critical of workers is inevitable and
significance of religion) will liberate religion as a reflection of society, just. When a society is riven by
people from mystical forms of social rather than as a set of beliefs. inequality, injustice is perpetuated
oppression. He outlined many His goal is to liberate the working rather than eased. Marx declared:
of his ideas about religion in class from the oppression of “The struggle against religion is,
“A Contribution to the Critique of capitalism, and he argues that the therefore, indirectly the struggle
Hegel’s Philosophy of Right” (1844). ideas of the ruling class are those against that world whose spiritual
dominating society—and one of aroma is religion.” This sentiment
Expanding upon the idea of the apparatuses transmitting was echoed in the 1960s by British
alienation, Marx argues that “man those ideas is the Church. sociologist Bryan Wilson, who
makes religion, religion does not claims that the role of the Church
make man.” People, he says, have The Church and the state is to socialize each new generation
forgotten that they invented God, In 18th-century England, an into accepting their lot.
who has come to have a life of his unknown wit described the Church
own and now controls the people. of England as a political party “at Marx aims to expose the
What people have created, they can prayer.” For Marx, any institution illusory nature of religion and reveal
destroy. The revolutionary working it as an ideological tool of the ❯❯
class, he believes, will realize that
the ideologies and institutions of
capitalist society, which enslave

The wealth of the Catholic Church
has been criticized by many. For Marx,
religion serves capitalist interests
and is a tool used by wealthy elites to
control and oppress the working class.

258 KARL MARX

Marx argues that religion is a belief The hereafter the people” when the situation
system that enables the ruling class demands their real happiness:
to maintain power in the present by “To call on them to give up their
promising the working class that things illusions about their condition is to
will be better in the hereafter. The poor call on them to give up a condition
find solace in moral teachings because, that requires illusions.” The task of
ultimately, they will reap a reward for history and philosophy, he declares,
their suffering; social change is averted is “to unmask self-estrangement in
because religion stabilizes society and its unholy forms once the holy form
upholds the status quo. of human self-estrangement has
been unmasked.”
The here and now
Marx agreed with German
ruling class. Because a belief in the which suggests that religion has a sociologist Max Weber’s premise
hereafter serves as a comfort to radical or potentially revolutionary that Protestantism had played a
the poor and the oppressed, Marx aspect. In 17th-century England, big role in establishing capitalism
described religion as “the opium of for example, Puritanism led because it better satisfied the
the people.” Russian revolutionary to the execution of a king and commercial needs of 16th-century
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin said it is the establishment of a republic. merchants and later industrialists.
“spiritual gin”: religion deadens the However, Marx says that religion Hard work accompanied by reward
harsh realities of working-class life, is the “illusory happiness of was at the heart of Protestant
and through it people are drugged philosophy, and Calvinists in
into accepting their lowly positions Feminism and religion particular looked upon material
in return for a better afterlife. In success as a sign of God’s favor.
effect, religion can be understood Elizabeth Cady Stanton,
as a potent form of social control 19th-century US author of The Marx describes the Reformation
that keeps the poor in their place Woman’s Bible, said the Word as Germany’s revolutionary past—
and obstructs social change. of God was actually that of a a revolution that began in the brain
man and was used to subjugate of a monk, as he puts it. Luther,
Religion and radicalism women. Feminist theories he says, “overcame bondage out
Marx does not overlook the fact that of religion since then have of devotion by replacing it with
Christianity is a religion that grew generally echoed this theme of bondage out of conviction”; Luther
out of oppression, and that it has sexism and gender inequality. turned priests into laymen because
sustained and comforted those he turned laymen into priests. In
who are miserable and without Women tend to participate Marx’s view, Protestantism did
hope. Religious suffering is both more than men in religious
an “expression of real suffering and observation, but they are usually writer Nawal El Saadawi
a protest against real suffering”— marginalized and discriminated says religion may be used to
it is the “sigh” of oppressed people, against, with fewer rights and oppress women, but the cause
heavier punishments. Egyptian is patriarchal forms of society,
which has reshaped religion.
Many Muslim women use their
religion and dress to symbolize
their liberation, notes British
sociologist Linda Woodhead.

Within some religions, the
position of women is changing
significantly; since the Church
of England permitted female
ordination in 1992, women now
make up one in five of the clergy.

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 259

not offer the true solution to the The roots of modern religion in this way also thwarted their
problem, but it did provide a “true are deeply embedded in the revolutionary potential and ensured
setting” whereby a man’s struggle they became the compliant
was now no longer against the social oppression of the workhorses of industry.
clergy outside but the “priestly working masses.
nature” inside himself. Western intellectuals such as
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin A.C. Grayling, the late Christopher
Meanwhile, the social status Hitchens, and Richard Dawkins,
quo presented a further obstacle to Russian political theorist (1870–1924) sometimes branded the “New
real human emancipation. Whereas Atheists,” share many of Marx’s
the landowners and capitalists It also attracted the new factory sentiments about religion. Namely
became richer in this world, the owners, who were both perturbed that, as arguably the first attempt
reward for the working class for by the apparently irreligious nature at philosophy, religion is interesting
toiling long hours for little pay was of their workers and shocked by but is a form of alienation, both
a place in heaven; suffering is made their vices, such as drunkenness. emotional and intellectual, and
into a virtue. Marx is concerned Offering Marxists further evidence a poor substitute for social justice
by the role of the Church as a of religion being used as an and happiness. However, Marx
landowner and employer in the 19th ideological tool by the ruling himself—in his observations about
century and sees this as further classes, some owners coerced the Reformation—acknowledged
evidence that religion is one more workers into attending services, religion’s potential for radical
ideological tool used by the ruling Bible study classes, educational thought and social action. The part
classes to control the workers. talks, and hobbies in an attempt that Nonconformist religions played
to “educate” them into a “decent,” in Britain during more than a
An irreligious workforce sober, existence—one that century of progressive social reform
In Britain, the establishment feared would enable them to work more later demonstrated this. In seeking
that working people were losing efficiently. Divesting them of energy an answer as to why religion has
touch with organized religion and not faded away by the 21st century,
turning instead to other Christian Jürgen Habermas acknowledges
religious groups or working-class the important public role played
political movements, such as by religious communities in many
Chartism. For this reason, a Census parts of the world. Today, in spite
of Religious Worship was carried of widespread secularization, no
out in 1851. This revealed working- one speaks of the extinction of
class apathy as well as a divide in religions or the religious. ■
society between the conservative,
established Church of England and
the meeting houses and chapels
where followers of newer, popular
religions, such as Quakerism and
Unitarianism, gathered.

Methodism—a Protestant
denomination focused on helping
the poor—was extremely popular
in many working-class areas in the
manufacturing centers of Britain.

Christian groups like the Quakers
were perceived as a threat to the
religious-political status quo. Opposed
to war and slavery, and refusing to
swear oaths to others, they rejected
the idea of hierarchies in the Church.

260

THE IRON LAW
OF OLIGARCHY

ROBERT MICHELS (1876–1936)

IN CONTEXT B ureaucracy is an enemy of Keeping their positions of power
individual liberty, according becomes an important role of
FOCUS to Robert Michels. In the bureaucracies such as political
Oligarchy early 20th century, he pointed parties; and maintaining an air
out the link between bureaucracy of mystery and superiority through
KEY DATES and political oligarchy (the rule complex voting systems, use
1904–05 Max Weber’s of the many by the few). In his of arcane language, and sub-
The Protestant Ethic and the observations of political parties committees helps to ensure this.
Spirit of Capitalism sees the and unions, he saw that the size Officials tend to be well-insulated
rationalization that results and complexity of democracies from the consequences of their
from bureaucracy as an require hierarchy. A leadership, decisions—bureaucracy protects
inevitable feature of modernity. with a clear chain of command, them against public accountability.
and separate from the masses, is Oligarchy thrives in the hierarchical
1911 In Political Parties, needed—resulting in a pyramid- structure of bureaucracy and
German social and political like structure that places a few frequently undermines people’s
theorist Robert Michels leaders in charge of vast and control over their elected leaders. ■
contends that organizational powerful organizations.
democracy is an impossibility. Who says organization,
Michels applies Max says oligarchy.
1916 Italian sociologist Weber’s idea that a hierarchy of
Vilfredo Pareto argues that responsibility increases efficiency, Robert Michels
democracy is an illusion; the but argues that this concentrates
elite will always serve itself. power and endangers democracy.
The interests of the elites of
2009 The launch of the Chilcot organizations, rather than the
Inquiry in the UK into the 2003 needs of the people, become
invasion of Iraq shows the the key focus, despite professed
extent to which officials, such democratic ideals. Michels stresses
as ex-Prime Minister Tony that the self-interest of those at
Blair, are protected from being the top of organizations always
publicly accountable for their comes to the fore.
actions. Many argue that Blair
should be tried for war crimes. See also: Karl Marx 28–31 ■ Max Weber 38–45 ■ Friedrich Engels 66–67 ■
Michel Foucault 270–77 ■ Jürgen Habermas 286–87

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 261

HEALTHY PEOPLE NEED
NO BUREAUCRACY
TO MATE, GIVE BIRTH,
AND DIE

IVAN ILLICH (1926–2002)

IN CONTEXT S ociety has become acutely Hospital births, uncommon before
aware of the dangers posed the 20th century, are cited by some
FOCUS by medicine. Over-use of as an example of social iatrogenesis—
Iatrogenesis diagnostic x-rays in pregnancy, the increasing, and unncecessary,
which can lead to childhood medicalization of life.
KEY DATES cancers, and harmful prescription-
c.460–370 BCE Hippocrates, drug interactions are examples. depression is, for example, often
a physician in ancient Greece, The Greek word “iatrogenesis”— treated with habit-forming drugs.
believes medics should not “brought forth by a healer”—is used The agencies involved, such as
cause harm to their patients; to describe such problems. Radical drug companies, have a vested
iatrogenesis becomes a Austrian thinker Ivan Illich argues interest in treating people this way.
punishable offence. that the medical establishment has
become a serious threat to human Even worse, for Illich, is cultural
1847 Hungarian physician life because, in conjunction with iatrogenesis—the destruction of
Ignaz Semmelweis capitalism, it is an institution traditional ways of coping with
recommends surgeons that serves itself and makes more illness, pain, and death. The over-
wash their hands to reduce people sick than it heals. medicalization of our lives means
infection-related deaths. that we have become increasingly
Illich suggests there are three unwilling to face the realities of
1975 Ivan Illich, in Medical main types of iatrogenesis. Clinical death and disease: doctors have
Nemesis, claims that the iatrogenesis is when a harm arises assumed the role of priests. ■
medical establishment that would not have occured
constitutes a major threat without medical intervention;
to human health. less resistance to bacteria from
the over-prescription of antibiotics,
2002 David Clark, professor of for example. Social iaotragenesis
medical sociology, argues that is the medicalization of life: more
terminal cancer patients are and more problems are seen as
given ravaging chemotherapy amenable to medical intervention,
treatments as a result of with expensive treatments being
human-centered treatment developed for non-diseases. Minor
that offers false hope.

See also: George Ritzer 120–23 ■ Robert Putnam 124–25 ■ Ulrich Beck 156–61 ■
Erving Goffman 264–69 ■ Michel Foucault 270–77; 302–03

262

SOME COMMIT CRIMES
BECAUSE THEY ARE
RESPONDING TO A
SOCIAL SITUATION

ROBERT K. MERTON (1910–2003)

IN CONTEXT Societies provide people with D eviance is universal,
clear life goals. normal, and functional,
FOCUS according to French
Anomie or strain theory Not everyone has theorist Émile Durkheim. He
the means to achieve argues that when people no longer
KEY DATES feel integrated into society and
1897 In Suicide, Émile these goals. are unsure of its norms and rules—
Durkheim uses the concept for example, during times of rapid
of anomie to account for Pressure to conform social change—they are more
differing suicide rates among and “succeed” leads to likely to turn to deviant acts or
Protestants and Catholics. suicide. This condition is known
deviant acts. as anomie, a Greek word meaning
1955 US criminologist Albert “without law.” In his article “Social
Cohen, a former student of Some commit Structure and Anomie,” published
Talcott Parsons, says the crimes because they in 1938, US sociologist Robert
disadvantages faced by K. Merton adapts Durkheim’s
lower-class men cause status are responding to analysis of deviance, applying
frustration, or strain, leading to a social situation. it to contemporary US society
delinquency, which is seen as and arguing that such behavior
a way to command respect. occurs as a direct result of strain.

1983 British criminologist The American Dream
Steven Box says some Merton suggests that the ideals
accounts of delinquency, such and aspirations connected with
as those of Albert Cohen, fail individual “success” in the
to explain the crimes of the US—the “American Dream” of,
powerful in society. for example, material prosperity,
and home and car ownership—
1992 US sociologist Robert are socially produced. Not everyone
Agnew insists that anomie, can achieve these goals through
or strain theory, can be used legitimate means because certain
to explain crime and deviancy constraints, such as social class,
but should not be tied to class. act as barriers to achieving them.
According to Merton, deviance

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 263

See also: Richard Sennett 84–87 ■ Robert D. Putnam 124–25 ■ Robert K. Merton
Max Weber 220–23 ■ Howard S. Becker 280–85 ■ Talcott Parsons 300–01

The American Dream of leading a not aspire to society’s cultural Robert K. Merton was born as
charmed life, owning a home and a car, goals, but nevertheless respect the Meyer R. Schkolnick in 1910 in
and accumulating wealth is a fantasy recognized means of achieving Philadelphia. His parents were
for many, especially those caught in the them. They may, for example, go working-class Russian-Jewish
clutches of poverty and unemployment. to work every day and perform their immigrants; the first few years
duties conscientiously, but they do of his life were spent living
(which is also socially constructed) not attempt to climb the corporate above their dairy shop (which
is likely to occur when there is an ladder to “success.” later burned down). He
obvious tension or discrepancy adopted the stage name
between social expectations and “Innovators” (often seen as Robert Merlin at the age of 14
the ability or desire to attain them. criminals) are those who believe in as part of his magician act, but
This “strain theory,” for Merton, the goals of society but choose less changed it to Robert K. Merton
explains the direct correlation legitimate and traditional means when he won a scholarship to
between unemployment and crime: to achieve them. ”Retreatists” are Temple University.
for example, a lack of money means society’s dropouts—they reject not
that the legal routes to buying a only conventional goals but also Merton is credited with
car, a house, or other items are the traditional means of attaining coining the phrases “self-
not accessible, but the pressure to them. Finally, “Rebels” are similar fulfilling prophecy” and “role
conform to what is expected can to Retreatists, but they create models,” and is said to have
lead people to theft. alternative goals and means pioneered the focus-group
of achieving them and seek to research method. He was
Rebel or conformist? advance a counterculture. It is elected president of the
Merton extends his theory by this group (which often includes American Sociological
dividing people into five categories terrorists and revolutionaries) that, Association in 1957.
according to their relationship according to Merton, can effect
to culturally accepted goals and social change. Key works
the means of achieving them.
“Conformists,” he suggests, have Merton’s strain theory has been 1938 “Social Structure and
invested in the American Dream criticized for focusing on individual Anomie”
and, through the accepted routes of deviancy at the expense of group 1949 Social Theory and Social
education and gainful employment, or gang behavior. It is also argued Structure
are able to attain it. “Ritualists” do that the theory relies too heavily on 1985 On the Shoulder of
official crime statistics, which often Giants: A Shandean Postscript
obscure middle-class crime. ■
Antisocial behavior is...
‘called forth’ by...

differential access to
the approved opportunities
for legitimate... pursuit of...

cultural goals.
Robert K. Merton

TOTAL INSTITUTIONS

STRIP PEOPLE OF THEIR

SUPPORT

SYSTEMS

AND THEIR SENSE OF SELF

ERVING GOFFMAN (1922–1982)



266 ERVING GOFFMAN W hen dealing with the These establishments
bureaucratic procedures are the forcing houses
IN CONTEXT that typify the modern for changing persons in
world—and the frustrations they our society. Each is a
FOCUS engender—most of us can escape natural experiment,
Institutionalization into our private lives to maintain a typically harsh, on what
sense of balance. However, there can be done to the self.
KEY DATES are people for whom this is not an
1871 Henry Maudsley, a option because they spend all their Erving Goffman
British psychiatrist, argues time in structured institutions,
that asylums adversely affect such as prisons or asylums. calls “total institutions.” Asylums,
individuals’ sense of self. prisons and concentration camps,
US sociologist Erving Goffman and even boarding schools and
1972 Psychological Survival, was interested in how people deal monasteries, are examples of this
Stanley Cohen and Laurie with things when they cannot extreme form of organization.
Taylor’s study of a men’s prison escape everyday rules and
in Durham, UK, reveals that regulations. For his seminal study In “total institutions,” not
inmates adapt behavior and Asylums, published in 1961, only are the inmates physically
identity in order to survive. he investigated how the “self” separated from the outside world,
adjusts to living in permanent they are frequently isolated for
1975 French thinker Michel and omnipresent bureaucracy. He extended periods of time,
Foucault’s Discipline and contended that the most important sometimes involuntarily. Due to
Punish: The Birth of the Prison factor for a patient in a mental these peculiar circumstances,
considers the ways in which hospital was not the illness but the such organizations develop
prisons and asylums maintain institution—and that the reactions particular ways of going about
social order and conformity. and adjustments the affected
person makes are found in inmates
1977 In Decarceration, US of other types of institution too.
sociologist Andrew T. Scull
contends that the trend Total institutions
to reduce the number of Institutions that are closed off
institutions for the mentally from the outside world—often
ill and prisoners leads to a physically by walls, fences, and
greater lack of care. locked doors—are what Goffman

The goal of “total institutions” A person’s former identity and
is to influence the lives of sense of self is broken down...
individuals comprehensively.

“Total institutions” strip ...and they are forced to adapt
people of their support systems and become adjusted to the

and their sense of self. goals of the institution.

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 267

See also: Émile Durkheim 34–37 ■ Michel Foucault 52–55; 270–77 ■ G.H. Mead 176–77 ■ Ivan Illich 261 ■
Howard S. Becker 280–85

their business. Within such places, Using his own observations and Alcatraz prison, US, is a powerful
says Goffman, a relatively small drawing upon a range of published symbol of institutional dominance.
number of staff supervise a much material, such as autobiographies Foucault saw prison as omnipotent, but
larger group of inmates. They do and novels about similar Goffman argues inmates of institutions
so using surveillance techniques institutions, Goffman concludes try to fashion life to meet their needs.
to achieve compliance—an that identity is shaped, and
observation made by Michel adjusted, through interaction institution, and discover that
Foucault in his 1975 study, which with others. He states that if the these same people are stripping
depicted prisons as all-seeing, organization’s key goals are to be them of their rights. In this way,
all-powerful machines. Goffman’s met, it is sometimes necessary to they lose their autonomy and
additional insight was that inmates sideline official practices and ideals experience humiliation and
responded to “total institutions” while giving the impression they a challenge to their identity,
by fashioning a new mode of life. are being upheld. perhaps by having their actions
or their sanity questioned.
Functionalist theory holds that Goffman maintains that the
society is glued together by social social relationships and identities The admission to the hospital
consensus—an agreed sense that patients possessed before they continues this breaking-down
of purpose. A “total institution” entered a mental institution give process: being photographed,
works because it has goals, and way to wholly new identities that having personal possessions
everything within it is targeted on are built around the ways in which confiscated, fingerprints taken, and
those goals. Goffman, who worked they adapt to life in their new undressing—all these procedures
in a US asylum between 1955 and institutional home. chip away at the “old self.” Goffman
1956, argues that alongside the argues that our sense of self is
official aims of the organization, Breaking down the self partly invested in our appearance,
there exist other, invisible goals The process begins with the the things we own, and the clothes
and practices that constitute a breaking down of the old self. we wear; if these are changed or
crucial part of its functioning. He The patients are sometimes either taken away, people are given a
calls this the “underlife of public forcibly committed or tricked message that they are no longer the
institutions” and he concentrates by family members and health person they were. Once admitted,
on the world of the asylum patients professionals into entering an this feeling is continually ❯❯
to understand this “underlife.”

Bethlem Royal Hospital, London’s
notoriously chaotic asylum, from which
the word “Bedlam” is derived, was
founded in 1247. It is now a modern
psychiatric facility.

268 ERVING GOFFMAN

“Mortification of the self” Clothes and Movement
is Goffman’s term for an possessions restrained
institutional process whereby taken away
an individual is stripped of New self
a sense of self. A personal Old self
identity is transformed into Individual
an organizational identity—as Hair cut medicated
“patient” or “inmate.” At the
outset, the “old self” is partly
defined by trappings, such
as possessions and clothes.
Within the institutional maze,
by becoming a number, getting
a haircut or a uniform, having
freedom curtailed through
physical restraints, and one’s
behavior modified by rules, or
perhaps through medication, a
compliant “new self” is forged.

emphasized; for example, by having tries to conform to what is Although “total institutions” are
to ask permission to go to the toilet. expected of the ideal patient. focused on producing standardized
This adds to what Goffman calls a Colonization, according to Goffman, behavior, many inmates find ways
“mortification of the self,” which is is when the institution’s regime to adjust. Goffman suggests that
brought about by the humiliations engulfs the inmate, so that the humans can develop complex
and degradations of such a life. world “inside” seems preferable to responses to the types of demands
that outside and the inmate would on the self required by such
Usual face-saving ways of be unable to function in the world organizations. He maintains that
coping with these situations, such outside the institution. a process of secondary adjustment
as sarcasm or profanity, are not enables individuals to create a new
possible in “total institutions” Salvaging identity self, centered on the organization,
because punishment will ensue. The second stage of a mental which inhabits the spaces not
Inmates have to make a primary patient’s progress is the salvaging taken by the rules and regulations.
adjustment to this organizational of some sense of individuality.
demand, and often end up in a These secondary adjustments
placid state where they can be easily Many total institutions… comprise the “underlife” of the
controlled, enabling the institution seem to function merely as institution and are a means for the
to function effectively. The system storage dumps for inmates, inmates to get by on a day-to-day
of privileges and reward used by basis, produce a degree of
the institution, in return for work in but… usually present autonomy, and retain some
the kitchen or elsewhere, can help themselves to the public as personality. The most popular way
to focus an inmate’s energy and this is done, according to Goffman,
attention, and give a new sense rational organizations. is by “playing it cool”; generally
of purpose and meaning, while Erving Goffman getting along with staff while
keeping them compliant. carving out an identity and
“working” the system without
In some cases, the institution overtly clashing with the rules.
can overwhelm the inmate, Inmates can find and use what he
resulting in either “conversion” refers to as “damp corners” in the
or “colonization.” In an asylum, organization—spaces such as
conversion is when a patient kitchens, workshops, or the sick
accepts a hospital’s definition bay—that provide an opportunity
of them—for example, as being to exert control over self and
emotionally disturbed—and then

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 269

situation. In such places, the as the US sociologist and One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest,
inmates can create new criminologist John Irwin, have a novel by Ken Kesey, is set in an
currencies—for example, bargaining suggested Goffman’s study was a asylum. It deals with patients adopting
with tobacco or sweets—or develop little narrow in its focus and was coping strategies, and how institutions
particular ways of communicating limited by only observing inmates crush challenges to their authority.
through a creative use of language. while in the institution.
Some may try to maintain a facilities have been closed from the
defiant feeling of independence by Nevertheless, in seeing “total 1960s onward as part of a process
discreetly urinating on a radiator, institutions” as places that, rather of deinstitutionalization in favor
which will evaporate any signs than operating in the best interest of domiciled (“in the community”)
of misbehavior, rather than ask of inmates, effectively dehumanize care, a significant proportion of
for permission to go to the toilet. them, Goffman’s work has been people will still end their days in an
Institutions will often turn a blind cited as precipitating changes institution. An aging population
eye to such relatively minor in the treatment of mental health means that many citizens may be
indiscretions in the knowledge patients. He lays bare the ways unable to live independent lives
that these keep the inmate in which “total institutions” are and therefore have to spend time
tractable for the most part. self-legitimatizing organizations— in nursing or care homes, which
through defining their goals they can exhibit some of the negative
Not everyone is successfully legitimate their activity, which hallmarks of “total institutions.” ■
socialized into the norms of “total in turn legitimates the measures
institutions.” Although Goffman they take to meet those goals.
does not focus in detail on this,
some inmates may retain a spirit of His work is also important for
resistance and rebel by sabotaging the sociology of identity because of
the plumbing, organizing mass his claims that names, possessions,
refusal of particular foods, riots, and clothes are symbols imbued
or even arranging for a member with meaning and importance for
of staff to have “an accident.” identity formation. He highlights
the clear gap between officially
Self-serving institutions imposed definitions of the self
Despite writing in a cool, detached and the self that the individual
tone, Goffman has been accused by seeks to present.
some of over-identifying with the
patients he observed. Others, such Goffman’s studies remain of
social relevance. Despite the fact
that, in Britain, many mental health

US city jails confine those arrested A crisis of incarceration Erving Goffman. He argued that
but not yet charged or convicted. It city jails, which confine those
is argued such institutions expose John Keith Irwin had a different arrested but not yet charged
normal citizens to inmate culture. kind of first-hand experience of a or convicted, degrade and
“total institution” than Goffman: dehumanize people. Rather than
in 1952, he served five years in controlling the disreputable,
prison for robbery. He used that they indoctrinate inmates into
time to study and later gained a particular ways of behaving.
PhD in sociology, becoming an
expert in the US prison system He claims that these jails
and the forms of social control are designed to manage the
demanded by society. “underclass,” or “rabble,” who
are seen as threatening middle-
Based on his own insight and class values. The jails are
interviews with prisoners, Irwin perceived to be holding-tanks
wrote The Jail: Managing the for petty thieves, addicts, and
Underclass in American Society sexual nonconformists, which
(1985), which he dedicated to confirms their outsider status.

GOVERNMENT IS

THE RIGHT

DISPOSITION

OF THINGS

MICHEL FOUCAULT (1926–1984)



272 MICHEL FOUCAULT In the Middle Ages, there were two “rulers” for
every person in Europe…
IN CONTEXT
…the monarch, who ruled …the Church, which
FOCUS by divine right and “governed” people’s souls.
Governmentality
maintained the security
KEY DATES and peace of his lands.
1513 In The Prince, Florentine
political theorist Niccolò These roles were then combined in secular government,
Machiavelli offers advice which took care of the land (now the “state”) and its people.
on how to maintain power.
Government increasingly became the art of managing “things”
1567 French writer Guillaume in a rational way (“governmentality”).
de la Perrière argues in Le
Miroir Politique that the word Government’s role is to maximize
“governor” can apply to a broad the welfare of its people—to manage
array of people and groups.
the right disposition of things.
1979 Michel Foucault
publishes an article entitled
“On Governmentality.”

1996 British sociologist
Nikolas Rose examines how
institutions such as prisons
and schools shape the
behavior of citizens.

2002 German sociologist
Thomas Lemke applies
Foucault’s concept of
governmentality to modern
day neo-liberal societies.

T hroughout history, people a series of lectures that became but a changing thing that depends
have been concerned with a prominent feature of intellectual on both time and place. What
the nature of government, life in the city. One of these is “rational” in one space and
where and how it is needed, and lectures was later published in time may be thought irrational
the question of who has the right the influential journal Ideology in others. To summarize this
to govern other people. French and Consciousness in 1979, under concept, Foucault joined the French
philosopher Michel Foucault the title “On Governmentality.” In words governeur (governor) and
focused his study on the workings this work, Foucault argues that it mentalité (mentality) to create
of power, and became particularly is impossible to study the formation a new term—governmentality—
interested in the processes and of power without also looking at to describe the way that a
legitimacy of government in the practices—the techniques government thinks about itself
Western Europe from the 16th and rationality—through which and its role (its “rationality”).
to 20th centuries. people are governed. This
rationality is not an absolute that Foucault’s approach to
As a professor at the prestigious can be reached by pure reason, as philosophical analysis focuses
Collège de France in Paris between most philosophers have suggested, on the “genealogy of the subject.”
1970 and 1975, Foucault delivered So rather than relying on the

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 273

See also: Michel Foucault 52–55; 302–03 ■ David McCrone 163 ■ Norbert Elias 180–81 ■ Max Weber 220–23 ■
Robert Michels 260

traditional approach to inquiry, offenders in the stocks, in order Peasant farmers worked on the land
where philosophers look for the to integrate people into their during the Middle Ages making vast
universal and invariant foundations community. This was the age profits for their lords. Feudal systems
of knowledge, Foucault looks at how of feudalism, when monarchs, imposed control on people, rather than
a subject is constituted across who were seen as God’s divine coherent government.
history, and how this leads to its representatives on Earth, relied
modern appearance. on various lords to keep the local A new way to govern
people under control. The network According to Foucault, the question
Foucault’s series of lectures of lords with allegiance to a king of governing became a far greater
on governmentality examined offered a way of maintaining order problem in the 16th century
the ways in which the modern across large areas of land. when medieval feudalism fell into
idea of an autonomous, individual decline. As the ideas of empire and
self developed in concert with The lords earned their titles, territorial expansion began to take
the idea of the nation-state. He castles, and land rights by hold, the question of how to govern
was particularly interested in providing military service and the individual, the family, and the
seeing how these two concepts support to the monarch. Eventually state became a central issue.
co-determined each other’s these privileges became hereditary. Governmentality was born.
existence, and changed with the Peasant farmers, or serfs, were
political rationality of the time. obliged to work the land, making The break with the feudal
large profits for their rulers. Such a system also led to a rise in conflict
Medieval governance system, in which there was a very between states. As a result, it
Foucault’s investigations trace the clear and obvious exercise of power became increasingly important that
shifts in ways of governing that by individuals, meant that there a state knew both its own capacity
have taken place in different eras was little sense of coherent and strength and the strength of its
and places. Looking back to Europe governance: the various nobles rivals. Foucault claims this is why
in the Middle Ages (c.500–1500), he often ruled in very different ways. the phenomenon of the “police”
says that the modern nation-state Conflict and internal warfare were emerged in the 16th century.
as we know it did not exist; nor did also common. Monarchs’ subjects These forces not only provided the
governmentality. People lived in a did not think of themselves as government with security but were
“state of justice” that imposed blunt bound to a national identity but also able to measure and assess
laws and customs, such as putting instead were tied to their locality the strength of the state. The police
and aligned to their feudal lord. enabled the easy governance of ❯❯
I wanted to study the art of
governing, that is to say, the
reasoned way of governing
best and, at the same time,
reflection on the best possible

way of governing.
Michel Foucault

274 MICHEL FOUCAULT

German priest Martin Luther led
the Protestant Reformation, which
challenged the power of the Catholic
Church and, argues Foucault, marked
the beginning of a shift in governance.

citizens, ensuring that individuals government as an efficient mode of example, King Charles I’s belief
under surveillance remain operation through an examination that he had a divine right to rule
productive and compliant. of the political treatise The Prince brought him into armed conflict
(1513), by Florentine diplomat with parliamentary forces in the
The 16th century also saw Niccolò Machiavelli. In this short English Civil War. Charles was
a significant shift in religious work, the prince is seen as being tried, convicted of high treason,
practice in Europe. The Protestant fundamentally concerned with and executed in 1649.
Reformation, which began in maintaining and expanding his
1517, was a major challenge to territories; his subjects living on Benevolent government?
the Catholic Church and its power. those lands are of little interest or Foucault highlights French
According to Foucault, the conflict consequence, as long as they are Renaissance writer Guillaume
that took place between the behaving themselves. The prince de la Perriere’s 1567 definition of
Protestant and Catholic Churches, remains morally detached from government, which was significant
together with the rise of territorial his territory—he owes no one any because of its lack of reference to
states, led early modern theorists obligation or debt. This is the way “territory.” Instead, government
of government to combine two of thinking that came to an end as was described here as the correct
very differing ways of thinking. monarchs lost their sovereign disposition of things, organized
Theologians had always rights, the Churches lost power, to lead to a convenient end. Under
approached governance from a and new technologies (such as an ideology of benevolence, the
spiritual perspective: the pastoral the printing press) allowed for the responsibilities of governments
leader’s ultimate duty was to save spread of revolutionary ideas. were expanded to include the
souls by watching over his “flock” welfare of their citizens, although in
as a shepherd would guard his From the late Middle Ages to reality, this form of governance was
sheep. Secular statesmen had the 17th century, the Renaissance really concerned with managing
approached the art of government ushered in a return to classical people’s lives—and the material
in much more worldly terms— ideas of freedom and democracy, products of their efforts—in order
seeing their role as managing followed by more revolutionary to maximize the nation’s strength.
conflict, protecting the territory, thinking that threatened the Ensuring the growth of wealth was
and securing peace. These two physical safety of monarchs as well seen as crucial in governing, but it
ways of thinking, Foucault argues, as their right to rule. In England, for
came together to form a new hybrid
art of governance in the late 16th
and 17th centuries.

Death of the prince
For the first time, it seemed
possible that the citizens and their
rulers could be brought together
in a system that was mutually
beneficial. The personal interest
of the rulers was no longer the
sole guiding principle for ruling;
with this shift, the idea of “ruling”
was transformed into “governing.”
Foucault traces the shift from
a sovereign notion of power to

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 275

was also important to have a political questions, including the Let us not... ask... why certain
healthy populace that would rights and responsibilities of the people want to dominate... Let
multiply if the government wanted individual and the state. In what
to secure long-term prosperity and ways can an individual be free, if us ask, instead, how things
productivity. Foucault says that he or she is governed by the state? work at the level of... processes,
from this point onward, “men and The link between the “autonomous”
things” (the relation people have to individual’s self-control and political which subject our bodies,
wealth, the environment, famine, control became an important issue, govern our gestures, dictate
fertility, the climate, and so on), as did the possibility of domination
rather than territories, needed to and economic exploitation. our behaviors.
be administered in an efficient way. Michel Foucault
Governance was now an “art.” In examining this period,
Foucault revisited his work on Governmentality refers to the ways
Citizen or subject? “passive bodies.” In Discipline and in which societies are decentered
Foucault contends that early liberal Punish, he had traced how the body and citizens play an active role in
ideas of civil society, as espoused was seen as a target (to be used their own self-governance; it is the
by John Locke and Adam Ferguson and improved) by those in power relationship between public power
in the 18th century, made a social during the 17th and 18th centuries. and private freedom that is central.
government possible. The liberal He also examined how techniques
art of government has as its of surveillance drawn from The art of government
organizational principle “the monasteries and the army were Foucault claims that govermentality
rationale of least government”; in used to control people’s bodies and is important because it provides
other words, it advocates less state produce passive subjects who were a link between what he calls
intervention and an increased focus incapable of revolt. the “technologies of the self”
on the role of the population. At this (the creation of the individual
time the concept of a “population” In this earlier work, Foucault subject) and the “technologies of ❯❯
and its centrality to the success of maintained that discipline creates
the state became paramount, and docility, but when focusing on
led to the idea of “an individual governmentality, he began to think
member of the population” as a this placed too much emphasis on
living, working, and social being. domination and was too simplistic
The new idea of an autonomous an argument. Individuals, he now
individual was to lead to many new said, have more opportunities to
modify and construct themselves
than he had thought previously.

Dieters regulate and discipline Governing the body Slimming companies and diets
themselves according to mass constitute disciplinary practices
standards and cultural requirements Weight-loss organizations, such as that promise an “improved self,”
rather than through individual choice. Weight Watchers and Jenny Craig, but they also subject women to
illustrate Foucault’s notion of patriarchal (male-dominated)
governance of the self that sits in ideas about what a woman
line with “normal” ideas of the “should” look like and how she
time. While these organizations should behave. This necessity
develop a person’s sense of self to conform to current standards
and worth, they also envelop them of “normal” transforms dieting
in a web of power that ultimately from an eating behavior into a
benefits huge corporations. moral imperative. US feminists
Sandra Bartky and Susan Bordo
Many feminists, such as US argue that this is indicative
writer Kim Chernin, have argued of the ways in which women
that the quest for the perfect body become, simultaneously, both
through dieting places women subjects and subjected.
within a “tyranny of slenderness.”

276 MICHEL FOUCAULT

If one wants to analyze on a multi-layered web. Where once The dream or nightmare of
the genealogy of the subject governing rested on violence—or a society programmed… by
the threat of violence—this is now the “cold monster” of the state
in Western civilization, just one element of control. Other is profoundly limiting as a way
he has to take into account systems that hold sway in current of rendering intelligible the
forms of governing are coercive
not only techniques of strategies, and those that structure way we are governed.
domination but also and shape the possible forms Nikolas Rose
techniques of the self. of action citizens may take.
Michel Foucault Governing by fear and violence British sociologist (1947–)
is much less effective than
domination” (the formation employing more subtle forms of considered governmentality in
of the state). This is because, control, such as defining limited relation to cigarette smoking
according to Foucault, “government” choices or using disciplinary among Chinese physicians. His
does not have a purely political institutions like schools to guide 2008 paper “Smoking Among
meaning. From the 18th century the behavior of individuals. In this Doctors: Governmentality,
until relatively recently, government way, self-control becomes linked Embodiment, and the Diversion
was a broad concept that embraced to political rule and economic of Blame in Contemporary China”
guidance for the family, household exploitation. What appears to be looks at the ways smoking among
management, and guidance for the individual choice just “happens to health professionals was suggested
soul, as well as more conventional be” also to the benefit of the state. to be the cause of high smoking
politics. Foucault describes this In this way, Foucault suggests rates among the public. Public
all-embracing form of government that the modern nation-state health campaigns targeted these
as “the conduct of conduct.” In the and the modern autonomous doctors, blaming them for tobacco-
modern world, governing is more individual rely on one another related diseases in China and
than simple top-down power for their existence. calling on them to govern their own
relationships, Foucault says; it rests bodies and stop smoking.
Governmentality in action
Foucault’s view of governmentality
as the effort to shape and guide
choices and lifestyles of groups
and individuals has been further
developed by many contemporary
scholars. For example, US
anthropologist Matthew Kohrman

The individual and the state

The individual became Domination by the The rise of the Citizens participate in
recognized as important in monarchy and the Church individual (late 16th– their own governance
politics, Foucault claims, when (from the 18th century).
the ideas of the divine right (c.6th–16th centuries). 17th century).
of kings and the infallibility
of the Catholic Church were
challenged. The task for any
government then became how
to find a way to conspicuously
act for the people, while
nevertheless continuing to
build its own strength.

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 277

Foucault’s vision of the modern agreed-upon goals and procedures Barack Obama’s 2008 US presidency
nation-state as a governmentalized of a society that are so “obvious” campaign had supporters chanting
whole is not without its critics. He that they are seen as “normal.” “Yes We Can!,” implying government
has, for instance, been charged In the 21st century these include by the people. The tactic echoes
with being vague and inconsistent behaviors such as recycling, Foucault’s concept of self-government.  
in his definition of governmentality. losing weight, being involved in
Philosopher Derek Kerr has argued Neighborhood Watch schemes, established in many ways, from
that Foucault’s definition “beheads or quitting smoking. cultural artifacts to government
social subjectivity,” by seeming discourse on family values.
to do away with free, subjective Foucault claims that the ways Political policies may also be used
choice. Canadian sociologists we think and talk about health, to put weight behind particular
Danica Dupont and Frank Pearce work, family and so on, encourage ideas, such as the family, through
accuse Foucault of taking a rather us to behave in particular ways. incentives such as tax breaks.
simplistic and idealistic reading People govern themselves and
of Western political history, seeing others according to what they British academic Nikolas Rose,
it as “the growth of a plant from a believe to be true. For instance, drawing on Foucault’s key ideas,
seed,” which overcomes obstacles many societies view monogamous, has written persuasively on the
to realize its true potential (as heterosexual marriage as the “death of the social” and the
though this were always implicit, “correct” environment for bringing ways in which the individual in
in some way). up children, and this “truth” is the neo-liberal state has to govern
his or her access to state services
Neo-liberalism Foucault’s work permanently with little or no help. It is through
Nevertheless, Foucault’s idea changes one’s understanding perspectives such as this, Foucault
of governmentality remains a of how people are governed says, that we can see the ways in
powerful conceptual tool with which power is repressive, even
which to unpick and critique neo- in modern society. while it appears to be acting in
liberalism. This is the post-war, Brent Pickett the interests of the individual.
post-welfare politics and economics Foucault argues that political
of the late 20th century, whereby US political scientist control—the art of governance—
the state, in many respects, rolled is most effective when it presents
back its responsibilities to its everything it offers as an act of
citizens. In his lectures, Foucault free choice. Modern neo-liberalist
discussed neo-liberalism in three governments have found perhaps
post-war states: West Germany, the most dangerous way to
France, and the US. This form govern—by giving the impression
of governance has been described that they are not governing at all. ■
as the triumph of capitalism over
the state, or as “anti-humanism,”
owing to its emphasis on the
individual and the destruction
of community bonds. In neo-liberal
thinking, the worker is viewed
as a self-owned enterprise and
is required to be competitive.

Neo-liberalism relies on the
notion of responsible, rational
individuals who are capable
of taking responsibility for
themselves, their lives, and their
environment, particularly through
“normalizing technologies”—the

278

RELIGION HAS LOST
ITS PLAUSIBILITY AND
SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE

BRYAN WILSON (1926–2004)

IN CONTEXT Fewer people involve Religion has lost
themselves in religious its plausibility
FOCUS and social
Secularization practices. significance.

KEY DATES Fewer people believe
1904–05 Max Weber claims in religious thought.
there is a strong relationship
between rationalization and Religious organizations
secularization. are less involved in

1966 Austrian-American matters of state.
sociologists Peter Berger
and Thomas Luckmann T owns and cities across on social life, institutions, and the
suggest that the loss of Britain contain churches individual. Using statistical data
religion’s authoritative voice and chapels that have been on various aspects of religious life,
has led to a legitimation crisis. converted into pubs, showrooms, he notes that, according to polls,
and apartments. British sociologist fewer children are being baptized
1978 British sociologist David Bryan Wilson, writing between the in the Church of England, fewer
Martin argues that the alleged 1960s and early 1990s, argues that people take part in the Easter
decline of religion cannot be a process of secularization is taking communion, and more people say
measured in statistical terms. place. By this he means that the that they do not believe in God.
importance of the supernatural and
1985 US sociologists Rodney the sacred is declining; religion, Wilson cites modernity—
Stark and William Bainbridge he suggests, has less influence industrialization, the development
claim that religion is here to of the state, and the advances in
stay because people need the
solace of the supernatural.

1992 Traditional religions have
had to adapt and become less
“religious” in order to survive,
according to British sociologist
Steve Bruce.

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 279

See also: Auguste Comte 22–25 ■ Karl Marx 28–31; 254–59 ■ Émile Durkheim 34–37 ■ Max Weber 38–45; 220–23 ■
Jürgen Habermas 286–87 ■ Michel Maffesoli 291 ■ Michel Foucault 302–03

science and technology that come their marginalized position and The Unification Church is one
with it—as contributing to this have to adapt to changing moral of several new religious movements
decline in the importance of values. As old orders crumble, that, according to Wilson, point to
religious thought in society. people seek new assurances. fragmentation and secularization
in the modern world.
Initially, he suggests, religion Social fragmentation has
was not defeated outright in the brought with it cultural pluralism: idea of secularization has received
modern world, but had to compete alternative beliefs compete for stark criticism. British journalist
with other claims to truth. But popularity, and religions have Michael Prowse, for example, says
eventually science became too become more private. In this sense, the idea is out of date and that
formidable an adversary. There has for Wilson, secularization is linked there is evidence for the continuing
been a consequent disengagement to a decline in community. Rather vitality of religion. The popularity
of state and church into separate than being indicative of the of church-going in the US and the
domains, in contrast to their longevity of religion, he sees new growth of non-Christian religions in
closeness in the Middle Ages. And religious movements (NRMs), such Britain, particularly Islam, certainly
the role of religion in schools is as Scientology, as “anti-cultural”: endorse this view. ■
negligible, as it is in the workplace, they symbolize a destructuring
where the principles of organization of society and do not contribute to
have little room for religious myths. the maintenance of social order and
control. They are unable to channel
God is dead? their religious expression into a
Wilson, like Karl Marx, believes form that might have significant
that world religions such as repercussions in modern society.
Christianity and Judaism play a
role in maintaining the status quo Many key thinkers of the 19th
by socializing new generations century, such as Marx, Durkheim,
into accepting social divisions. But and Comte, believed that religion
with modernity, religion has lost its would lose its significance with
authority to instruct people in what the advent of industrialization.
to believe and how to behave. He But in recent years, despite having
states that churches are aware of several supporters, including
British sociologist Steve Bruce, the

[The] content of the message Bryan Wilson interest in new religious
that the churches seek to movements and sects, and was
promote, and the attitudes Bryan Ronald Wilson was born a staunch advocate of freedom
and values that it tries to in Leeds, England, in 1926. He of religious thought. In addition
was awarded his PhD from the to his fascination with religion,
encourage, no longer inform London School of Economics and he wrote extensively on youth
much of our national life. went on to become a lecturer at culture and education. Wilson
Bryan Wilson the University of Leeds, where suffered from Parkinson’s
he taught for seven years. He disease for several years. He
then moved to the University died in 2004, aged 78.
of Oxford, and remained there
for 30 years, until his retirement Key works
in 1993. Wilson was president
of the International Society 1966 Religion in Secular Society
for the Sociology of Religion 1973 Magic and the Millennium
from 1971 to 1975. Although 1990 The Social Dimensions of
an agnostic, he had a lifelong Sectarianism

OUR IDENTITY AND

BEHAVIOR

ARE DETERMINED BY HOW

WE ARE DESCRIBED AND

CLASSIFIED

HOWARD S. BECKER (1928– )



282 HOWARD S. BECKER Powerful people Individuals are
in society found guilty of these
IN CONTEXT
define certain acts acts and labeled
FOCUS as deviant. as outsiders.
Labeling theory
So they internalize All their future
KEY DATES the label and actions are tagged
1938 Austrian-US historian
Frank Tannenbaum argues behave accordingly. with the label.
that criminal behavior is
the result of conflict between Our identity and behavior
one group and the community are determined by how we are
at large.
described and classified.
1951 Social Pathology, by
US sociologist Edwin Lemert,
introduces the idea of primary
and secondary deviancy.

1969 Authorities create
deviant identities, says US
sociologist David Matza in
Becoming Deviant.

1976 US sociologist Aaron
Cicourel suggests that
the police operate with a
stereotype of the deviant as
a young, working-class male;
these youths are therefore far
more likely to be sentenced
than middle-class youths
who commit crimes.

A lthough many people of people, committed crime. In by young, working-class men, they
in society break the contrast, labeling theory questions are far more likely to be labeled
law—for example, by why some acts are thought to as hooligans or criminals.
exceeding the speed limit or be deviant and who has the power
stealing stationery from work— to label some people’s behavior According to labeling theorists,
only some are regarded as real as deviant; it then examines this is because rule-makers, such
criminals. Labeling theory, the impact of such labeling as judges and politicians, tend to
which emerged from a mistrust on society and the individual. be middle or upper class and treat
of government powers in post-war the infractions of their own kind
Britain and the US in the 1960s Consider this example: If a more leniently than the deviance of
and 70s, considers why this is so. group of young, middle-class working-class people. Our concept
men on a stag night are drunk of deviance comes, the theorists
Proponents of labeling theory and disorderly in a town center, argue, not so much from what
argue that criminologists once the authorities are likely to people do, as how others respond to
tended to conceptualize criminals attribute their behavior to youthful it—labeling is a political act. This
as types of people, asking why exuberance. But if a similar school of thought—which has
particular individuals, or groups disturbance is caused connections with the work of Émile

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 283

See also: Émile Durkheim 34–37 ■ Ferdinand Tönnies 32–33 ■ Edward Said 80–8 ■ Elijah Anderson 82–83 ■
G.H. Mead 176–77 ■ Erving Goffman 190–95 ■ Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis 288–89 ■ Stanley Cohen 290

Deviant behavior behavior has become sanctioned to view such behaviors. Only those
is behavior that within a given society. For example, who have power can make a label
people so label. “terrorists” are accused of murder, stick; institutions such as the
Howard S. Becker but the army may legally kill criminal justice system can ensure
terrorists. And among Western that a deviant label will follow an
nations, as recently as the 1990s, individual. Rather than being
a husband forcing intercourse on universal, deviance is relative—
his wife was not guilty of rape, it depends on who commits it
according to the law. Becker claims and how it is responded to.
that it is not the act itself that is
deviant; the response of society Moral entrepreneurs
defines it as such and, crucially, Coining a label that has proved
the responses of the powerful extremely useful in the social
determine how society is expected sciences, Becker identifies ❯❯

Durkheim, G.H. Mead, and the A group of privileged undergraduates who smash up a restaurant
Chicago School in the US—is when fueled by alcohol may be accused of student high jinks, while
particularly associated with the a group of working-class boys displaying identical behavior may
work of US sociologists Howard be labeled as delinquents.
S. Becker and Edwin Lemert.

Types of deviancy Privileged students Working-class youths
Lemert distinguished between the
ideas of “primary” and “secondary” Criminal damage or youthful exuberance?
deviancy. According to him,
primary deviance is when a crime HIGH JINKS DELINQUENT
or other act is committed, but is
not officially labeled as deviant,
either because it went unnoticed
or because the perpetrator was
considered to be acting out of
character. Either way, it does not
attach a label of “deviant” to the
individual. Secondary deviance
is the effect that society’s reaction
has on an individual. If someone
commits a crime, and is caught
and labeled as criminal or deviant,
they may change their behavior
in the future to live up to that label.

In Outsiders (1963), Becker
developed a number of Lemert’s
ideas and laid the foundations for
what became known as labeling
theory. He argued that there is
no such thing as a deviant act:
how we respond to an act depends
on whether a particular form of

284 HOWARD S. BECKER

The film Reefer Madness (1936) are always people in positions of investigate how they progressed
was a thinly disguised piece of relative power, who use that power through the various stages of a
propaganda that charts the downfall to get their own way by either deviant “career” and noted that
of a respectable high-school couple imposing their will on others, first-time marijuana smokers
who are corrupted by marijuana use. or by negotiating with them. had to learn how to perceive and
subsequently enjoy the effects of
“moral entrepreneurs” as the people Becker illustrated the actions the drug. Without this learning
in society who have the power to of moral entrepreneurs through the process, he said, taking the drug
label others. They task themselves case study of a publicity campaign could be unpleasant or apparently
with the role of persuading others that was run by the Federal Bureau have no effect whatsoever.
to see the world in a way that suits of Investigation (FBI) in the US Learning was central to the
their own moral beliefs. They fall in 1937. The goal was to ban the meaning of the deviant act—
into two types: rule creators and recreational use of marijuana. The people only willingly learned what
rule enforcers. The position and moral entrepreneurs’ distaste for was meaningful to them—and
identity of moral entrepreneurs public displays of enjoyment or individuals became fully fledged
varies between societies, but they ecstasy, coupled with a Protestant “dope smokers” only when they
concern for respectability and self- learned how to hide the habit from
The process of making control, led to the push for legal the “straight” or “square” world.
a criminal... is a process change. The FBI, according If the smoker was caught and
to Becker, used various means to charged or arrested, their deviant
of tagging, defining, achieve their goals; these included status was likely to be confirmed.
identifying, segregating. propaganda such as the film Reefer Becker reasoned that following
Frank Tannenbaum Madness, as well as public debate a deviant career has its rewards,
and political lobbying. though they do not come from
Austrian-US historian (1893–1969) wider society; instead, they come
Deviant “careers” from feeling a sense of belonging
Becker was particularly interested to a group that is united by its
in individuals who internalized opposition to the world at large.
the label of deviancy, making
it their defining characteristic, Labeling critics
and went on to adopt lifestyles Despite its influence and continued
with deviancy as a central feature. popularity, a number of criticisms
He studied marijuana users to can be leveled at labeling theory.
The British sociologist Jock Young,
for example, points to the fact that
much labeling theory focuses

The rule-breaker might
feel his judges are
outsiders.

Howard S. Becker

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 285

Social groups create complained that Becker’s deviants Howard S. Becker
deviance by making the passively accept the labels forced
rules whose infraction upon them, rather than fighting Born in Chicago, US, in
back. Gouldner challenges Becker’s 1928, sociologist Howard
constitutes deviance. theory by saying people frequently Saul Becker became involved
Howard S. Becker fight back in their own defense: free in the world of music from
will is far stronger than Becker’s an early age. By the age of 15
on marginal deviancy rather work implies. he was working as a semi-
than more “serious” crimes, and professional pianist in bars
therefore ignores the fact that Academics such as Becker have and clubs and was regularly
some crimes, such as murder, are also been accused of romanticizing exposed to the drug culture
almost universally condemned, the underdog; in response, Becker that he later made the subject
and are not subject to alternative has stated that “unconventional of his studies. After studying
perceptions of deviancy. Alvin sentimentality… is the lesser evil.” sociology at the University
Gouldner, a US sociologist, has But Becker’s work forces us to of Chicago, most of his
ask important questions about academic career was spent
In a study of jazz musicians, power relationships and justice in at Northwestern University.
Becker proposed that their “deviant” society and has been significant Becker has received many
lifestyle set them apart from society, for a number of theorists who focus awards during his academic
which caused them to develop values on deviancy. US sociologist David career, including the Award
that reinforced their deviancy. Matza, for instance, develops for a Career of Distinguished
many of Becker’s ideas by arguing Scholarship from the
that what becomes a crime is the American Sociological
outcome of decisions and actions Association in 1998. Becker
taken by governments and agents is known for his academic
of the state. According to this generosity—although mainly
process, both the criminal and retired, he continues to help
their act are seen as abnormal doctoral students with their
and yet from the perspective work and offers advice
of the deviant, the deviancy is on how to publish their theses.
entirely normal behavior. ■ Music—jazz in particular—
remains a subject of personal
and research interest for him.

Key works

1963 Outsiders: Studies in
the Sociology of Deviance
1982 Art Worlds
1998 Tricks of the Trade

286

ECONOMIC CRISIS
IS IMMEDIATELY
TRANSFORMED INTO
SOCIAL CRISIS

JÜRGEN HABERMAS (1929– )

IN CONTEXT Late-capitalist societies K arl Marx argued that
experience periodic capitalist societies are
FOCUS prone to economic crises
Legitimation crisis economic downturns. and that these will worsen over
time, culminating in a workers’
KEY DATES Policies to cope with this revolution. But why is it that
1867 In Das Kapital, Karl Marx may seem unfair to the when a society has such a crisis,
suggests that capitalism is a somewhat different change in
prone to economic crises. majority of voters. the political climate often follows?

1929 The stock exchange When this happens, citizens This was the question posed
crash on Wall Street, New question the authority by the German sociologist Jürgen
York, leads to a ten-year of government. Habermas in the early 1970s. He
economic depression that was intrigued by the relationship
affects all Western economies. Demonstrations and between capitalism and crises,
protests threaten the having seen the system survive
1950–60s Talcott Parsons legitimacy of the state. a series of extraordinary events
discusses legitimation and such as the Wall Street Crash of
soical order, claiming that Economic crisis 1929 in the US, the subsequent
through socialization people is immediately Great Depression, the rise and fall
acquire values that lead them transformed into of fascist movements in Europe,
to conform to social norms. World War II, and the Cold War.
social crisis.
2007 Global economic Habermas suggests that
recession results in a swing traditional Marxist theories
across Europe to parties of of crisis tendencies are not
the political right. applicable to some Western
late-capitalist societies. This
2009 Chilean sociologist is because these societies have
Rodrigo Cordero Vega argues, become more democratic and
contrary to Habermas, that have changed significantly thanks
Marx remains relevant to welfare-state policies, such
to contemporary society. as free healthcare provision, that aim
to make up for economic
inequalities. In addition, he says,
collective identities have fragmented

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 287

See also: Adam Ferguson 21 ■ Karl Marx 28–31 ■ Herbert Marcuse 182–87 ■
Daniel Bell 224–25 ■ Michel Foucault 270–77 ■ Stanley Cohen 290

and there is evidence of increased has the difficult task of balancing Jürgen Habermas
individualization and fewer the pursuit for capital with
class-based conflicts. maintaining mass support. Born in Düsseldorf, Germany,
In other words, state policies must in 1929, Jürgen Habermas’s
Crisis of legitimacy favor business and property owners political awakening came
Although the economic cycles of while appearing to represent the when, as a teenager in the
prosperity and recession continue, interests of all. This means the Hitler Youth, he witnessed the
policy measures by nation-states conditions exist for government aftermath of World War II and
have enabled them to avert major institutions to suffer the Holocaust—events that
crises. Unlike earlier capitalist a large-scale loss of legitimacy. inform much of his work.
societies, under state-regulated
late-capitalism, the primary site of If citizens sense that the Habermas is one of the
crisis and conflict has shifted to government is just and benevolent, world’s foremost contemporary
the cultural and political spheres. then they will show support. If, social thinkers. Many of his
however, they feel that policies are writings are concerned with
The crisis of modern Western not in their interests, people will knowledge communication
society is, according to Habermas, respond with political apathy or and the changing nature of
one of legitimation. Legitimacy even large-scale discontent and the public and private spheres.
has become the focal concern protests. Given a threat to the He was born with a cleft
because the state, as manager status quo, a government may try palate, which affected his
of the “free market” economy, has to appease its citizens with short- speech and, at times, left him
simultaneously to solve economic lived social welfare measures. socially isolated in his youth.
problems, ensure democracy, and The experience influenced his
please the voters. If the public feels Habermas says democratic work on communication.
government policies are unfair, capitalism is an “unfinished
it withdraws its support for the project,” implying the social system He studied sociology and
government. The state therefore can be further improved. Western philosophy in Frankfurt at the
governments’ actions since the Institute for Social Research,
Riot police in Athens, Greece, in global financial crisis began in under Max Horkheimer and
2011 confront demonstrators claiming 2007 have exposed many social Theodor Adorno, who both
that government austerity measures to tensions between narrow capital helped originate critical
deal with sovereign debt favor the few interests, the public interest, mass theory, and in the late 1960s
at the expense of the many. democracy, and the need to secure he became director of the
institutional legitimacy. ■ Institute for Social Research.

Key works

1968 Knowledge and Human
Interests
1973 Legitimation Crisis
1981 The Theory of
Communicative Action

288

SCHOOLING HAS BEEN
AT ONCE SOMETHING
DONE TO THE POOR AND
FOR THE POOR

SAMUEL BOWLES (1939– ) AND
HERBERT GINTIS (1940– )

IN CONTEXT Schools prepare the poor Schools for the poor are
to function well and established as part of the
FOCUS uncomplainingly within the
The hidden curriculum hierarchical structure popular program of
of the modern workplace. free education to achieve
KEY DATES
1968 In Life in Classrooms, US social equality.
sociologist Philip W. Jackson
claims that children are Schooling has been at once something
socialized in the classroom done to the poor and for the poor.
via a “hidden curriculum.”
S chools exist to prepare less favorable interpretation and
1973 According to Pierre children for adulthood and since then several sociological
Bourdieu, the reproduction society, but in the 1960s the approaches have developed.
of “cultural capital” (the benign consensus about this fact
ability to recognize cultural of modern life began to fragment. The most radical perspective
references, to know how At the end of that decade the term comes from US economists Samuel
to act appropriately in different “hidden curriculum” was coined by Bowles and Herbert Gintis, who
social situations, and so on) Philip W. Jackson, who claimed argue in Schooling in Capitalist
explains middle-class success. that elements of socialization take America (1976) that education
place in school that are not part of is not a neutral sphere but one
1978 Kathleen Clarricoates’ the formal educational curriculum. where the needs of capitalism are
British study indicates Although Émile Durkheim had reproduced by implicitly creating
that gender inequity, to the observed this imparting of values attitudes among young people
detriment of girls, forms part decades earlier, it was now given a that prepare them for work that
of the implicit curriculum. alienates them in their future lives.

1983 Henry Giroux, US
cultural critic, suggests
that hidden curriculums
are plural, operating along
lines of gender and ethnicity
as well as social class.

See also: Émile Durkheim 34–37 ■ Pierre Bourdieu 76–79 ■ THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 289
Erving Goffman 264–69 ■ Paul Willis 292–93 ■ Talcott Parsons 300–01
Samuel Bowles
and Herbert Gintis

According to Bowles and Gintis, The structure of social Both Samuel Bowles, born
schools exist to reproduce social relations in education… in New Haven, Connecticut,
inequalities. Therefore, the best inures the student to the and Herbert Gintis, born in
predictor for a child’s future is the discipline of the workplace. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
economic status of parents, rather received doctoral degrees from
than academic achievement or Samuel Bowles & Harvard University and they
intelligence. Although the explicit Herbert Gintis have since worked extensively
curriculum is about equality of with one another. They were
opportunity, education’s prime role as superior and this shapes what is invited by the US civil rights
is not to teach the skills needed in taught, thus people learn to respect leader Martin Luther King
the world of work, but to instill into things perceived as upper class and Jr. to write educational
children the “hidden curriculum.” deride those considered working background papers for the
class. For example, working-class Poor People’s March of 1968.
Working-class children are children might be taught that Much of their work, which has
taught their place in society and classical music is superior to been described as Marxist,
learn that qualities such as working popular music, and that it is too argues that many social
hard, deference, punctuality, and difficult for them to understand, institutions, such as schools,
following orders are prized. These whereas middle-class children are are characterized by the
traits are rewarded, while creativity taught how to appreciate it. In a disciplinary exercise of power.
and independent thought are similar way, middle-class children
not valued. This maintains the are taught the qualities that will They were both hired in
economic status quo, which needs enable them to become leaders. So, 1973 to join the economics
industrious, uncritical employees. lower-class children face systematic department at the University
bias against them in the system. of Massachusetts. Gintis still
Bowles and Gintis claim that works there, but Bowles left
early 19th-century schools in the Many sociologists, such as in 2001 to join the Santa Fe
US were set up to assimilate British academic Diane Reay, Institute as research professor
immigrants into the “American” contend that schools have not and director of behavioral
work ethic. Crucially, there is a become vehicles for economic sciences, and he is also a
“correspondence” between the opportunity. The work of Bowles professor of economics at the
hierarchical social relations within and Gintis still has much resonance University of Siena. Recent
the school system and those found because there has been little collaborations have focused on
in the economic system. The nature progress for the working classes cultural and genetic evolution,
of work also has similarities: pupils over the last century. The poor are asking why large groups of
have little control over what they simply better educated than in the unrelated individuals gather
study and neither do they study for past. Throughout Western society, together cooperatively.
the inherent value of knowledge; “real” incomes for the poorest have
like workers, they are “alienated.” been falling, inequality has been Key works
Schools teach children that social increasing, and it is common to
inequalities are just and inevitable, find graduates in low-paid work. ■ 1976 Schooling in Capitalist
and therefore education can be America: Educational Reform
seen as a form of social control. and the Contradictions of
Economic Life
Class matters 1986 Democracy and
In France, Pierre Bourdieu took a Capitalism: Property,
different view and suggested that Community, and the
the hidden curriculum is achieved Contradictions of Modern
through the cultural reproduction of Social Thought
knowledge. The dominant class is 2005 Unequal Chances: Family
able to define its culture and values Background and Economic
Success (eds.)

290

SOCIETIES ARE
SUBJECT, EVERY NOW
AND THEN, TO PERIODS
OF MORAL PANIC

STANLEY COHEN (1942–2013)

IN CONTEXT S o important is the panics reflect deep-seated
sociological concept of anxieties. Media attention may
FOCUS “moral panics” that the term create a “self-fulfilling prophecy”
Moral panics is now widely used by journalists by encouraging the behaviors it
and politicians. The idea emerged reports. Moral panics can be short-
KEY DATES in the 1970s, partly from South lived and die down when they are
1963 Outsiders: Studies in the African-born sociologist Stanley seen to be dealt with, or they may
Sociology of Deviance, Howard Cohen’s Folk Devils and Moral form part of a larger, ongoing panic.
Becker’s study of labeling, Panics (1972), which was inspired
lays the foundations for moral by media-aggravated conflicts The concept of moral panics
panic theory by discussing in 1964 in the UK between youth continues to be used by academics,
how people’s behavior can groups known as mods and rockers. such as British sociologist Angela
clash with societal norms. McRobbie, to describe the role
Cohen examines how groups the media plays in creating deviant
1964 Media exaggeration of and individuals are identified as acts and justifying increased social
clashes between “mods” and a threat to dominant social values, control of marginalized groups. ■
“rockers” youth subcultures in and how the media plays a key role
the UK sparks a moral panic. in amplifying this, presenting them The 9/11 attacks in New York,
in negative or stereotyped ways, sparked moral panics about “terrorism,”
1971 In The Drug Takers: The thus creating a national panic. The leading to widespread Islamophobia—
Social Meaning of Drug Use, media is an influential institution prejudice against Muslims or those
Scottish academic Jock Young, that often reflects the values of the perceived as Muslims.
a friend of Stanley Cohen, powerful and represents issues so
discusses the idea of moral that the public are enticed to agree
panic in relation to the social with “experts” (politicians and the
meaning of drug-taking. police, for example) on how best to
deal with the problem.
1994 US sociologist Erich
Goode and Israeli academic Those seen as blameworthy
Nachman Ben-Yehuda develop become scapegoats, or what Cohen
Cohen’s ideas in their book terms “folk devils,” for problems
Moral Panics: The Social that often lie with the state; moral
Construction of Deviance.
See also: Harold Garfinkel 50–51 ■ Edward Said 80–81 ■
Herbert Marcuse 182–87 ■ Stuart Hall 200–01 ■ Howard S. Becker 280–85

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 291

THE TIME OF
THE TRIBES

MICHEL MAFFESOLI (1944– )

IN CONTEXT W e live in “the time of The metaphor of the tribe...
the tribes,” according allows us to account for... the
FOCUS to French sociologist role... each person... is called
Neo-tribalism Michel Maffesoli. In a world of rapid upon to play within the tribe.
change, characterized by risk and
KEY DATES unpredictability, individuals need Michel Maffesoli
1887 Ferdinand Tönnies new ways to find meaning in their
identifies an important shift in lives. New collectives, or tribes, institutions and ties, these new
social ties from Gemeinschaft have emerged, says Maffesoli: forms of belonging and community
(community) to Gesellschaft they are dynamic, fleeting, and are actively achieved, rather than
(society). “Dionysiac” (after the Greek god being something one is born into.
Dionysus: sensual, spontaneous).
1970s and 1980s Building A shared social experience, or Maffesoli sees the modern-day
on the work of US sociologist collective aesthetic sensibility, tribes as short-lived, flexible, and
Robert Merton, subcultural is far more important to the fluid rather than fixed, so a person
theorists argue that youths tribes than individuality, and the can move between different
form ties based on class repetition of shared rituals is a way groupings in everyday life and
and gender. of forging strong group solidarity. achieve a fulfilling plural existence.
Tribal membership, says Maffesoli,
1988 French sociologist The rave movement of the 1980s must be worked at and requires a
Michel Maffesoli’s The and early 1990s, featuring “raves” shared belief or consciousness to
Time of Tribes: The Decline (parties with rhythmic music maintain coherence. ■
of Individualism in Mass and a specific dance style),
Society is published. was characterized less by a
common identity than a shared
1998 British sociologist consciousness (love of rave music
Kevin Hetherington expands and dance). Not as fixed as class-
Maffesoli’s concept and argues based subcultures such as punk,
that neo-tribes, a reaction the movement exemplifies the
to the fragmentation of tribal forms of solidarity described
postmodern society, are by Maffesoli. Unlike traditional
communities of feeling.

See also: Ferdinand Tönnies 32–33 ■ Pierre Bourdieu 76–79 ■
Zygmunt Bauman 136–43 ■ Benedict Anderson 202–03

292

HOW WORKING-CLASS
KIDS GET WORKING-
CLASS JOBS

PAUL WILLIS (1950– )

IN CONTEXT Working-class counter-school culture
rejects middle-class values.
FOCUS
Cultural reproduction Formal academic Practical jobs
and education knowledge is derided are believed to be

KEY DATES as feminine. masculine.
1971 Influential research
by British sociologist Basil These beliefs are useful on the factory
Bernstein suggests that floor and in other low-paid work.
working-class children
are disadvantaged in the Working-class kids
education system. get working-class jobs.

1976 US academics Samuel A repeated claim is that Following 12 boys, or “lads” as he
Bowles and Herbert Gintis society is meritocratic: refers to them, in their final two
suggest that schools are people can achieve to years of school and first year of
institutions that teach people the level of their ability. But Paul employment, Willis claims it is the
their place in society. Willis, in his study of working-class culture and values surrounding
youths in an industrial town in these young men that inform
1979 British journalist Paul England in the 1970s, asks why it their life choices. They develop
Corrigan’s Schooling the is, then, that working-class boys a counterculture that resists the
Smash Street Kids argues end up in working-class jobs. philosophy of school, namely that
that working-class boys reject
middle-class understandings
of success through hard work.

1994 A study by British
sociologist Máirtín Mac an
Ghaill, The Making of Men,
reflects some of Paul Willis’s
findings, showing how “macho
lads” react against school.

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS 293

See also: Michel Foucault 52–55 ■ Friedrich Engels 66–67 ■ Pierre Bourdieu 76–79 ■ R.W. Connell 88–89 ■
Stuart Hall 200–01 ■ Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis 288–89

academic hard work will lead to Willis says that this is not simply The fierce opposition to school
progress. Through language, dress, an example of Friedrich Engels’ exhibited by working-class boys in the
and practices such as smoking “false consciousness,” whereby the UK is evident, according to Willis, in
and drinking, they make clear their dominant ideology is imposed from their “struggle to win symbolic and
rejection of middle-class ideals, and above. Instead, ideas about class, physical space from its rules.”
instead emphasize their belief in gender, and ethnicity also emerge
practical skills and life experience, from within their culture; they are work in childcare ended up in
developing what Willis sees as a very aware that they would have training programs for care of the
chauvinistic or patriarchal attitude. to sacrifice their class identity elderly. Another study focused
to move up the social ladder. on girls who wanted to enter
School’s out Their teachers often have low the gender-stereotyped world of
The boys see academic knowledge expectations of the boys, leading fashion. These aspirations confirm,
as “feminine,” and pupils who them to gradually give up on the says Bates, that working-class
aspire to achieve—the “ear’oles” idea of teaching them. Schools thus girls have limited horizons. Overall,
(conformists)—as “sissies” and play a crucial role in reproducing Bates suggests that a constrained
inferior. Factory work and similar cultural values, economic divisions, labor market, few qualifications,
employment is viewed, says Willis, and working-class trajectories. and socialization into “choosing”
as suitably masculine. Many gendered jobs means there is little
of the boys work part-time, for New questions evidence of social mobility. ■
example as shelf-stackers or key- Willis’s work has been criticized,
cutters, and learn the value of and for example, by British sociologists ethnographical studies of
culture connected to such work. David Blackledge and Barry Hunt, culture; in 2000 he cofounded
for being based on insufficient the journal Ethnography. Having
Their attitudes to girls are sampling. But in the 1990s British been a professor of social and
exploitative and hypocritical sociologist Inge Bates reframed cultural ethnography at Keele
(“sexy” girls are desired but also Willis’s question to ask why University, he is now a professor
become figures of contempt), and working-class girls end up in the sociology department of
are based, Willis claims, on a belief with working-class and gender- Princeton University.
in the gendered division of labor. stereotyped jobs. One of her studies
Another challenging aspect of their showed that girls who wanted to Key works
culture is racism, which serves to
distinguish their white, working- Paul Willis 1977 Learning to Labour: How
class group identity. The factory or Working Class Kids Get Working
shop-floor culture mirrors the boys’ A cultural theorist, sociologist, Class Jobs
experiences in school—with a and ethnographer, Paul Willis 1978 Profane Culture
stress in both places on having a was born in Wolverhampton, 2000 The Ethnographic
laugh and resisting too much work. UK. After graduating from the Imagination
University of Cambridge with
Factory fodder? a degree in literary criticism,
Willis argues that, in effect, the he studied for his PhD at the
boys’ “performance” of working- Centre for Contemporary
class masculinity supports both Cultural Studies at the
patriarchy and—crucially, from a University of Birmingham.
Marxist perspective—capitalism
by providing the low-paid (male) From 1989 to 1990, Willis
workforce. The lads, however, was a member of the Youth
experience their employment as Policy Working Group for the
a matter of their own free choice Labour Party. Much of his
rather than as exploitation. recent work has focused on

FAMILIES
INTIMACI

AND
ES

296 INTRODUCTION Ann Oakley’s The Adrienne Rich’s essay
Sociology of Housework “Compulsory Heterosexuality
Margaret Mead’s describes how women
cross-cultural studies and Lesbian Existence”
challenge traditional are alienated by describes the oppression of
domestic work. women in a society where
Western concepts
of gender roles and heterosexuality is
considered the norm.
sexuality.

1930S AND 40S 1974 1980
1955 1976 1984

In Family, Socialization, and Michel Foucault publishes Christine Delphy examines
Interaction Process, Talcott Parsons the first volume of The the role of capitalism in

argues that the family serves the History of Sexuality, which women’s treatment as
social function of instilling the examines the power second-class citizens in Close
to Home: A Materialist Analysis
cultural rules of society relations that regulate
into children. social norms. of Women’s Oppression.

F or many years, sociologists and wider society. This area of function of the family unit—to offer
had used scientific methods study progressed to examine a framework in which they can
to study institutions and interpersonal relationships and develop stable relationships.
the structure of society as a whole. how they are shaped by society.
However, the middle of the 20th Others were more critical of
century saw a shift in emphasis Family roles the conventional notions of family.
toward understanding the social Among the first sociologists to Traditionally, families reflected the
actions of individuals—a study of examine the family in this way norms of wider society—patriarchal
reasons and meanings rather than was US scholar Talcott Parsons, in their structure, with a male
quantities and correlations. This who combined the interpretive breadwinner and a female child-
came to be known to sociologists approach of German social theorist carer and houseworker. But
as the interpretative approach. Max Weber with the concept of attitudes changed rapidly after
functionalism. For Parsons, the World War II. The idea of the stay-
From the 1950s, the scope of family is one of the “building at-home mother was increasingly
this interpretive method widened blocks” of society, and has a regarded as a form of oppression,
slightly to include the study of specific function in the working and feminist sociologists such as
families, which could perhaps be of society as a whole. Its primary Ann Oakley and Christine Delphy
seen as a social unit somewhere function, he argued, was to provide described the alienation that these
between the individual and an environment in which children women experienced.
institutions. As such, it was can be prepared for roles they will
possible to identify not only the later play in society, by instilling Gender roles within the family
relationships between individuals in them its rules and social norms. and, by extension, within society
and their families, but also the Adults too benefit from another as a whole, began to be challenged,
connections between families as did the idea that there is such
a thing as a “typical” or “normal”

Jeffrey Weeks suggests Judith Stacey’s research FAMILIES AND INTIMACIES 297
in Sex, Politics, and presents radical
Steven Seidman rejects
Society that sexuality alternatives to the the idea of “normal”
is as much socially conventional Western behavior and sexual
constructed as it is identity in Difference
understanding of Troubles: Queering Social
biologically determined. a stereotypical Theory and Sexual Politics.

“normal” family.

1989 1990S 1997
1990 1995

Judith Butler pioneers queer Ulrich Beck and Elisabeth
theory by challenging Beck-Gernsheim examine the
problems of maintaining
traditional notions of stable
sexual and gender identity close relationships in
in Gender Trouble: Feminism modern society in The
and the Subversion of Identity. Normal Chaos of Love.

family. As a result of the decline study of gender roles and sexuality of challenging the sexual norms
of the traditional patriarchal family in various cultures around the imposed by society, and his ideas
model, the conflicting pressures world, showing that ideas of paved the way for the sociological
of home and work now affect both sexual behavior are more a social study of sexuality itself.
partners in many couples, putting construction than a biological fact.
a strain on their relationship. The In the West, despite increasing In the 1980s, Jeffrey Weeks
nature of families, according to secularization, religious morality applied the idea of sexual norms
Judith Stacey, is continually continued to influence the social as a social construct to his study
changing to meet the demands norms of heterosexual relationships of sexuality, and specifically
of the modern world and also within marriage. homosexuality, while Christine
responding to and shaping social Delphy described the experiences
norms, so that, for example, single- Attitudes toward relationships of lesbians in a predominantly
parent families and same-sex changed greatly during the 1960s. heterosexual society. Perhaps the
couples are no longer considered An anti-establishment youth most influential sociologist in this
unusual in Western societies. culture helped break taboos field of study, however, is Judith
surrounding sex, advocating Butler, who advocated challenging
Interpersonal relationships hedonistic free love and a relaxed not only notions of sexuality, but
The more liberal attitude toward view of homosexuality. This change the entire concept of gender and
sexual relationships and sexuality in culture was echoed by the gender identity too, opening up
in the West was, however, slow academic work of French scholar a new, and radical, field of study
in coming. In the 1930s and 1940s, Michel Foucault and others. now known as queer theory, which
the anthropologist Margaret Mead calls into question conventional
helped to pave the way with her Foucault believed that the ideas of what constitutes normal
new openness toward intimate sexual behavior. ■
relationships of all kinds was a way

298

DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN THE SEXES
ARE CULTURAL
CREATIONS

MARGARET MEAD (1901–1978)

IN CONTEXT Men and women learn their gender roles through systems
of reward and punishment...
FOCUS
Variation in gender roles ...but definitions of “natural” tendencies of men and women
across different cultures vary from culture to culture.

KEY DATES Women need not be Men need not be
1920 Women in the US nurturers of children. the dominant sex.
are given the right to vote.
Differences between the sexes
1939–45 Women in the are cultural creations.
UK and subsequently in the
US prove themselves capable I n early 20th-century US gender is not based on biological
of doing “men’s work” during society, a man’s role was to differences between the sexes,
World War II; factory worker provide for his family, while but rather reflects the cultural
Rosie the Riveter becomes a women were relegated to the conditioning of different societies.
US icon of female capability private sphere and considered
and economic potential. responsible for childcare and Mead’s investigations of the
housework because they were intimate lives of non-Western
1972 British sociologist Ann thought to be naturally more peoples in the 1930s and 1940s
Oakley argues in Sex, Gender, inclined to such roles. Margaret crystallized her criticisms of her
and Society that gender is Mead, however, believed that own society: she claimed that
a matter of culture. the ways in which US society

1975 In her article “The
Traffic in Women: Notes on
the ‘Political Economy’ of Sex,”
US cultural anthropologist
Gayle Rubin argues that
heterosexual family
arrangements give men
power and oppress women.