The English Threshold Copyright© PT Penerbit Penamudamedia, 2024 Penulis: M. Zaenal Abidin, S.Pd., Jeffri Dian Andika, S.Pd., Nur Hidayati, S.Pd., Diyah Herawati, S.S., Adalciza Agusta Ximenes, S.Pd., Britshy Rosanadya Huka, S.Pd., Dinda Amelia, S.Pd., Arni Nazira, S.Pd., Wilda Nur Mufliha, S.Pd., M.Pd. Editor: Ahmad Aprillah, M.Ed ISBN: 978-623-8586-58-5 Desain Sampul: Tim PT Penerbit Penamuda Media Tata Letak: Enbookdesign Diterbitkan Oleh PT Penerbit Penamuda Media Casa Sidoarium RT 03 Ngentak, Sidoarium Dodeam Sleman Yogyakarta HP/Whatsapp : +6285700592256 Email : [email protected] Web : www.penamuda.com Instagram : @penamudamedia Cetakan Pertama, Juni 2024 xii + 124, 15x23 cm Hak cipta dilindungi oleh undang-undang Dilarang memperbanyak sebagian atau seluruh isi buku tanpa izin Penerbit
v s a trained English teacher, I strongly connect with the articles included in this anthology. The issues discussed are latent problems faced by English teachers in both formal and informal educational institutions. Additionally, I have found answers to questions I had not previously pursued. For example, the book discusses why Indonesian students have low English proficiency despite spending hundreds of hours learning English from junior high school to university. This problem has led to the stigma that English Language Teaching (ELT) in schools has been a total failure. The book delves into the root causes of this issue, examining various factors that contribute to the low proficiency levels. One major factor is the significant difference between the linguistic features of Indonesian (L1) and English (L2), which poses a challenge for students in mastering English phonemes that do not exist in their native language. For instance, Indonesian students often struggle with the phonemes /v/ and /f/, commonly substituting them with /p/, which negatively impacts their speaking and listening skills. A
vi Another critical factor is the pedagogical practices employed in English language teaching. The book highlights that many English teachers possess limited content knowledge and pedagogical skills, resulting in rigid and uninspiring classroom practices. This lack of effective teaching methods contributes to students’ disengagement and poor language acquisition. Furthermore, the book provides a comprehensive analysis of the broader educational and socio-cultural context in Indonesia, which also plays a role in shaping the effectiveness of English language instruction. By exploring these dimensions, the anthology offers valuable insights into the systemic issues and potential solutions for improving ELT practices in Indonesia. For English education students, English teachers, ELT researchers, and ELT policymakers, this book serves as an essential resource. It not only presents a detailed overview of the challenges faced but also suggests practical strategies for enhancing English language teaching and learning. The diverse perspectives presented by the articles make this anthology a significant contribution to the field of English language education. As I read through the various contributions, I appreciate the authors’ efforts to address these complex issues thoughtfully and thoroughly. The book has enriched my understanding of the multifaceted dimension of ELT in Indonesia and inspired me to reflect on my teaching practices. I hope this anthology encourages ongoing dialogue and collaboration among educators and stakeholders to achieve meaningful improvements in English language instruction. In addition, this anthology offers a well-rounded exploration of
vii the persistent challenges faced by ELT practitioners. The contributors, who are postgraduate students supported by the LPDP Scholarship from the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia, have demonstrated their ability to analyse and articulate these issues effectively. I look forward to seeing more scholarly work from these talented individuals in the future. To the writers, keep pushing the boundaries of academic inquiry and contributing to the field. To the readers, I hope you find this anthology as enlightening and thought-provoking as I did. While the writings may not yet rival those of renowned researchers, they are undoubtedly of high quality and offer valuable insights for the advancement of English language education in Indonesia. Editor Ahmad Aprillah, M. Ed
viii Foreword< ........................................................................... v Table of Contents ............................................................... viii Chapter 1 - Introduction ......................................................... 1 A. Background and Rationale............................................... 1 B. The Objectives of The Study............................................. 4 C. Significance Of The Book................................................. 6 Chapter 2 - English Language Proficiency in Indonesia ............... 9 A. Overview of English Language Education.......................... 9 B. Current Status of English Proficiency in Indonesia ...........14 C. Factors Influencing English Language Learning in the Indonesian Context........................................................17
ix Chapter 3 - Linguistic Challenges Faced by Indonesian Students 19 A. Pronunciation and Phonological Challenges .................... 19 B. Vocabulary Acquisition and Usage.................................. 23 C. Grammatical Difficulties................................................ 25 Chapter 4 - Academic Language Skills and Their Importance .... 29 A. Definition and Components of Academic Language ......... 30 B. Significance of Academic Language Proficiency in Educational Success ...................................................... 33 C. Challenges in Developing Academic Language Skills Among Indonesian Students........................................... 35 Chapter 5 - The Role of Educational Institutions in Addressing Language Challenges ........................................... 39 A. Curriculum Design and Language Integration.................. 39 B. Teaching Approaches for Enhancing Language Proficiency ................................................................... 41 C. Support Services and Resources Available to Students ...... 46
x Chapter 6 - Assessment of English Language Proficiency .......... 50 A. Existing Assessment Practices in Indonesia Educational Settings.........................................................................50 B. Limitations and Critiques of current assessment methods .55 C. Exploring Alternative Assessment Approaches.................57 Chapter 7 - Pedagogical Strategies for Improving Language Skills ................................................................. 60 A. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in Practice.......62 B. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) and its Applicability Integrating Technology for Enhanced Language Learning ........................................................69 Chapter 8 - Cross-Cultural Considerations in English Language Educations ......................................................... 73 A. Cultural Sensitivity in Language Teaching........................73 B. The definition of cultural sensitivity ................................75 C. How to gain a deeper understanding of culture ................76 D. Strategies for integrating cultural understanding into language learning. .........................................................78
xi Chapter 9 - Future Directions And Recommendations .............. 81 A. Implications for Policy and Curriculum Development ...... 81 B. The Nature of the Curriculum ........................................ 85 C. Curriculum Concept...................................................... 89 D. Functions and Roles of the Curriculum ........................... 91 E. Curriculum Policy Changes ............................................ 94 F. Impact of Curriculum Change ........................................ 96 G. Suggestions for Further Research ..................................100 H. Envisioning the Future of English Language Education in Indonesia ....................................................................102 References. ....................................................................... 107 About Authors.................................................................... 120
xii
The English Threshold 1 M. Zaenal Abidin, S.Pd. English language skills have become one of the fundamental aspects in academic contexts and in our society. Not only as a world language, but English is also the main requirement for applying for a job in large companies in Indonesia and in ASEAN. For example, in an academic context, if a student wants to continue his/her studies to the Bachelor, Master or even Doctoral level, especially abroad, the ability to speak English is one of the mandatory requirements. Therefore, English language skills which include speaking, writing, listening and reading are needed. With such rapid development, the changes that happen are also increasingly massive. I note, in the Indonesian context, the implementation of free trade in
2 The English Threshold the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region known as the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in 2015, many foreign companies have developed. This means that the use of English is also necessary for employers and job seekers. Put simply, (Iriance, 2018) in her article entitled "English as a Lingua Franca and the Position of English Proficiency of Indonesian Communities Among AEC Members". He explained that one of the most fundamental things in the success of AEC is the mastery of English. Recent developments related to the identity of the working language in countries in the ASEAN region have also agreed that the use of English is used as a lingua franca in the region. In addition, English is the main language in daily social interactions that are expressed from various different language backgrounds. The ability of English as a language of instruction applies in almost all universities, including in Indonesia. For example, three countries in the ASEAN region that have the highest scores (60.33 - 63.52) in using English, namely Singapore, Malaysia and the Philippines. Meanwhile, Vietnam, Indonesia, Cambodia and Laos have scores ranging from 38.45 - 54.06. In fact, Indonesia, Vietnam and Thailand are categorized as very low in English proficiency. As the information, English is already the official language of instruction of 42 countries in the world and is a very popular language studied
The English Threshold 3 worldwide by 1.5 billion people and ranks first out of 7 languages in the world besides French, Mandarin, Spanish, German. Italian and Japanese out of 839 languages spoken by 60 countries in the world, so English is now the most influential international language of instruction out of 10 languages in the world with 37 points compared to other languages of instruction, which influence 9 - 23 points (Mastin, L 2018 & Graddol, 1997) cited in (Iriance 2018). The article referenced in this book also refers to the statement or context where English has become the official language of instruction in 42 countries in the world. It is the most popular language to be learned worldwide (around 1.5 billion) people and occupies the first position of seven languages in the world next to German, mandarin, French, Italian, and Spanish (Iriance, 2018). However, given the popularity of English lessons, not only in institutional or private (NGO) contexts, challenges such as linguistics in learning are also discussed. The next chapter discusses in detail what these challenges are, as well as the academic skills that should be mastered by learners and especially you as a reader of the presented book. Therefore, mastery of English, especially in the Indonesian context is emphasized, and if it helps, it becomes a valuable asset to be understand, mastered, and
4 The English Threshold taught to the younger generation. Mastery of English in order to support the requirements of registering for a job, business, and academic learning seems a must now on. In summary, the rationalization of developments in terms of the ASEAN context towards Proficiency, Linguistic Challenges, and Academic Language Skills is also explained in more depth in the next chapter. The primary purpose of writing the book, anthologies, is to facilitate writers who find it difficult to write a full or solo book despite the fact that, this is usually reserved for lecturers or staff who have demands for publications and etc. In the context of the book you are currently reading, the purpose of writing this chapter book is not only to cultivate the ability and intensity of writing, but also to emphasize collaborative aspects and attitudes in terms of knowledge and peer review and social practice. Book that addresses three important aspects of English: linguistic aspects, general language challenges, and academic skills that must be mastered is indeed noteworthy in recent decades. Consequently, reading, compiling, and then rewriting what has been learned from a reading is the right way to reflect on knowledge and by publishing it collectively.
The English Threshold 5 The writing of the English-themed chapter book above is relevant to the field and territory of the author who does have a background in education and linguistics. The author's colleagues' interest in scientific publications is the primary basis for this book, considering that good academic writing skills must of course be honed. We believe, with a lot of practice, for example in the form of writing anthologies, it is possible that in the future, the authors can create a whole masterpiece by writing a single article. The idea like "Becoming and being writers': the experiences of doctoral students in writing groups" is a good example. This article discusses how collaborative writing skills also have a large and significant impact in spurring and learning from each other. In the article, the authors explain that they (Maher et al., 2008) have identified at least two important aspects that they have explored so far in group writing participation. First, they explain what kinds of lessons they have found in group writing using multiple perspectives. They did this with approaches and references as the principle of peer learning and peer review. Secondly, in the report put forward by the research results, they of course also became more focused on how a group works together in a social community of practice. So that one of the critical messages from them when taking part in a group work and now in the context of writing this chapter book they
6 The English Threshold become more experienced, learn from each other by looking at the work of their colleagues. Given that writing is quite private and personal, the stigma is rooted in a concept of identifying, and developing social practice in a positive context. What are the benefits or contributions of raising this topic? this book chapter was written by master's students with a background in language and linguistic education. They are a group of writers who are divided into two different groups. So the significance of this writing rests on the richness of the intellectual aspects of each author as we believe that their experieances in actively contributing to writing groups can be useful both for individuals as a master student and also the institutions which they are affiliated. At the same time, those who are part of this group writing project are also, on average, students who are active in writing. We believe that the capacity to write this book and make it a great opportunity to get better in the context of academic writing through our participation that has been documented since almost three months ago. Therefore, the final result of this writing is also a process
The English Threshold 7 of self-exploration and conceptualization of what we have learned so far. As an initial introduction, the project of writing a book in the context of this reference English book has been supported by the kelurahan LPDP Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta where the authors are mostly scholarship recipients. As an initiation and in order to expand and refine knowledge, this project is designed and implemented to be the one step forward to support the credits required by the university as a mandatory requirement for graduation. To sum up, the important contribution that may be obtained from the topic The threshold of English: Proficiency, Linguistic Challenges, and Academic Language Skills has at least two main aspects. The first is as a form or forum in developing knowledge, mainly in terms of peer learning and peer review, those related to the context in which this book was written. The second is as a form of social practice where writing, although the stigma is still like something personal and sensitive to the one’s asset. We focus on developing knowledge based on the experience and knowledge of each writer. Despite the fact that scholars such as (Kamler & Thomson, 2008) emphasize term the 'discursive practices of becoming a scholar' (see, (Rose & Mcclafferty, 2001). Finally, we focus on the idea that through a writing study group is one of the
8 The English Threshold places where the social and emotional aspects are built and started.
The English Threshold 9 Jeffri Dian Andika, S.Pd. English is an international language that has been used to communicate among people from different countries. The status of English as a global language appeared after a long history. The record mentioned that the British Empire had spread English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance by the late 18th Century. Moreover, English has become more popular as the United States also proclaims English as their national language. This situation motivates governments in many countries in the world to require their educational institutions to teach English to their students, including Indonesia.
10 The English Threshold As a country that experienced colonialism by the Dutch from the sixteenth century up to 1945, Indonesia was familiar with foreign language teaching. The Dutch instructed Dutch-medium secondary schools in Indonesia to teach European languages such as Dutch, English, French, and German (Nababan, 1991). However, Dutch lesson was removed from educational practice after Indonesia gained its independence in 1945. While Dutch officially vanished from the Indonesian educational system, English was established as the language of international importance and it was taught along with other languages such as Arabic, French, and German. In 1967, the Indonesian government made English a mandatory subject in schools by implementing Presidential Decree No. 28/1990(Zein et al., 2020). According to this law, English was introduced to junior high schools, senior high schools, vocational high schools, Madrasah Tsanawiyah, and Madrasah Aliyah. This condition has relegated English to the status of a second language for Indonesian speakers, and a third language for those who speak Indonesian and indigenous languages. Several international organisations played a role in advancing the teaching of English in Indonesia. In 1953, the Ford Foundation provided professional development to a total of 1,025 English instructors. Additional organisations such as AusAID, NZAID, the British Council,
The English Threshold 11 and AMINEF provided help for English education. AusAID and NZAID provided scholarships to Indonesian scholars for the purpose of studying in Australia and New Zealand. The British Council has conducted courses for elementary teachers, while AMINEF has deployed their native teachers to instruct at Indonesian universities. The field of English language instruction in Indonesia has undergone transformations in relation to the development of the curriculum. The Grammar Translation Method was implemented with the aim of facilitating students' comprehension of English materials and their subsequent translation into Indonesian. Nevertheless, this approach faced criticism and was subsequently replaced by the Oral Approach, which prioritises the development of listening and speaking abilities. The government initiated the implementation of the Structural Approach in 1975. The structural method was greatly influenced by Dell Hymes' Communicative method. The government established the 1984 curriculum based on the idea of communicative conception. As a result of inadequate guidance, the 1984 curriculum was substituted with the 1994 curriculum, which prioritised the interpretation of content rather than the study of language components. Following the onset of the new millennium, the Indonesian Ministry of National Education put forth two curricula. In 2004, the government implemented a skills-
12 The English Threshold Based Curriculum (KBK) that prioritised the enhancement of communication skills. In 2006, the Local Education Unit Curriculum (KTSP) was implemented, allowing schools and educational units to have autonomy in designing their curriculum. This curriculum is based on the principles of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) and Genre-Based Approach (GBA), which emphasise the functional use of language and the study of different genres. The duration of this KTSP could extend till 2012. In 2013, the government introduced a new curriculum. The curriculum in question was the one implemented in 2013. This curriculum continues to utilise SFL (Systemic Functional Linguistics) and GBA (Genre-Based Approach) to cultivate students' ability to effectively communicate. However, the primary goal of the curriculum is to enable students to acquire the essential qualities, abilities, and information required in the 21st century, with a particular emphasis on fostering creativity. This curriculum faced criticism due to its reduction in the time allotted for English courses at different educational levels and its exclusion of English from elementary school. The pandemic happened and the government had to face the challenge due to social distancing and all of educational institutions had to close. The government offered a solution to overcome the learning loss due to the pandemic and applied the emancipated curriculum
The English Threshold 13 (Rohmah et al., 2024). Currently, this curriculum has been implemented by all teaching levels in Indonesia and gives room for teachers to explore the teaching and learning process. English has been taught from primary education up to tertiary education as a compulsory subject with at least two credits. To properly discuss English language teaching in Indonesia, the issue of diverse linguistic ecology must be included. English can co-exist with other 707 languages, and more than 1,100 dialects, or 733 indigenous languages (Badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id, 2017). Such linguistic diversities face various statutes such as being noticed, abolished, supported, or preserved through different settings of times, levels, and localities. In a superdiverse context like Indonesia, English has become a new center of public norms. When people master English, it can help them to participate in various occasions. Currently, products such as T-shirts or even food that use English promotion and taglines can gain higher prices. Schools that can offer English as a medium of instruction can offer higher tuition fees. The same case also goes to the involvement of English proficiency as the requirement for applicants when applying for a job in a company (Zein et al., 2020). People with better English proficiency have chances to access vacancies available in the field and are offered them higher salary.
14 The English Threshold English Proficiency symbolizes someone’s competence in using English for various communicative purposes (Renandya, Hamied and Nurkamto, 2018). Someone can be called proficient in English once they have a good command of language for example understanding the communication without experiencing difficulty, conveying different ideas in spoken and written context, and socializing with other people comfortably. Five essential parameters can be used to measure language proficiency, such as accuracy, fluency, complexity, appropriacy, and capacity (Richards, 2017). Accuracy pertains to the capacity to generate words with precision in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. If our speech or writing is free of linguistic faults, we achieve a high score on this indication. Fluency is the capacity to articulate thoughts effortlessly and utilize linguistic tools to maintain a continuous flow of conversation, therefore preventing any disruptions in the exchange of information. Fluency in writing is exhibited by our capacity to effectively arrange our thoughts clearly, resulting in a smooth and harmonious flow. Complexity pertains to our proficiency in employing intricate language, encompassing a broad spectrum of vocabulary
The English Threshold 15 and grammar. An expert speaker demonstrates a broader range of vocabulary and sentence patterns, in contrast to a beginner speaker who relies on simpler language. Appropriacy refers to the suitability and relevance of the language we employ about the intended purpose, target audience, and specific context of the given scenario. Capacity, in this context, pertains to the extent to which our knowledge can be effectively utilized to discuss and write about a wide range of subjects in different settings, be it formal or informal, and with varying degrees of complexity, ranging from superficial to profound. These performance indicators can be used to describe people's communicative skills at different proficiency levels, such as elementary, intermediate, or advanced. Each level can be subdivided into multiple sublevels for educational and assessment reasons. Therefore, the elementary level can be further categorized into preelementary, elementary, and post-elementary levels. Typically, commercial language training providers employ this classification for instruction and certification. The CEFR (Common European Methodology of Reference) is a widely recognized and respected methodology for assessing language proficiency on an international level. The CEFR has been utilized as a comprehensive framework to delineate the linguistic proficiencies of individuals learning foreign languages,
16 The English Threshold including English, throughout Europe. Currently, Indonesian people including students, English teachers, and educators are familiar with exams such as TOEFL and IELTS (Renandya, Hamied and Nurkamto, 2018). Indonesian people usually take TOEFL and IELTS tests for several purposes. Some of them take the test to pursue a higher degree of education (Gitit I.P., Wacana, Lantu, 2020). Some others take it for completing the requirements in the job application. Therefore, there are a lot of English courses that provide training for test takers. Those training centers offer the study program for some months and also give simulation tests for the test takers. To better explain the status of English proficiency in Indonesia, the discussion must involve the decision that make English a foreign language. English has been given to Indonesian pupils since they were in elementary education and they begin taking the English proficiency test before graduating from varsity education. However, students who study in public schools will only get English when they are in the English class. This occasion is very limited due to time constraints. On the other hand, some students could develop their English proficiency due to better access and exposure to English from their environment.
The English Threshold 17 Understanding the importance of English in Indonesia, the effort of the government to provide English learning for their citizens must be appreciated. Various studies have been written to find out the effective ways to conduct English language learning for Indonesian students. Those studies also reveal some factors that affect English language learning in the Indonesian context. Curriculum, teaching strategies, and students’ perception of English are three essential factors that influence English learning in Indonesia (Jon et al., 2021). The process of learning English in a classroom context is heavily affected by the type of implemented curriculum. The Indonesian government first introduced the Grammar Translation Method to teach English in the past. GTM helps students to translate the English text into Indonesian. After some changes in policies, the implementation of an emancipated curriculum has been widely done in all areas of Indonesia. Teachers begin implementing differentiated instruction to change the approach of traditional learning so that classroom activities can cater to the diverse learning styles of students. In the current curriculum, teachers must
18 The English Threshold acknowledge that students come from various backgrounds and knowledge of English and they possess unique abilities to be developed during the learning process. Teaching strategies play significant roles in English language learning. The teaching strategy deals with the effective and efficient teaching and learning process to achieve learning objectives. The teachers must accept the fact that attracting students’ interest in English will help increase students’ motivation so that they can have autonomous learning. Currently, teachers also need to integrate the use of ICT in the classroom since students need to be exposed to various authentic materials and they are accessible by technology. The last one is about students’ perception of English. Students can have either positive perception or negative perceptions of English. Teachers have a job to identify the perception by gaining students’ views. To promote positive perception, teachers must highlight the benefits of learning English for various purposes. Another side of this perception is about how teachers can reduce the level of students’ anxiety when communicating in English. Teachers can conduct learning activities that cover various learning styles and overcome students’ difficulties.
The English Threshold 19 Nur Hidayati, S.Pd. earning English can be difficult for learners who want to have good English ability (Mohamed AbdAlla AbdAlgane Mohammed, 2020). Students desire to be fluent in speaking, good at writing, understandable in listening, and proficient in reading. However, EFL students in Indonesia face some challenges in linguistics such as pronunciation, phonology, vocabulary and grammar. Students need to learn pronunciation and phonology to help them be able to speak English fluently. Besides L
20 The English Threshold that, it can also assist them in listening. Demir (2017) found that listening and speaking have correlation. Speaking ability is significantly predicted by listening ability. So that’s why pronunciation and phonology can lead to both speaking and listening skills. Learners should focus on two characteristics of English pronunciation: segmental and suprasegmental. These different components interact to reveal the function of the speaker and listener. They play a crucial role in assisting language learners in mastering spoken language by providing them with frequent exposure to those elements. Segmental aspects refer to linguistic characteristics like vowels and consonants that form syllables. Suprasegmental aspects refer to features that reach a single segment or range of vowels and consonants, such as intonation, stress placement, rhythm, and sounds throughout syllables, sentences, and phrases. Figure (1): Features of English Pronunciation (Burns & Claire. S. 2003: 20).
The English Threshold 21 Pronunciation and phonological challenges faced by Indonesian students: 1. English Vowel and Consonant Shift English and Indonesia have different vowels (Fadillah, 2020). Some vowels do not exist in Indonesia such as /æ/ and /ʌ/. It causes Indonesian learners to face difficulties in pronouncing them. When English and Indonesian vowels are merged into words, they take on different phoneme positions. For instance, the phoneme /u/ only occurs in medial and final positions when it comes to English, while it frequently occurs in both beginning and medial and final positions when it comes to Indonesian. In contrast, the phoneme /ə/, although exists in the Indonesian vowel chart, does not occur in the final position of any Indonesian nouns, but it does occur in the English final position. Furthermore, shifts happen between English vowels when Indonesian learners pronounce them. For example, phoneme *e+ into *ε+ as in the words behave or make; and phoneme [e] into [a] as in the words away and betray. There is also the raising of phoneme *a+ into *ε+as in the words nine and five; and phoneme [I] into[i] as in the words forty and beauty.
22 The English Threshold 2. Inconsistency of English Vowel There is no definite formula to pronounce the word in English. Sometimes, the vowel has different pronunciation in each word. This challenge makes students mispronounce some new words. When learning a word, learners often employ variant sounds, such as son /sʌn/, come /kʌm/, among /əmʌŋ/, blood /blʌd/. While /o/ and /oo/ in these words represent the same sound of /ʌ /, most learners pronounce these words incorrectly unless they are proficient in pronouncing vowels. 3. Different Spelling, The Same Pronunciation There are some words in English that have different spelling but have the same sound such as rain, rein, reign, all of them are pronounced /rein/. Homophones, or words that are pronounced the same but have distinct meanings and spellings, are common in English. These linguistics may be challenging for both language learners and native speakers. For example, "there," "their," and "they're'' are homophones with the same sound but different spellings and meanings. Similarly, "two," "to," and "too" are examples of homophones that might be confusing due to their similar sounds. Awareness of the differences between these terms is critical for efficient communication in written and spoken
The English Threshold 23 English, emphasizing the significance of vocabulary development and contextual awareness in language learning. Having a rich vocabulary is highly essential since it may assist students develop other English abilities such as listening, speaking, writing, and reading. Vocabulary is the foundation in learning English. Without knowing the words in English, people cannot use the language. According to Graves (2016), from the beginning of first grade to the completion of high school, a linguistically advantaged students should gain around 40,000 words to their oral and reading vocabulary. That means students have to learn around 3,300 new words every year, or slightly more than 90 words per week (during a 36-week school year). However, some students struggle with language mastering and hence lack sufficient vocabulary. It disrupts their English-learning process. 1. Synonym Challenges Students may find it challenging to understand the subtle changes in meaning or connotation that exist between synonyms. For example, the words ‚fast‛, ‚quick‛, ‚rapid‛, ‚speed‛ have the same
24 The English Threshold meaning. Students struggle how to use the suitable words based on the context. A synonym may be familiar to students in one context but difficult to use in another context. Some synonyms are employed idiomatically in specific phrases or collocations. Many words have more than one meaning, and many synonyms could be used to express the same meaning in various contexts. It might be difficult for students to go through these many interpretations and choose the right synonym in a particular situation. 2. Spelling and Pronunciation The English alphabet differs from Bahasa Indonesia. It creates differences in English pronunciation. For example, while spelling their names in English, students should utilize the English alphabet sound rather than the Bahasa Indonesia sound. It also happens when they speak English words that contain English sounds. When students first start studying English vocabulary, they find it unusual and difficult to recall the words due to the differences in pronunciation. Some terms are also difficult to say, which causes students to forget the new words. 3. Word Length Word length may be an obstacle for students when they learn unfamiliar words. Longer words may be more difficult to recall, pronounce, and spell.
The English Threshold 25 Longer words may be more challenging to commit to memory, particularly if they lack meaningful components or associations. Students may struggle to recall the word's meaning or usage when faced with a lengthy and unfamiliar term. Longer words can be more difficult to decode or break down into meaningful parts, especially for students who are still developing their morphological awareness or knowledge of word roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Longer words may appear less frequently in everyday conversation, reducing students’ exposure and opportunity to learn these phrases. Students may prioritize mastering shorter, more commonly used words over longer and less familiar ones. Grammar is the study of language rules and structure, such as sentence structure, punctuation, and parts of speech. Grammar is essential to be learnt by the students. It can make the students’ fluency and accuracy improved. They must comprehend the English grammar or structure before they can begin processing the language. Grammar in speaking and writing may also be used to assess students' English proficiency. Grammar makes communication easier. Grammar allows students to make
26 The English Threshold meaning of words. However students have challenges to improve their grammar knowledge. There are three main problems faced by students in learning and understanding grammar: 1. Problems in Using Tenses Tenses have become one of the problems for students when they learn English. Students face difficulties in applying the aspect and tense in the appropriate context, first language interference, a lack of practice repetition, and students' confidence in their language skills (Listia & Febriyanti, 2020). The students have difficulties distinguishing each tenses. Furthermore, they do not understand how to apply the tenses appropriately. The findings suggest that numerous variables contribute to difficulty in learning tenses (Damis et al., 2024). These factors include differences in tense structures between the original language and English, restricted usage of tenses in everyday life, and teaching techniques that are less engaging and stimulating for students. Furthermore, many students struggle with recognizing the right time and events for each tense, as well as distinguishing between verb modifications.
The English Threshold 27 2. Morphological and Syntactic Problems L2 learners often learn lexical morphemes first, then intra-phrasal morphemes, and finally into phrasal morphemes (Burhansyah et al., 2020). In the lexical morpheme set, morphemes can be formed by lexical operations, such as conceptualization, which results in markers on nouns and verbs. This procedure does not need grammatical information sharing since diacritical properties are indicated on only one element or part of the sentence. Understanding the connection between paradigms and syntagms is important for learning English beyond just word meaning comprehension but also meanings but also identifying various morphological forms and patterns of the same words (Purwanto, 2024). Therefore, it causes the students to face difficulties in improving their grammar knowledge and usage. 3. Remembering English Grammar Rules There are a lot of rules in grammar such as subject-verb agreement, verb, pronoun usage, articles, word order, modifier and comparative, modal verbs, etc. It causes the students to have difficulties in remembering the rules (Sujarwati & Sofyan, 2022). It may happen because of the lack of students’ motivation, teachers’ teaching strategy, and the use of media. Teachers’ role in teaching grammar is
28 The English Threshold significant. Teachers should encourage the students to have awareness and willingness in learning grammar. In addition, they employ effective teaching techniques to help the students grasp the grammar easily and enjoy the learning process. Furthermore, it is significant to use interesting and interactive media to make the learning process more meaningful.
The English Threshold 29 Diyah Herawati, S.S. he use of the English language in the scope of education is different from the English language used every day when communicating with family or society. When interacting with people in everyday life, the language tends to be easy and not too formal, and sometimes slang is even used. In discussing the realm of bilingual education, (Cummins, no date) refers to this ability as Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS). He defines this term as the ability to involve context-embedded, daily communication, such as the language shared by family members at the dinner table. Meanwhile, in the scope of formal education, the use of English academic language with more complex structures is inevitable. According to (Cummins, no date), the ability to use this language is called Cognitive Academic Language T
30 The English Threshold Proficiency (CALP). It is an ability to use a language one needs for academic and higher-order cognitive purposes and for discussing topics where subject-specific vocabulary is required, such as a discussion about the theory of evolution. This ability is, of course, needed in the learning process in class, both in terms of understanding textbooks, writing articles or research assignments, or when discussing with teachers and friends. The notion of academic language is specific to the context of schooling, and thus, it is called ‚academic.‛ This is in line with Schleppegrell’s (2004) definition, which states that this type of language refers to the language used by the teachers and students in school to acquire a new or more profound understanding of the content and to communicate that understanding to others. Gottlieb and Ernst-Slavit (2014) also added that academic language is characterized by the specific linguistic features related to academic disciplines that include discourse features, grammatical constructions, and vocabulary across different language domains and content areas. Thus, it can be said that academic language is a language used at school to comprehend textbooks and subjects, discuss
The English Threshold 31 topics, or write ideas, and the form is more formal and set by specific rules. From the definitions, it can be understood that using this language requires further understanding. Proficiency in the use of academic language is assessed as an achievement at an advanced level after students become proficient in their colloquial language. Hence, Schleppegrell and O’Halloran (2011) mentioned that students encounter these disciplinary registers in their secondary years. Regarding the complexity of academic language, special instruction in learning activities is required. This is different from everyday language learning processing, which can be learned naturally and does not require special instructions. Therefore, language teachers must pay attention to the components of academic language when teaching students English academic language. Like the proficiency skills in using language proposed by previous scientists, academic language proficiency also has four components: the oral, written, auditory, and visual language proficiency required to learn effectively in schools and educational programs. From those components, Gottlieb and Ernst-Slavit (2014) propose three fundamental domains of academic language.
32 The English Threshold 1. Vocabulary for word/phrase level: refers to the words and phrases used in discipline-specific language, both written and spoken. For example, it is commonly found words such as congruent, integral, or theorem when studying mathematics or words such as syntax, pragmatics, or sociolinguistic when learning language. Then, the general vocabulary of academic languages, such as analyze, paradigm, or hypothesize. 2. Grammatical structures for sentence level: This level focuses on grammatical structures, language forms, and conventions that characterize academic language. These patterns are encountered primarily in textbooks, assessments, and school-based tasks. 3. Language function for discourse level: This domain refers to the larger form of language—their organization and how they are both coherent and cohesive. It involves oral and written language use in varying social contexts beyond the sentence level (Gottlieb and Ernst-Slavit, 2014). These dimensions of academic language cannot be separated and thus must be combined in the four proficiencies of academic language, as mentioned previously.
The English Threshold 33 According to research results titled Defining and Measuring Academic Success by York et al. (2015), educational success is commonly seen from a student’s grade and GPA, which are the primary measurement tools. These two things can tell whether a student is successful or not in his/her academics. Many researchers have revealed that many variables influence whether students are thriving academically. One of the inevitable variables put forward by many scholars is academic language proficiency. Academic language proficiency, as one of the essential roles in educational success, serves as the bridge between students' everyday language skills and the specialized language required in academic settings. Many studies have proven this statement, one of which is research from (Pranita Devi, no date), who stated that the higher the students’ proficiency in academic English, the higher their academic achievement shown by the student’s GPA (Grade Point Average). In contrast, the lower the students’ proficiency in academic English, the lower their academic achievement. This result is in accordance with those of (Alrasheed, Alnashwan and Alshowiman, 2021), (GeideStevenson, 2018), (Sahragard, Baharloo and Soozandehfar,
34 The English Threshold 2011) that found a positive significant relationship between proficiency in academic English and academic achievement. Furthermore, Dev and Qiqieh’s (2016) research revealed a significant correlation between academic English language proficiency and achievement in English speaking in discussion and writing subjects. This underscores the crucial role that academic language proficiency plays in students' ability to communicate and excel in academic tasks effectively. Furthermore, the research sheds light on the intricate relationship between language proficiency and academic success, suggesting the need for targeted interventions to support students' linguistic development. Knowing this significance, teachers must pay attention to the four primary components of academic language as well as its domains, as mentioned in the previous subchapter. Schools and educators must prioritize the development of academic language skills among all students, ensuring that they have the necessary linguistic resources to thrive academically. This includes providing targeted instruction and support for English Language Learners (ELLs) and other students who may struggle with academic language demands. Furthermore, educational institutions should adopt curricula and teaching strategies that explicitly address the development of academic
The English Threshold 35 language proficiency, integrating language learning objectives into the broader educational goals. By doing so, schools can better prepare students for the linguistic demands of higher education and the workforce, thereby enhancing their prospects for academic and career success. As previously explained, mastering academic language skills is paramount in the pursuit of academic success. However, for Indonesian students, this endeavor comes with its own set of challenges, especially in academic writing skills (Wahyuningsih, 2018; Toba, Noor and Sanu, 2019; Boy Jon et al., 2021; Muflihun and Tohamba, 2021). Although many studies mention challenges in developing academic English proficiency among Indonesian students in only one of the four necessities in language competencies (writing skills), these challenges can be generalized to the rest of the competencies (listening, speaking, and reading). As explained in previous research, these challenges are related to foreign linguistics, lack of exposure to English language usage habits, and so on. Indonesia's diverse
36 The English Threshold linguistic landscape, coupled with varying educational backgrounds and socio-economic factors, presents hurdles in acquiring and honing proficiency in academic language. According to Wahyuningsih (2018), the general challenges in developing academic language skills among Indonesian students are the lack of both intensive and extensive reading and limited exposure to English vocabulary. Then, specifically in writing, the difficulties are in starting to write and a lack of interest in writing English. Hidayati (2018) also added that internal and external factors contribute to the challenges that teachers confront in enhancing students’ academic language proficiency. The internal factors she proposed are linguistic competence, native language interference, motivation, and the learners' reading habits. In contrast, the external ones, more specifically on difficulties in writing skills, include class conditions, aids available for teaching writing, and the availability of time, which tends to be limited. Furthermore, research conducted by Muflihun and Tohamba (2021) revealed that in academic writing skills, the participants initially had common challenges such as developing critical thinking, avoiding plagiarism, sentence structure, and few practices or training in academic
The English Threshold 37 writing. Critical thinking covers students’ ability to analyze, evaluate, infer, and interpret an idea. Those deficiencies affected their understanding of how plagiarism could be avoided or even minimized. Moreover, other challenges found were less understanding of English grammar and a lack of academic writing practices. In academic literacies, it was revealed that the students in the research group had quite a few interactions with academic English, which influenced students’ ability to produce academic writing. These findings are in accordance with research conducted by Toba, Noor and Sanu (2019) that disclose some problems encountered by students in writing aspects, including content, organization, vocabulary, grammar, and mechanics. It is because not only limited knowledge of writing aspects and comparison and contrast essay itself, but also they had their reasons: lack of writing practice, writing dislike, writing anxiety, negative writing perception, low writing motivation, insufficient time given in writing tests, and inadequate teaching writing process taught by their lecturers. To sum up, the challenges in developing academic language skills among Indonesian students most frequently found in previous research are language diversity, limited exposure to academic discourse and pedagogical approaches, and cultural factors, including
38 The English Threshold attitudes, perceptions, and motivations toward academic language learning. By implementing strategies that prioritize language enrichment, foster a culture of inquiry, and provide equitable access to resources, Indonesian students can overcome these challenges and unlock their full potential in academic settings.