Everything You Need to Ace Biology in One Big Fat Notebook

BIOME TYPES OF BIOMES
DESCRIPTION ORGANISMS

Temperate Forest Forests where Organisms that
there are four can migrate
distinct seasons. from or adapt in
response to the
changing seasons.

Shrubs, Trees,
Birds, Bears, Foxes

Tropical Rain Forests where rain Organisms that
Forest
falls all throughout need high moisture

the year. and warm

temperatures.

Palm Trees,
Orchids, Frogs,
Crabs

Grassland Plains that are Plants that grow
dominated by and spread quickly
490 grasses. There is that don’t need
very lit tle rain, water often.
which can cause
fires. Grasses, Grazing
animals, predators.
Bison, Badgers,
Coyotes

BIOME DESCRIPTION ORGANISMS

Taiga Frigid forest Plants that can
lands that have a stay strong
Tundra cold and a warm underneath snow
season. and ice and retain
Desert water.

Evergreen trees,
Animals with thick
fur.
Bears, Moose,
Bobcats

Harsh, cold plains Plants that have
with frozen soils. short roots.

Mosses, Shrubs
Animals that
migrate or
hibernate during
colder months.
Polar Bears,
Caribou, Ground
Squirrels

Two main seasons: Organisms that
a hot and dry can retain water.

season and a Cacti, Camels
harsh cold season.

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BIOME DESCRIPTION ORGANISMS

Aquatic The largest biome Organisms that
on Earth. Salty can live in water.
seas and fresh
water. Algae, Fish,
Amphibians,
WHEE! Crustaceans,
Marine mammals

Nutrient Cycles

All biomes sustain themselves by recycling the nutrients that

they receive. These NUTRIENT CYCLES are important for

sustaining the world’s climate.

Water Cycle

Water evaporates from lakes, rivers, and oceans and

transpires from plants. is released

Water vapor condenses
into clouds.

Rain falls from clouds, feeding
the lakes, rivers, oceans, and plants.

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Oxygen Cycle
Plants create oxygen by using photosynthesis.

Animals and plants breathe
and use that oxygen to
create glucose (releasing
CO2 as a byproduct).

Carbon Cycle
Burning fossil fuels, such as gas and coal, and exhaling
animals send carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Plants absorb carbon dioxide to use for photosynthesis.

Animals eat the plants,
along with the carbon
dioxide stored in the plants.

Plants and animals die,
releasing carbon dioxide

into the atmosphere; some

plants and animals become
fossil fuels over millions of
years.

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ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

Many nutrient cycles rely on the production of energy by
organisms within their ecosystem. Water, oxygen, and
carbon are all important cycles because they are key
nutrients for the production of any organism’s energy.

When ecologists separate organisms based on their methods
of energy production, they find that those organisms that
produce energy using abiotic factors are more numerous
than those that produce energy by eating other organisms.

This separation is called a FOOD CHAIN .

Food chains are represented like this:

cpornismumareyrs sceocnosnudmaerrys

producers tertiary
494 consumers

PRODUCERS

Those that create energy using abiotic
factors such as light and carbon
dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere.

There are more producers than
any other type of organism in
the ecological pyramid.

YUM!

PRIMARY CONSUMERS

Those that gain their energy by
eating producers.

SECONDARY CONSUMERS YUM!

Those consumers that gain their
energy by eating primary
consumers.

TERTIARY CONSUMERS

Tertiary consumers, also known
as APEX PREDATORS, are those
that eat the secondary
consumers.

Tertiary consumers are at the top of the food chain and
have no predators that eat them. Sometimes apex predators
can fight and kill one another over prey.

495

w

1. What is the community of living organisms and their
environment called?

2. What two factors make up any ecosystem?

3. What is a climate?

4. What effect has greatly influenced Earth’s climate over
the planet’s history?

5. How do greenhouse gases cause the greenhouse effect?

6. The collection of all organisms on Earth is the .

7. What helps animals that live in taiga biomes survive?

496

8. What sustains the world’s climate?
9. What are producers?
10. Where do apex predators lie in the food chain?

497

1. An ecosystem

2. Abiotic and biotic factors

3. A climate is the total weather conditions that any
environment experiences.

4. The greenhouse effect

5. Greenhouse gases block excess heat from being released
into space. The gases reflect the excess heat back onto
the planet.

6. Biosphere

7. Thick fur

8. The recycling of nutrients/nutrient cycles

9. Producers are organisms that create their energy using
the light and carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere.

10. Apex predators are at the top of the food chain.

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Chapter 50

POPULATIONS

LIMITING FACTORS

LIMITING FACTORS are resources within an environment

that can slow or stop its population growth. The availability

of nutrients is one of the most

important limiting factors. LIMITING FACTOR

For example, if the amount A condition within an
of available nutrients in an environment that prevents

population growth.

ecosystem is high, then the

population will grow until the nutrients are used up. If

nutrients are low, then the population will begin to die out

until the number of living organisms matches the amount of

available nutrients. This kind of population pat tern can be

modeled by ecologists using a LOGISTIC GROWTH model.

This logistic growth model shows that the population

size increases over time until the population reaches

a CARRYING CAPACITY , the number of organisms

499

that an environment can Population size LOGIST IC GROWTH
support.
Carrying
The carrying capacity capacity
depends on the limiting
factor. For example, if there Time
was an infinite amount of
nutrients, there would be no EX PONENTIAL GROWTH
carrying capacity for the
limiting factor of nutrition. Population size
In this case, the logistic
growth model turns into an

EXPONENTIAL GROWTH

model, where population
grows infinitely.

There are several limiting Time

factors that can impact an

ecosystem:

COMPETITION: All species within an ecosystem need

space and food. Organisms will compete for these two
things, limiting the amount that each gets.

PREDATION: Predators threaten the populations of prey,

keeping their numbers low.

500

DISEASE: Diseases can spread along entire ecosystems

and cause the deaths of many species.

NATURAL DISASTERS: Fires, earthquakes, hurricanes,

and floods all disturb the homes of various animals,
making the ecosystem uninhabitable, except to those that
can survive.

ABNORMAL WEATHER: Animals rely on their ability

to adapt to survive. Weather that is unpredictable and
changes too quickly can prevent animals from adapting,
threatening their lives.

The effects of the changes in climate can cause abnormal
weather patterns, such as global warming, where the
temperature of the Earth slowly increases each year.

HUMAN ACTION: Humans make active decisions that can

threaten the lives of species and their ecosystems. Examples
include burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests, and
hunting animals.

THE MEGHALAYAN

The MEGHALAYAN is the current geological age. It is

the age in which humanity has a dominant influence on the
climate and environment. It was marked by the beginning
of a 200-year drought that caused the disruption of

501

many civilizations, including those in Egypt, Greece, and
Mesopotamia.

CIVILIZATIONS are units of organization for human social
and cultural development. Before humans set tled, our species
moved from place to place in search of food.

Before civilizations, food could either AGRICULTURE
be hunted or gathered. Humans
went wherever animals migrated The process of
to or wherever fruits, nuts, and producing food and
vegetables grew. However, with cultivating animals.

the growth of AGRICULTURE ,

humans were able to settle
and their populations were
able to grow.

Within 3,000 years, human society
has grown more complex due to
our increased knowledge and
technology. In the early 1800s,
the world underwent another
dramatic shift when humans
began to move from an
agricultural society to
an industrial one.

502

Factories were created to organize workers so that they
could create products that would be sold. This caused society
to transition from one where people produced their own
goods and traded them for money to one where people
received money to produce goods. Because of this change,
land that was dedicated to agriculture began to be taken
up by factories. This period is known as the INDUSTRIAL
R EVOLUT IO N .

The industrial revolution
took place during the 1800s.
The manufacturing of goods
was done in factories. People
moved from rural areas to big
cities to find work.

Conditions during the industrial revolution were poor. Many
of the workers in the factories were children, who were
often injured because of the dangerous machines they
had to work with. Also, because factories took up a lot of
land, people began to live in more densely populated cities,
making it easy for diseases to be transferred from person
to person. In the late 1800s, countries began to develop laws
and standards for sanitation, prevention of child labor, and
protection of the environment.

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THE FUTURE OF HUMANITY

Biodiversity

Like any organism, humans rely on their ecosystem to
maintain themselves. Our civilizations thrive on resources
from our environment. So, when resources run out,
civilizations can face catastrophe.

Climate change, which causes temperature effects
like global warming, brings an increase in droughts,

floods, wildfires, and blizzards. These natural
disasters can destroy the resources that humans use.

Because ecosystems include multiple species, a lack of
resources can impact the livelihoods of plants and animals
as well. This results in a decrease in population, which

affects BIODIVERSITY - the variety of species in an

ecosystem. Biodiversity is necessary for organisms to thrive
in an ecosystem. When one set of organisms begins to die
out, all of them face consequences.

Natural Resources

Natural resources that can be recycled or replaced by nature

quickly (within 100 years or so) are called RENEWABLE
RESOURCES . Renewable resources include sunlight, wind,

and water, but also trees and other oxygen-producing
plants, which can be used for many things and replanted.

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NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES Most nonrenewable
resources reside
can take up to millions of years to in Earth’s mantle,
replace. Nonrenewable resources formed over
come in the form of fossil fuels such millions and
as coal and natural gas, minerals, millions of years.
and metal. To maintain biodiversity,
resources must be used efficiently.

Renewable Resources- Nonrenewable Resources-
sunlight metals, minerals (e.g.,
trees diamonds), and fossil
water fuels (e.g., coal, crude oil,
wind natural gas)

Humans have used nonrenewable resources to build cities
and countries. However, there is a limited supply of these
resources. Eventually, these resources will no longer be
available and humanity will have to find alternate resources

that are more SUSTAINABLE , or renewable.

Improving Biodiversity

When humans act in ways that change the HABITAT ,

or the home, of other organisms, it can endanger biodiversity.

DEFORESTATION (the removal of forests), pollution, and

climate change are all human-caused threats to biodiversity.
Even though humans can negatively impact biodiversity, they
can also improve it.

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WAYS TO IMPROVE BIODIVERSITY

METHOD DESCRIPTION

Conservation of As species begin to die out due to
Species changes in their environment, humans
can take care of them and establish
regulations that will help their
populations recover.

Transition from In discontinuing the use of
Nonrenewable nonrenewable resources, humans
to Renewable can reduce the destruction of the
Resources environment.

Creation of National parks ensure that animals

National Parks and live in their ecosystems naturally with

Reserved Land minimal human interference.

Reduce, Reuse, Reduction and reuse of nonrenewable
Recycle resources and recycling renewable
resources ensure that resources are
not wasted.

Science Ecologists must communicate their
Communication research findings to the public so
that they can understand how their
actions impact the environment.

506

w

1. Why can only a certain number of organisms in a
species exist in any ecosystem?

2. Explain the concept of carrying capacity.

3. How do natural disasters limit a species?

4. What is the Meghalayan age?

5. What did humans do to get food before they set tled in
agricultural societies?

6. What happened when humans shifted from agriculture
to industry?

7. What is biodiversity?

8. What are renewable resources?

9. What are examples of human activities that threaten
biodiversity?

10. How does the conservation of species help populations?

answers 507

1. Limiting factors prevent the population of a
species from increasing above a certain point.

2. The number of organisms an environment can support,
determined by the limiting factor

3. Natural disasters destroy ecosystems, making them less
habitable.

4. The Meghalayan age is our current geological age,
where humans influence the climate and environment.

5. Humans hunted or gathered for food.

6. Land that was dedicated to agriculture was replaced by

factories; people moved to cities to find work.

7. Biodiversity is the variety of species in an ecosystem.

8. Natural resources that can be recycled or replaced by
nature quickly

9. Deforestation, pollution, and climate change

10. Conservation helps prevent populations from dying out.

508

INDEX

A anaerobes, 144 Apoda, 308
anaerobic respiration, 109, 111 aquatic arthropods, 286
abdomen, 287, 288, 289 analogous structures, 454 aquatic biome, 264, 492
abiotic factors, 484-485, Anamniotes, 303-308 arcella, 180
anaphase, 122, 124-125, 126, 128, Archae, 31-32
494-495 Archaebacteria, 32, 144-146
accessory organs 135, 137, 138 Archean eon, 470-471, 473-474
anatomy, definition of, 4 Aristotle, 3
of the digestive system, angiosperms, 236, 238, 244, 248, arteries, 375-376
384 arthropods, 285-290
251, 254, 258 Artiodactyla, 320
of the skin, 337-338 animal cell organelles, 86-91, asexual reproduction, 21, 131-132,
acellular molds/slime molds,
94 253-254, 269, 276, 279
201, 202-203 Animalia (animal kingdom), asymmetrical animals, 269
action potentials, 353, 354 atomic bonding, 55-57, 61-62
activation energy, 79-80 32, 33, 34, 268-272 atomic mass, 49
adaptation, 257-264, 271 animal-like protists, 180-181 atomic numbers, 46, 48-49
adaption, 25-26 animals atoms
adaptive immune response/
arthropods, 285-290 bonding and, 55-57
immunity, 393, 396 characteristics of, 268-272 definition of, 44-45
adenine (A), 100, 430-431, 435 Chordates, 293-299 electron shells and, 52-55
adolescence, 408-409 fungi and, 226 models of, 51-52
adult stage for insects, 290 invertebrates, 275-282 periodic table and, 45-50
adulthood, 409 processes of, 270-272 states of matter and,
aerobic respiration, 109, 112-116 reproduction of, 269, 272
afferent neurons, 361 seed dispersal through, 57-58
age of the mammals and birds, ATP (adenosine triphosphate),
243, 252
477-478 spore dispersal through, 99-100, 105-106, 109, 111, 367
age of the reptiles, 476 ATP synthase, 114
agender, 409 219-220 atrium, 372
agnatha (jawless fish), 35, 298, Annelids, 280 attract (definition), 51
annuals, 257 autonomic nervous system,
305 anthocyanin, 235
agriculture, 502 antibiotics, 150, 173, 397-398 360, 361
air bladders, 304 antibodies, 395-396, 398 autotrophic bacteria, 148-149
air sacs, 370 antigens, 394, 396 autotrophs, 22, 98-99
algae, 98, 179, 181, 193-198, 474, antigen-specific T cells, 397 Aves (birds), 36, 299, 312, 313,
antiparallel strands, 429
492 antivirals, 173, 397-398 315-317, 477-478
alleles, 134, 415-417, 420-426 Anura, 307 axons, 354-355
allergens, 391 anus, 35, 295, 381, 385
allergic reactions, 171 aorta, 375 B
alveoli, 370 apex predators, 495
amnion, 303, 311-312 apical cap, 189 B cells, 394-396, 397
Amniotes, 311-322 apical complex, 189-190 bacilli, 147
amoebas, 180, 185-187 apicomplexa, 189 bacteria, 31-32, 142-150, 172,
amoeboids, 185-187 aplacophora, 281
Amphibia (amphibians), 36, 298, 397-398, 447-448

306-308, 313 509

ball-and-socket joints, 349 bursting, seed dispersal cellular reproduction, 119-120
base pairs, 137, 430-431, 441 through, 252 cellular respiration, 23, 65, 99,
bases, 429
basophils, 391 byproducts, 111 105, 109-116, 367
biennials, 257-258 cellulose, 92-93, 230
bilateral symmetry, 269 C Cenozoic era, 471, 472, 474,
bile, 384
binary fission, 142-144 calcium, 345 477-478
binocular vision, 464 calcium carbonate, 196, 281 central nervous system (CNS),
binomial nomenclature, 40 Cambrian period, 472, 475
biodiversity, 504-506 camouflage, 463, 465 356-360, 362
biological classification, 29-40 cancer cells, 127, 438 centromere, 121, 136, 138
biologists capillaries, 374-376 centrosomes, 121-123
capsid, 157 Cephalochordates, 295, 296
definition of, 2 carbohydrates, 23, 71-72, 100 cephalopods, 281
tools of, 5-8 carbon, 69-70 cephalothorax, 287, 288
biology carbon chains, 70 cerebellum, 358
critical thinking in, 11-16 carbon cycle, 493 cerebrum, 357
definition of, 2 carbon dioxide, 105, 487, 493 cervical vertebrae, 359
etymology of, 3 carbon films, 457 characteristics of life, 19-26
introduction to, 2-8 cardiac muscles, 343, 344, 361, chelicera, 288
types of, 4 Chelicerates, 286, 288
bioluminescence, 198 371 chemical bonds, 75
biomes, 259-264, 488, 489-493 cardiovascular system, 327 chemical digestion, 380
biosphere, 488-489 Carnivora, 320 chemical energy, 97-100
biotic factors, 484-486 carnivorous invertebrates, 279 chemical reactions, 75-80
birds (Aves), 36, 299, 312, 313, carnivorous reptiles, 312-313 chemical symbols, 46, 48-49
315-317, 477-478 carotene, 235 chemiosmosis, 114
blades, 195 carriers, 390 childhood, 408
blood, 66, 367, 371-374 carrying capacity, 499-500 Chiroptera, 322
bloom, 198 cartilage, 305, 350 chitin, 208, 281, 286
body temperature, 312 cartilaginous fish, 298, 305 chlamydomonas, 180
Bohr model of the atom, 55 catalysts, 80 chlorophyll, 93, 187, 194-195,
boiling point of water, 65 cavities, 368-369
bone, 345 cell bodies, 354 197, 235
bone marrow, 346-347, 374 cell cycle, 120-127 chlorophyta, 194-195
bony fish, 298, 305 cell division, 120-122, 135 chloroplasts, 93, 94, 103-104,
botany, definition of, 4 cell membrane, 86
brain, 353, 356-358, 464 cell structure and function, 181, 235
brain stem, 357 Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous
breathing, 116, 368-370, 375 84-94
bronchi, 370 cell wall, 92, 93, 94, 144, 146, fish), 35, 298, 305
bronchioles, 370 chordata, 34-35
bryophytes, 236-237, 241-242, 147, 196, 197, 201, 208, 210, 219, Chordates, 35, 293-299
248, 249 230, 398 chromatin, 90, 122-123, 431-432,
budding, 279 cell-mediated immune
buds, 276 response, 394, 397-398 440
Buffon, Comte de, 458-459 cells chromosomal mutations,
bumblefoot, 172
in blood, 373 440-441
510 definition of, 19, 84 chromosomes, 121, 122-125,
DNA in, 431-432
origin of life and, 478 132-133, 135-138, 249, 440-441
principles regarding, 84-85 chyme, 383, 384
cilia, 188, 370-371
ciliates, 188
Cingulata, 321

circulation, 23, 270 cytosine (C), 430-431, 435, 437, dominant life stage, 254
circulatory system, 371-376 439 dominant traits, 415, 417-418
cisgender, 409 dorsal nerve cords, 35
citric acid cycle, 112 cytoskeleton, 87, 123 double helix, 429
civilizations, 502 cytosol, 87 double-displacement reaction,
classes, 29-31, 35-36 cytotoxic T cells, 397
classification, biological, 29-40 79
climate, 486-487 D Duchenne muscular dystrophy,
climate change, 504, 505
clusters, 148 Darwin, Charles, 458, 461-462 442
cnidarians, 277-278 Darwin, Erasmus, 459 duplication of chromosomes,
cnidocytes, 277 decapods, 287
cocci, 147 decomposition reaction, 76-77 440
coccygeal, 360 deforestation, 505
cold-blooded animals, 80 deletion of chromosomes, 440 E
collagen, 268, 336, 345 dendrites, 354, 355
colonies of mosses, 237 deoxygenated blood, 375-376 earthworms, 280
combination reaction, 76-77 dependent variables, 13 Echinoderms, 281-282
combustion reaction, 76, 78 derimis, 336 echolocation, 322
common ancestor, theory of, desert, 263, 491 ecological pyramid, 494-495
deuteranopia, 442 ecology, 4, 223, 484-486
454-455 Devonian period, 472, 476 ecosystems, 484-495
communities, 484-486, 488 diaphragms, 318 ectothermic amniotes, 312
compact bone, 345 diatoms, 196-197 efferent neurons, 361
competition, 500 diatonic elements, 57 egg cells, 402-403
complex structure, 155 Diener, Theodor O., 166 eggshells, 312
compound (light) microscopes, diffusion, 114, 375 ejaculation, 405
digestion, 22 elastin, 336
5, 6 digestive system, 328, 380-385 electrical charges, 50-51
compounds digestive tract, 381, 385 electron carriers, 112-113
dihybrid cross, 424-426 electron microscopes, 6-7
definition of, 57 dihybrid Punnett squares, electron shells, 52-57
organic, 69-71 electron transport chain (ETC),
cones, 236-238 422-424
conservation of species, 506 dinoflagellates, 197-198 112-116
coralline algae, 196 dinosaurs, 312, 315 electronegativity, 62-63
core electrons, 53-54 diplo, 148 electrons, 50-55
covalent bonding, 55-57, 429 dipoles, 62-63 elements
Cretaceous period, 472, 477 disciplines, list of, 4
Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, 172 disease, 169-174, 225, 330, 389, definition of, 45
Crick, Francis, 429 periodic table of, 45-50
cristae, 110 441, 501 embryo protection, 311-312
critical thinking, 11-16 disinfection, 173 embryology, 454-455
Crocodilia, 315 displacement reaction, 76, embryos, 238, 303, 406
Cro-Magnons, 465 endocrine system, 327, 362-364
crossing over, 136-137 78-79 endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 88
Crustaceans, 286-287, 492 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 90, endothermic amniotes, 312
cryptogams, 237 energy
Cuvier, Baron Georges, 459 121, 127, 136-137, 158-159, 165, abiotic factors and,
cytokinesis, 126, 128, 137, 138 429-442, 447-448, 480
cytoplasm, 87, 110 DNA ligase, 436 494-495
DNA polymerase, 433-436 activation, 79-80
DNA replication, 432-436 atoms and, 44-45, 55-57
domains, 29-31 chemical, 97-100
forms of, 44

511

envelope, 157 fertilization, 253, 272, 402-403, gallbladder, 381, 384
environmental protection, 503 405-407 Galliformes, 316
enzymes, 75, 79-80, 380, 384 gametes, 132, 135, 138, 252, 272
Eoarchean era, 471, 473 fetus, 406 gametophyte phase, 252
eons, 470-472 filaments, 196 gametophytes, 252-254
eosinophils, 391 fish gases, 57-58
epidermis, 233, 336 gender, 409
epididymis, 404-405 bony, 35, 298, 305 gender fluid, 409
epiglottis, 369 cartilaginous, 35, 298, 305 gene expression, 445
epochs, 471 classes of, 298, 305 gene therapy, 160
equilibrium, 328-329 eggs of, 313 genera, 29-31, 37-38, 40
eras, 471-472 jawless, 35, 298, 305 generations, 415, 417
esophageal sphincter, 383 overview of, 303-304 genes, 131, 134, 414-418, 429
esophagus, 369, 381, 382-383 fish classes, 35 genetic diseases, 441
essential organic compounds, flagellates, 187 genetic engineering, 445-448
flatworms (Platyhelminths), genetic material, of viruses, 158
71-72 278 genetically modified organisms
estrogen, 364, 403, 408 flightless birds, 315
ethanol, 111 flowering plants, 236, 238 (GMOs), 446-447
Eubacteria, 32, 144, 146-147 flowers/fruits, 236, 238 genetics, introduction to,
euglena, 180 foil method, 423, 425
Eukarya, 31-33 follicle, 337 414-426
eukaryotes, 120, 178, 230 food chain, 494-495 genome, 249
eukaryotic cells, 474 fork, 433 genotypes, 418-419
Eulipotyphla, 321 fossil fuels, 458, 493, 501, 505 geological time scale, 470-478
Eutherians, 319 fossils, 455-458, 469-470 gills, 304
evolution, 271, 452-465 fragmentation, 279, 282 glands, 327, 362-364
excretion, 24, 270 frameshift mutation, 439 gliding joints, 348-349
excretory system, 328, 386 Franklin, Rosalind, 429 global warming, 501, 504
exercise, 116 freezing point of water, 65 glucose, 71, 93, 97-99, 103,
exonuclease, 436 fruit, 244
exoskeletons, 285-286 fruiting bodies, 216-218, 225 105-106, 234, 367
experiments, scientific method fucoxanthin, 195 glycolysis, 111
Fungi Golgi apparatus, 88
and, 13-14 ecology of, 223-226 Gorilla (genus), 37
exponential growth model, introduction to, 208-209 grassland, 261, 489-490
kingdom of, 32, 33, greenhouse effect, 487
500 greenhouse gases, 487
external environments, 271 208-212 groups (on periodic table), 49
extinction, 463 reproduction of, 216-220 growth, 20
spreading of, 211-212 growth hormone, 363
F structure of, 210 guanine (G), 430-431, 435, 437
fungus-like protists, 182, guard cells, 233
Falconiformes, 317 201-203 gymnosperms, 236-238,
fallopian tubes, 402
families (classification), 29-31, G 243-244, 248, 254

37 G1 (Gap 1), 121 H
families (on periodic table), 49 G1 Checkpoint, 121
female reproductive system, G2 (Gap 2), 122 habitats, 505
G2 Checkpoint, 122 Hadean eon, 470-471, 473
402-403 gall, 172 hair, 337-338
fermentation, 111, 116 halophiles, 145
ferns, 236-237

512

hearts, 299, 317, 371-372, hyphae, 210-211 kingdoms, 29-31, 32-33
375-376 hypodermis, 337 Krebs, Hans, 112
hypothalamus, 358, 361, 362, 364 Krebs cycle, 112-115
helical structure, 155 hypotheses, 13
helicase, 433, 437 L
helper T cells, 395, 397 I
hemoglobin, 375-376 lactic acid, 111, 116
hemophilia, 442 ice ages, 478 lagging strand, 433-436
herbivorous invertebrates, 279 Ichthyostegalia, 307 Lagomorpha, 321
herbivorous reptiles, 312-313 immune response, 390 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste de
heredity, 414 immune system, 170-171, 328,
hermaphrodites, 276 Monet de, 460
heterotrophic bacteria, 148-149 389-398 lancelets, 296
heterotrophs, 22, 99, 268 immunological memory, 394 large intestines, 381, 384-385
heterozygous genotype, 415, 418 in vitro fertilization, 403 larva stage, 290
hinge joints, 349 independent variables, 13 laryngopharynx, 369
histamines, 391 industrial revolution, 503 larynx, 368-369
histones, 431-432 infancy, 408 leading strand, 433-436
holdfasts, 195 infection, 155 leaf-cutting ants, 224
homeostasis, 25, 271, 328-330 influenza, 172 leaves, 233-234
Hominidae (great apes), 37-38 inner membrane, 110, 113 leeches, 280
hominids, 465 insects Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van,
Homo (genus), 37-39
Homo erectus, 38 classification of, 287 143
Homo habilis, 38 fungi and, 219-220, 224 leukocytes, 391, 396
Homo sapiens, 38-39, 469, 478 overview of, 289-290 life
Homo sapiens sapiens, 465 plants and, 244
homologous chromosomes, insulin, 363 characteristics of, 19-26
integumentary system, 327, history of, 469-479
133-134, 136-137 334-338 life cycle, 2, 3
homologous structures, 453, 454 intermembrane, 110, 113 life functions, 20-26
homozygous genotype, 415, 418 internal environments, 271 ligaments, 350
hookworms, 279-280 interphase, 121, 126, 128, 135 ligands, 156
hormones, 362-364, 405, 408 intersex, 409 limiting factors, 499-501
hornworts, 237 inversion of chromosomes, 441 Linnaeus, Carolus, 40, 458
horsetails, 237 invertebrates, 34, 226, lipids, 71-72
hosts, 153-154 275-282, 475 liquids, 57-58
Human Genome Project, 432 involuntary muscles, 343, 361 liver, 384
humanity, future of, 504-506 ions, 113-114 liverworts, 237
humans isotopes, 51 locomotion, 271
locus, 133-134
actions of, 501 J logistic growth model,
body systems of, 326-330 499-500
development of, 408-409 jawless fish, 35, 298, 305 Lucy (hominid), 465
water and, 65-66 joints, 348-349 lumbar vertebrae, 359
humoral immune response, Jurassic period, 472, 476 lungs, 367-368, 370-371
394-396 lycopene, 235
hydrocarbon, 70 K lymph, 393
hydrocarbon chains, 70 lymph nodes, 393-394
hydrogen bonding, 62-64, 429 keratin, 313, 315, 335, 337-338 lymphatic system, 328, 393
hydrogen ions, 113-114 key viral proteins, 156 lymphocytes, 391, 394
kidneys, 386 lysosomes, 89
killer cells, 397
513

M microorganisms, 142 nasopharynx, 368
microscopes, 5-7 national parks, 506
M Checkpoint, 124 microtubules, 121-122 natural disasters, 501, 504
macronucleus, 188 Miller, Stanley, 479 natural resources, 504-505
macrophages, 396, 397 Miller-Urey experiment, 478-480 natural selection, 462-463
mad cow disease, 172 mineral fossils, 457 Neanderthals, 465
magnetic resonance imaging Mississippian period, 472, 476 nectar, 244
mitochondria, 89-90, 98, negative feedback, 329-330
scans (MRIs), 8 Nematodes, 279-280
magnification, 5 109-110, 112-114 Neoarchean era, 471, 473
malaria, 190 mitosis, 119-128, 132, 202-203 neonatal period, 408
male reproductive system, models, of atoms, 51-52 Neoproterozoic era, 471, 474
modern medicine, 397-398 nephrons, 386
404-405 Modern Periodic Law, 48 nerve cords, 294
Mammalia (mammals), 36, 299, molds, 201-203 nerves, 353
molds and casts, 457 nervous system, 297, 327,
312, 317-322, 477-478 molecules, 57
mammary glands, 318 mollusks, 34, 281 353-362
mantle (Earth’s), 469 molting, 285 neural pathways, 355-356,
mantles (on mollusks), 281 Monera kingdom, 143-144
marine animals, 275 monocytes, 391 358, 360
marine worms, 280 monoecious invertebrates, neurons, 294, 353-354, 355
Marsupials, 319 neurotransmitters, 355
matrix, 110 278, 279, 280, 281 neutrons, 50-51
mat t er monohybrid cross, 421 neutrophils, 391
monohybrid Punnett squares, nitrogen bases, 430
definition of, 44, 57 nocturnal species, 317
states of, 57-58 419-421 nonbinary, 409
mechanical digestion, 380, 382 Monotremes, 318 nonrenewable resources,
Meghalayan, 501-503 mosaic viruses, 172
meiosis, 131-138 mosses, 236-237, 259 505, 506
meiosis I, 135-137 mouth, 381, 385 nonspecific immunity, 392
meiosis II, 135, 137-138 MRIs (magnetic resonance nonvascular plants, 231
melatonin, 364 nonvertebrate chordates,
memory B cells, 395, 396, 398 imaging scans), 8
memory T cells, 397, 398 mRNA, 437 295-296
Mendel, Gregor, 414-418, 420-421 mucus, 370-371 notochords, 35, 293,
menstruation, 403 multicellular organisms, 268
mesenchyme, 278 muscular system, 327, 341-344 295-297
Mesoarchean era, 471, 473 mushrooms, 217-218 nuclear membrane, 91
Mesoproterozoic era, 471, 474 mutations, 127, 438-441, 452, nucleic acids, 71-72, 100
Mesozoic era, 472, 474, 476-477 nucleolus, 91, 125
metabolic waste, 386 463, 465 nucleus, 51-55, 90-91
metabolism, 22-23, 97, 271, 362 mutualism, 223-224 nutrient cycles, 492-494
metagenesis, 252 mutualistic bacteria, 149-150 nutrient viral proteins,
metamorphosis, 289-290, mycelia, 210-211, 224
306-308 mycoses, 225 156-157
metaphase, 122, 124, 126, 128, myopathy, 341 nutrients
135, 136, 138 Myriapods, 287, 288-289
methanogens, 144-145 definition of, 21
microbes, 474 N as limiting factor, 499
microbiology, definition of, 4 respiration and, 22-23
micronucleus, 188 nail matrix, 338 role of, 97
nails, 338 transport of, 23
514 nutrition, 21-22, 270

O Paleozoic era, 472, 474, 475-476 in dinoflagellates, 197
palisade layer, 233 leaves and, 233
objective lenses, 6 Pan (genus), 37 oxygen cycle and, 493
ocular lenses, 6 pancreas, 363-364, 381, 384 in phaeophyta, 195
offspring, 20-21 pandemics, 397 in phytoflagellates, 187
Okazaki, Reiji, 436 papillary layer, 336 in plant-like protists, 181
Okazaki fragments, 436 parasites, 154, 171, 278 water and, 65
omnivorous animals, 281 parasitism, 224-226 phycoerythrin, 196
omnivorous reptiles, 312-313 parent organisms, 20-21 phyla, 29-31, 34-35
opposable thumbs, 38, 464 passive immunity, 396 physiology, definition of, 4
orbit path, 52 passive methods of defense, 391 phyta of algae, 193-196
orders, 29-31, 36 pathogenic bacteria, 147 phytoflagellates, 187
Ordovician period, 472, 475 pathogens, 147, 169-172, 335, pigments, 235
organ systems, 326-329 Pilosa, 322
organelles 389-390, 392-394, 398 pineal gland, 364
pathologists, 173 pinworms, 279-280
animal cell, 86-91, 94 pathology, definition of, 4 pistil, 251
definition of, 85 pedipalps, 288 pituitary gland, 363-364
plant cell, 92-94 Pelecaniformes, 316 pivot joints, 348
organic compounds, 69-71 penis, 404, 405 placenta, 319
organic elements, 69 Pennsylvanian period, 472, 476 Placentals, 319
organisms peptidoglycan, 93, 146-147 plant anatomy, 104-105
definition of, 2 perennials, 257-258 plant cell organelles, 92-94
in ecosystems, 488 periodic table, 45-50 Plantae (plant kingdom),
life functions of, 20-26 periods (geological time scale), 32, 33, 230-238
water and, 65 plant-like protists, 181,
organs, 85, 326 471-472 193-198
origins of life, 478-480 periods (periodic table), 49 plants
oropharynx, 369 periosteum, 345 adaptation of, 257-264
Osteichthyes (bony fish), 35, peripheral nervous system categories of, 236-237
298, 305 classifications of, 231-234
osteoblast, 347 (PNS), 360-362 fungi and, 211-212,
osteoclast, 347 Perissodactyla, 320
osteoporosis, 347 peristalsis, 382 223-224, 225
outer membrane, 110 Permian period, 472, 476 introduction to, 230-231
ovaries, 238, 244, 250-251, 328, phaeophyta, 194, 195 life cycle of, 252-254
364, 402-403 phagocytes, 397 reproduction of, 248-254
ovulation, 403 phagocytosis, 186, 394 structure and function of,
ovules, 251 Phanerozoic eon, 470, 472, 474
oxidative phosphorylation, 115 pharmacology, definition of, 4 241-244
oxygen, 105, 109, 115, 196-197, pharyngeal slits, 35, 294, 296 water and, 65
367, 368-370 pharynx, 294, 368 plasma, 66, 372
oxygen circulation, 374-376 phenotypes, 418 plasma B cells, 395, 396
oxygen cycle, 493 phloem, 232, 243-244 plasmids, 447-448
oxygenated blood, 375-376 Pholidota, 322 plasmodium, 190
oxytocin, 330 photosynthesis platelets, 373, 374
Platyhelminths (flatworms),
P autotrophs and, 98 278
in bacteria, 149 point mutation, 439
Paleoarchean era, 471, 473 chloroplasts and, 93 polar molecules, 63
Paleoproterozoic era, 471, 474 description of, 103-106,
515
234-235

pollen, 250-251, 254 Psittaciformes, 316 in invertebrates, 276, 278,
pollen cone, 250 pteridophytes, 236-237, 279, 280, 281, 282
pollination, 250
pollution, 505 242-243, 248 of lancelets, 296
Pongo (genus), 37 puberty, 407-408 as life function, 20-21
populations, 488, 499-505 pulmonary circuit, 376 plant, 248-254
Poriferans (sea sponges), Punnett, Reginald, 419 in sea sponges, 276
Punnett squares, 419-426 sexual, 21, 131-133, 252-253,
275-276 pupa, 290
positive feedback, 330, 373 purines, 430-431 269, 272, 276, 279
post-anal tails, 35, 295 pyloric sphincter, 383 of vertebrate chordates,
pre-Darwinian evolutionary pyrimidines, 430-431
pyruvate, 111-112 297
theory, 458-460 reproductive system, 328,
predation, 500 Q
pregnancy, 405-407 401-409
primary consumers, 494-495 Quaternary period, 472, 478 Reptilia (reptiles), 36, 298,
primase, 434
primate evolution, 464-465 R 312-315, 476
Primates, 36-37, 320 reserved land, 506
primers, 434-436 radial symmetry, 269, 281 respiration, 22-23, 270
prions, 163-164, 172 radiation, 7 respiratory system, 327,
producers, 494-495 reactants, 75
products, 75 receptors, 156 367-371
progesterone, 364 recessive traits, 415, 417-418 resting electric potential, 354
prokaryotes, 103, 120, 132, 142 recombination, 136-137 restriction enzymes, 447
prokaryotic lifeforms, 480 rectum, 385 results
prophase, 122-123, 126, 128, 135, recycling, 506
red blood cells, 373, 374-376 of experiments, 14
136, 138 red marrow, 346 sharing of, 15
protein folding, 164 red tide, 198 reticular layer, 336
proteins reflexes, 361 reverse transcription, 159
regeneration, 282 rhizoids, 242
aerobic respiration and, regulation, 24-25 rhizomes, 243
113-115 regulators, 80 rhodophyta, 194, 196
renal artery, 386 rhoptries, 189
in blood, 373 renewable resources, 504-505, ribose, 88, 100
from nutrients, 23-24 ribosomal RNA, 91
prions and, 164 506 ribosomes, 87-88, 158, 438
ribosome and, 87-88 repel (definition), 51 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 91, 100,
role of, 71-72 replication, 158-159 158-159, 165, 430-431, 480
viruses and, 155-157 reproduction RNA polymerase, 158, 165-166,
Proterozoic eon, 470-471, 474 437-438
Protista kingdom, 32, 178-182, of amphibians, 306 Rodentia, 320
474 of animals, 269, 272 roots, 234
protists in arthropods, 286 rotating shoulders, 464
introduction to, 178-179 asexual, 21, 131-132, roundworms, 279-280
types of, 180-182 rust fungus, 225
protocells, 480 253-254, 269, 276, 279 Rutherford, Ernest, 52
protons, 50-51 binary fission, 142-144 Rutherford model of the atom,
protozoa, 180-181, 185-190 cellular, 119-120 52
pseudomurein, 144 of fish and amphibians,
pseudopods, 185-187 S
303
516 fungi, 216-220 S (Synthesis), 121
sacral vertebrae, 360

saliva, 382 skin, 335-338 strepto, 148
salivary glands, 381, 385 slides, 6 striations, 344
salt, 373 slime molds, 182, 202-203 Strigiformes, 317
sanitation, 503 small intestines, 381, 383-384, subatomic particles, 50-51
saprothrophs, 209 succulents, 259-260
savanna, 262, 489 385, 386 sunlight, 104
scabs, 373 smooth muscles, 343, 344, 361 surface tension, 64
Scandentia, 321 sodium-potassium pumps, 354 survival of the fittest, 462
scanning electron microscopes, solids, 57-58 sustainable resources, 505
somatic nervous system, swarms, 202
7 symbiotic relationships,
science communication, 506 360-361
scientific inquiry, 11-16 species, 29-31, 38, 40 488-489
scientific method, 11-16 specific immunity, 393-397 symmetry, 269
scrotum, 404 specimens, 7 symptoms of disease, 171, 330
sea sponges (Poriferans), Spencer, Herbert, 462 synapses, 355
sperm cells, 253, 286, 296, 297, synthesis, 23-24
275-276
seaweed, 231 328, 403, 404-406 T
secondary consumers, 494-495 spermatophores, 286
seed dispersal, 251-252 Sphenodonts, 314 T cells, 394-395, 396, 398
seeds, 237-238, 243-244, 248, spherical structure, 154 taiga, 262, 491
spinal cord, 297, 348, 356, taxonomists, 29
250-252, 258-259 taxonomy, definition of, 4
segmented worms, 280 358-360 telophase, 122, 125-126, 128, 135,
selective breeding, 453 spindle fibers, 123-125, 136-138
self-fertilization, 250 spirilla, 147 137, 138
semen, 405 spongy bone, 345-346 temperate forest, 260, 490
seminal fluid, 405 spongy layer, 234 temperature
seminiferous tubules, 404 sporangia, 249
semipermeable, definition of, sporangiophores, 217-218 atoms and, 45
spores, 201, 216-220, 248-249 enzymes and, 80
86 sporophyte phase, 252 template strands, 434, 437
senses, 353 sporophytes, 253-254 tendons, 343, 350
sessile animals, 275 sporozoa, 189-190 terrestrial arthropods, 286
sex, gender and, 409 Squanata, 314 tertiary consumers, 494-495
sex-determining chromosomes, stamen, 250 Tertiary period, 472, 477-478
staph infections, 148 testes, 363, 404
441-442 staphylo, 148 testosterone, 363, 405, 408
sex-linked genes, 441-442 starch, 106 Testudines, 314
sexual reproduction, 21, 131-133, starfish, 282 thalamus, 357
state of competence, 448 theory, scientific method and, 14
252-253, 269, 272, 276, 279 states of matter, 57-58 thermophiles, 146
shells, electron, 52-57 stems, 234 thoracic vertebrae, 359
signal transduction, 329 sterilization, 174 thorax, 287, 289
Silurian period, 472, 475 stimuli, 19, 329-330, 354-355 thymine (T), 430-431, 435, 437
single-displacement reaction, stinkhorn fungi, 219-220 thyroid gland, 363-364
stomach, 381, 383, 385 thyroid hormone, 363
78 stomata, 233 tissues, 85, 326
sister chromatids, 122-123, 124, stool, 384 tomato chlorotic dwarf viroid,
strains, 158 172
136-137 strep throat, 148 tools, 5-8
skeletal muscles, 342-343, 350,
517
360
skeletal system, 327, 344-350
skeleton, 345

toxicology, definition of, 4 vagina, 402, 403 seed dispersal through,
trace fossils, 456 valence electrons, 53-56, 70 252
trachea, 369-370, 382 variables, scientific method
traits, 414-419 spore dispersal through,
transcription, 158, 437-441 and, 13 219
transformation, 448 vas deferens, 405
transgender, 409 vascular cambium, 232 as waste product, 24
translocation of chromosomes, vascular plants, 231-233 water cycle, 492
vascular system, 231-233 water molds, 203
441 vascular tissue, 232, 234 Watson, James, 429
transmission electron veins, 375 West Nile Virus, 172
ventricle, 372, 375-376 white blood cells, 190, 346, 373,
microscopes, 7 vertebrae, 358-360
transport, 23, 270 vertebrate chordates, 297-299 374, 382, 391, 393
trees, 243-244 vertebrates whole remains, 456
Triassic period, 472, 476 wind
tropical rain forest, 261, Amniotes, 311-322
Anamniotes, 303-308, 311 seed dispersal through,
489-490 definition of, 34 251
tuberculosis, 172 vestigial structures, 454
tumors, 127 viroids, 165-166, 169, 172 spore dispersal through,
tundra, 263, 491 viruses 218
Tunicates, 295-296 characteristics of, 153-154
examples of, 172 windpipe, 369
U importance of, 160 wombs, 312
structure of, 154-160
umbilical cords, 319 voluntary muscles, 342-343, X
uracil (U), 430-431, 437 360
ureter, 386 x-rays, 7
urethra, 386 W XY chromosomes, 441-442
Urey, Harold, 479 xylem, 232, 243-244
urinary system, 386 waste products, 24 XYY Syndrome, 442
urine, 386 water
urodela, 307 Y
uterus, 343, 402-403 in biology, 65-66
boiling point of, 65 Y chromosome microdeletion,
V freezing point of, 65 442
importance of, 61-66
vaccines, 397, 398 properties of, 61-64 yellow marrow, 346-347
vacuoles, 89, 94
Z

zooflagellates, 187
zoology, definition of, 4
zygotes, 405-406

518