Hum 2 – ETHICS 1
Lesson 1 – INTRODUCTION
A. Definition of Philosophy
There are two ways to define Philosophy.
1. Etymological Definition
Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher first coined the term Philosophy. It came from
the two Greek words; philos which means love and sophia which means
wisdom. That is why its literal meaning is ‘love of wisdom’.
2. Essential definition
Philosophy is classically defined as the search for meaning. The ‘search’ means
to look for something more, to probe, to go beyond. For many, philosophy is
being described as ‘science of all sciences’; as ‘mother of all sciences’, or the
‘search for the ultimate meaning of reality’.
Philosophy in its broadest sense is the human’s attempt to think speculatively,
reflectively and systematically about the universe and their relationship to that
universe. The most significant task of philosophy is to evaluate the totality of the
human experience. It does not create or invent new facts but instead, takes an in-
depth and comprehensive view about the given ideas, facts or events. In other
words, philosophy is an examination of life upon which one will formulate a
fundamental principle as a standard for a more organize ideas where human life and
experience is based upon. Additionally, philosophy is a study that seeks to
understand the mysteries of existence and reality. It aims to find out the basic value
and importance of life. In short, philosophy is the examination of life.
B. Importance of Philosophy
1. It develops a cultured, well-defined and well-rounded individual
2. It allows students to develop their abilityto comprehend, systematize learning
and enhance their critical thinking ability
3. It allow students to develop their own philosophy in life
4. It provides students with fundamental views in coping with the changing
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demands and ethical problems
5. It allows to develop holistic view of life
6. It helps to come up with right decision, better understanding of fellow humans
and that of one’s self
C. Major Disciplines in Philosophy
1. Logic. The study of right and sound reasoning.
2. Epistemology. The study of validity of knowledge.
3. Metaphysics. It explains the fundamental concept of being.
4. Aesthetics. It is the philosophical study of beauty.
5. Cosmology. It deals with the study of real thing the universe.
6. Theodicy. The study of God and His nature.
7. Social Philosophy. The study of human and their relation to society.
8. Ethics. The science of the morality of human acts.
D. Imperatives of Ethics
1. Human Freedom. Freedom is an inherent human power to act or not to act that
makes them responsible for their actions. In the absence of human freedom,
Ethics will be irrelevant.
2. Existence of God. The salient factor that makes sense in the study of ethics is
the presence of God. Without God’s existence that postulates human’s belief,
humans find no reason to do good and avoid evil.
3. Immortality of the Soul. Life after earth, where the soul believed to perpetuate,
good deeds are rewarded and evil doers are punished, is the reason to lead a
better life. Immortality of the soul is the cornerstone in ethics.
References:
Agdalpen, Renato T. and Francisco Joether. (2019). Ethics Ako at ang Kagandahang
Asal Bilang Isang Filipino. Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Buenaflor, Lionel E. (2018). Unraveling the Absolute Moral Principle: Ethics for
Filipino Students. Book Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyong City
Leano Jr., Roman D. and Gubia-on, Arthur B. (2018). Ethics for College Students.
Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 1
Lesson 2 - ETHICS DEFINED
Because of the development of science and technology, man’s concept of goodness has
changed. Before, his concept of goodness is related so much on norms of morality. But
when the human person began to taste a more pleasurable life brought about by
technological advancements, man’s concept of goodness is now related to the physical
pleasures. For this reason, the greatest issue in the modern times now lies on the
problem of morality. With the human person’s inclination to pleasure; he began looking
at things as moral if it provides pleasure for the human person and if it prevents him from
suffering pain.
A. Ethics defined
▪ Ethics comes from the Greek word “ethos”, which means customs, usage, or
character. It is the traditional manners, customs, habits, character or attitude of a
community or a group, which pertains to the group’s standards or norms. In other
words, ethics is a set of rules of human behavior, which has been influenced by the
standards set by the society or by himself in relation to his society (Reyes 1989)
▪ Ethics is more clearly defined as “practical and normative science, based on reason,
which studies human acts, and provides norms for their goodness and badness
(Timbreza 1993, 3).
▪ As a practical science, ethics deals with a systematized body of knowledge that is
applicable to human action. The primary consideration of Ethics is the application of
human knowledge and its practicality to human experience.
▪ As a normative science, ethics sets a basis or a norm for the direction and regulation
of human actions. It sets its rules and guidelines to maintain a sense of direction to
human actions. As normative science, ethics aids man in distinguishing whether one’s
action can be considered good or bad.
▪ Ethics is a science, it should, therefore, be based on reason. All ethical theories and
all moral decisions must have its basis from the power of reason.
▪ Ethics studies human acts. Human acts are those actions that are done by the human
person based on knowledge and the full consent of the will. Acts of man are those
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actions that are done in the absence of either knowledge or will or of both knowledge
and will.
▪ Ethics provides norms for the goodness and badness of a certain act.
B. Branches of Ethics
▪ First is Normative Ethics in which actions are judged by their merits, allowing
societies to develop codes of conduct for behaviour. The Golden Rule, do unto others
as you would have them do unto you, is a classic example of normative ethics, since
you are determining morality through your actions.
▪ Descriptive Ethics try and define how people should act, descriptive ethics ask what
do people this is moral. This branch of ethics does not actually claim that things are
right or wrong, but simply studies how individuals or societies define their morals.
C. The Importance of Studying Ethics
▪ It satisfies basic human needs
▪ It creates credibility
▪ It unites people and leaders
▪ It improves decision making
▪ It brings long term gains
▪ It secures the society
D. Ethics and Its relation to other Sciences
1. Ethics and Logic. Ethics is understood as the science of right living. Logic is defined
as the science and art which helps the human mind to distinguish between the correct
from the incorrect arguments. In other words, Logic deals with the method of acquiring
right thinking. A human person will not be able to acquire the knowledge of right living
without having obtained the knowledge of right thinking first. No person can live
properly or morally without first thinking rightly or logically.
2. Ethics and Psychology. Psychology comes from the Greek words psyche which
means “soul” and logos which means “study” or “science”. From the point of view of
the philosophers, the soul is the principle of life and the principle of the human
thoughts. They believed that the soul is the source of reason, and therefore, the
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source of the behaviour of the human person. In other words, the soul is that which
makes a ma think and behave. Ethics is connected with psychology because both
sciences deal with the study of man, the human nature and the human behaviour. If
psychology studies how a man behaves, ethics deals with how man ought to behave.
This oughtness in behaviour presupposes proper living. Ethics is the means in order
for the human person to have a kind of behaviour appropriate to a human person.
3. Ethics and Sociology. Sociology is the study of the relations of man to a society.
This relation of man to his society is based on proper order, which can only be
acquired through the proper observance of the moral laws and principles. Since
Ethics deals with the moral order, which necessarily includes the social order, it is
therefore, proper to say that Ethics and Sociology are related to one another.
4. Ethics and Economics. Ethics became connected to economics because as one
works to earn a living, he has to consider others. As a social being, man should always
bear in mind that he must also consider the welfare of others and not only his own
welfare.
5. Ethics and Education. Education plays a very important role in the life of people as
it gives direction, goal worth and meaning to human beings. In order to help the
students in making his life’s goal and direction clearer, it is necessary to integrate
Ethics into the curricula. Students must be taught the importance of correct living so
that by doing so, they will be able to realize that this life should be made truly worth
living for (Montemayor, 11).
6. Ethics and Law. Both Ethics and Law deal with the rightness and goodness. The
only difference is that Law deals with the external acts of man, while Ethics deals with
the internal acts, which include his thoughts and desires (Montemayor). Law should
be connected with Ethics because a human person who follows a law must be able to
understand why such law should be followed in order to make the following of law
worthwhile and meaningful; otherwise, man will only follow a law just because he
wanted to avoid punishment. Such following of laws will not be considered good in
the ethical viewpoint. In this case, Law and Ethics should go together in order to
comprise the holistic goodness of the human person.
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7. Ethics and Aesthetics. Aesthetics comes from the Greek word (Aisthesis), which
means “order” or “harmony”. Ethics is aiming to obtain a harmonious life with the
people in the community. Ethics deal with moral goodness which can be obtained
when one learns to live well in a community. As Ethics deals with moral goodness it
is related to Aesthetics because goodness and beauty are very much intertwined.
8. Ethics and Politics. Politics aims towards the attainment of good government which
centers on ensuring the temporal welfare of its citizens (Montemayor). In order to
attain good government, both the leaders and their subordinates must necessarily
learn to live a moral life. Hence, if we separate ethics from politics, the goal of politics,
which is centered on the attainment of the common good, will never be realized.
9. Ethics and Religion. Both ethics and Religion are connected to one another because
they are both based on same postulates, i.e., the existence of a Creator, the freedom
of the will in man and the retribution in the afterlife. Ethics and Religion have the same
end, i.e., the attainment of man’s supreme purpose on an ultimate end. And both will
definitely describe the right living as the means for attaining the goal of man (Timbreza,
4)
E. Ethics and Morals
Every day we encounter moral and ethical issues. Ethics and morals define the
personality, attitude and behavior of a person. The term moral is derived from a Latin
word “mos” which means custom while the word ethics is from the Greek work “ethikos”
which means character. Morals are the customs established by group of individuals
whereas ethics defines the character of an individual. Also, morals are concerned with
principles of right and wrong while ethics is related to right and wrong conduct of an
individual in a particular situation. Many use the term interchangeably, but there are slight
differences between morals and ethics.
Basically, ethics and morality are set of rules that govern human actions to ensure mutual
respect and cooperation.
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F. Rules
Collin’s Dictionary defined rules as instructions that tell what we are allowed to do
and what we are not allowed to do. Rules refer to a set of guidelines which have been
put in place in different countries and communities and have been accepted by all. They
are given to help us achieve success and meet common goals in society. Additionally,
rules are imperative statements to govern human conduct in addressing specific and
peculiar situations to sustain orderly and healthy human relations. When used
appropriately, rules provide a sense of predictability and consistency for people, thereby
promoting physical, moral, social and emotional safety.
Ethics is concerned with other people’s interests, with the interest of society, with
God’s interests, with “ultimate goods”, and so on. So when a person ‘thinks ethically’
they are giving at least some thought to something beyond themselves. At the heart of
ethics is a concern about something or someone other than ourselves and our own
desires and self-interest.
Rules are defined in several ways:
1. Rules are instructions that tell you what you are allowed to do and what you are not
allowed to do.
2. A rule is a statement telling people what they should do in order to achieve success
or a benefit of some kind.
3. Rules are statement that describe the way things usually happen in a particular
situation.
4. Ruel tells you the normal state of affairs.
5. Rules influence or restrict actions in a way that is not good for a person.
6. Rules tell us something that is true or should happen and then the authority has
officially decided that it is true.
7. Rules are principles or regulations governing conduct, action, procedure,
arrangement, etc.
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Importance of Rule
▪ protect the weaker class in the society
▪ provide a stable environment and human co-existence in a society
▪ maintain peace and order
G. Key Differences between Morals and Ethics (Grannan, 2018)
1. Morals deals with what is ‘right or wrong’. Ethics deals with what is ‘good or evil’.
2. Morals are general guidelines framed by the society. Ethics is a response to a
particular situation
3. Morals are dictated by society, culture or religion while Ethics is chosen by the person
himself who governs his life under the dictate of right reason.
4. Morals may vary from society and culture to culture. As opposed to Ethics, this
remains same regardless of any culture, religion or society.
5. Morals are expressed in the form of statements, while the principles of Ethics are
translated into an explicit action.
References:
Corpuz, B. Corpuz R. (2020). Ethics. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City
Agdalpen, Renato T. and Francisco Joether. (2019). Ethics Ako at ang Kagandahang
Asal Bilang Isang Filipino. Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Buenaflor, Lionel E. (2018). Unraveling the Absolute Moral Principle: Ethics for Filipino
Students. Book Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyong City
Leano Jr., Roman D. and Gubia-on, Arthur B. (2018). Ethics for College Students.
Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Ariola, Mariano M. (2018). Ethics. Unlimited Books Library Services and Publishing Inc.
Manila
6
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 1
Lesson 3 - THE MORAL and NON-MORAL STANDARDS
A. Moral Standards and Non-Moral Standards
Moral standards are either consequences standards (like Stuart Mill’s
utilitarianism) or non-consequence standards (like Aristotle’s virtue, St. Thomas natural
law or Immanuel Kant’s good will or sense of duty)
The consequence standards are based on the natural law. Natural law is the law
of God revealed through human reason. It is the “law of God written in the hearts of men.”
To preserve human life is in accordance with the natural law, therefore it is moral.
Likewise, the non-consequence standard may also be based on good will or intention,
and on a sense of duty. Respect for humanity, treatment of the other as a human person,
an act that is moral, springs from a sense of duty, a sense of duty that you wish will apply
to all human persons. Moral standards Involve the rules people have about the kinds of
actions they believe are morally right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the
kinds of objects they believe are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicists equate
moral standards with moral values and moral principles.
On the other hand, non-moral standards are social rules, demands of etiquette
and good manners. They are guides of action which should be followed as expected by
society. Sometimes they may not be followed or some people may not may not follow
them. From time to time, changes are made regarding good manners or etiquette. In
sociology, non-moral standards or rules are called folkways. In short, non-moral actions
are those where moral categories cannot be applied.
Example of non-moral standards are rules of good manners and right conduct,
etiquette, rules of behavior set by parents, teachers and standards of grammar or
language, standards of arts, standards of sports set by other authorities.
An indicator whether or not a standard is moral or non-moral lies in its compliance
as distinguished from its non-compliance. Non-compliance with moral standards causes
a sense of guilt, while non-compliance with a non-moral standard may only cause shame
or embarrassment.
B. Theories of Moral Standards
Garner and Rose (1967) classified the various moral standards formulated by moral
philosophers as follows:
a. Consequence standard
b. Not-only consequence standard
Consequence (teleological from tele which means end, result, or consequence)
standard states that an act is right or wrong depending on the consequences of the act,
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that is, the good that is produced in the world. The consequence standard can also be a
bases for determining whether or not a rule is a right rule. So the consequence standard
states that the rightness or wrongness of a rule depends on the consequences or the
good that is produced in following the rule.
Not-only consequence standard (deontological) holds that the rightness or
wrongness of an action or rule depends on sense of duty, natural law, virtue and the
demand of the situation or circumstances. The rightness or wrongness of an action does
not only depend or rely on the consequence of that action or following that rule.
Natural law and virtue ethics are deontological moral standards because their
basis for determining what is right or wrong does not depend on consequences but on
the natural law and virtue. Situation ethics, too, is deontological because the rightness
or wrongness of an act depends on situation and circumstances requiring or demanding
exception to rule.
C. What Makes Standards Moral?
For theists, believes in God’s existence, moral standards are commandments of
God revealed to man through prophets. According to Old Testament, the Ten
Commandments were revealed by God to Moses. One who believes in God vows to Him
and obliges himself/herself to follow His Ten Commandments. For theists, God is the
ultimate source of what is moral revealed to human persons.
For non-theists, God is not the source of morality. Moral standards are based on
the wisdom of sages like Confucius or philosophers like Immanuel Kant.
D. Man as a Moral Agent
A moral agent is a being that is “capable of acting with reference to right and
wrong”. A moral agent is anything that can be held responsible for behavior or decisions.
“It is moral agents who have rights and responsibilities, because it is moral agents whom
we take to have choices and the power to choose”. If you not believe that anything or
anyone should ever be blamed or deemed responsible, then you are going against the
idea or moral agency, and denying the concept of responsibilities and rights.
A moral agent is an intelligent being who has the power of choosing and scope to
act according to his choice, one to whom the Supreme Governor has given a cognizable
law, with its proper sanction, by which to regulate his volitions and actions, and who is
placed in circumstances which present no physical obstruction, either to obedience or
disobedience. Moral action therefore is action which springs from choice, and not
necessitated either by mental propulsions or external circumstances: intelligent, free and
accountable.
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When something or someone is deemed a moral agent, it does not necessarily
mean that they are successfully making moral decisions. That means moral agents are
in a category that enables them to be blamed. Being a moral agent means that they can
be held responsible for their decisions and behaviors, whether they are good or bad.
A moral agent is a living creature who is capable of comprehending abstract moral
principle and applies them in making decisions. They must have “self-consciousness,
memory, moral principles, other values and the reasoning faculty, which allows him to
devise plans for achieving his objectives, to weigh alternatives and so on. To become a
moral agent, you must live in a world of scarcity rather than paradise. Also, it is the one
who possesses the means of judging rightly, and power to act accordingly; but whether
he will do so or not, depends on the voluntary exercise of his faculties.
References:
Agdalpen, Renato T. and Francisco Joether. (2019). Ethics Ako at ang Kagandahang
Asal Bilang Isang Filipino. Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Buenaflor, Lionel E. (2018). Unraveling the Absolute Moral Principle: Ethics for Filipino
Students. Book Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyong City
Leano Jr., Roman D. and Gubia-on, Arthur B. (2018). Ethics for College Students.
Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
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Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 1
Lesson 4 - STANDARDS AND DILEMMAS
A. Moral Standards vs. Non-Moral Standards
Moral standards People sometimes
▪ Involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe are confuse legality and
morally right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of
objects they believe are morally good and morally bad. morality, butthey are
▪ Some ethicists equate moral standards with moral values and moral differentthings. On
one hand, breaking
principles.
Non-moral standards the law is not always
▪ Refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations. or necessarily
▪ Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by nature
immoral. On theother
lack ethical sense. hand, the legality of
▪ Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of etiquette, fashion an action does not
guarantee that itis
standards, rules in games, and various house rules. morally right.
▪ Technically, religious rules, some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. laws
and ordinances) are non-moral principles, though they can be ethically
relevant depending on some factors and contexts.
▪ Etiquette refers to the norms of correct conduct in polite society or, more
generally, to any special code of social behavior or courtesy. These are the common rules of
politeness.
▪ Statutes are laws enacted by legislative bodies.
B. Formation of Moral Standards
Moral standards are influenced by a variety of factors such as the moral principles we accept as
part of our upbringing, values passed on to us through heritage or legacy, the religious values
that we imbibed from childhood, the values that were showcase during the period of our education,
the behavior pattern of those who are around us, the explicit and implicit standards of our culture,
our life experiences and more importantly our critical reflections on these experiences.
C. Characteristics of Moral Standards
These characteristics further differentiate them from non-moral standards:
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1. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
2. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.
3. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.
4. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
5. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
6. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.
D. Moral Dilemmas
▪ It is conflict in which you have to choose between two or more actions and have moral reasons
for choosing each action.
Moral dilemma is a situation where:
1. You are presented with two or more actions, all of which you have the ability to perform.
2. There are moral reasons for you to choose each of the actions.
3. You cannot perform all of the actions and have to choose which actions or actions when there
are three or more choices, to perform.
Moral Dilemma in the Organization
1. Senior leaders fail to “walk the talk”
2. Leaders often have irrational sense of entitlement
3. Individuals may begin cutting corners due to misplaced incentives
4. Individuals may also feel the need to be obedient to authority even when they are being asked
to do something they feel is wrong.
5. Individuals also have the need for closure, which can lead to conflict avoidance.
6. Defensive “logic” is prevalent.
References:
Agdalpen, Renato T. and Francisco Joether. (2019). Ethics Ako at ang Kagandahang
Asal Bilang Isang Filipino. Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Buenaflor, Lionel E. (2018). Unraveling the Absolute Moral Principle: Ethics for Filipino
Students. Book Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyong City
Leano Jr., Roman D. and Gubia-on, Arthur B. (2018). Ethics for College Students.
Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 1
Lesson 4 –THE FILIPINO WAY
Filipino culture is influenced by most of the people we have interacted with. A blend of
Malayo-Polynesian and Hispanic culture with the influence from Asian cultures really
contribute to the customs and traditions of Filipinos.
A. The Filipino Customs and Traditions
Our culture makes us different from the rest of the world. In giving respect to
elders we Filipino practice “pagmamano”. When young people greet elders they take the
right hand of the elders with their right hand and place the back of the elder’s hand lightly
on their forehead. While doing it, young people will utter “mano po”. Mano is a Spanish
word for “hand” while po is used at the end of the sentence while addressing someone
who is elder or superior.
Also, we Filipinos are known for being hospitable. Visitors are treated with utmost
respect. This trait is seen during fiestas and holidays where many Filipinos are giving
their best to entertain their visitors. Below are some of the customs and traditions that
we should know as Filipino.
1. Close family ties. It is one of the outstanding and unique cultural values among
Filipino. The family takes care of each other. Loyalty to the family are shown by
simply obeying the authorities.
2. Bayanihan. It is the spirit of communal unity or effort to achieve a particular objective.
Known example of bayanihan is the neighbors carrying a hut or house to a new
location. This is the expression of community spirit nowadays. People give what they
have without expecting anything in return.
3. Courtship. Serenading or harana in Tagalog is one of the most popular forms of
courtship to show that a man is very serious with his intentions to a woman.
4. Religion. The Philippines is one of the predominantly Roman Catholic nations in Asia-
Pacific.
5. Superstition. These beliefs have come from the different sayings and beliefs of our
ancestors that aim to prevent danger from happening or to make a person refrain from
doing something in particular.
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6. Marriage and Wedding Customs. Marriage is a sacred union of man and woman
after a period of courtship and engagement.
7. Death. For many Filipinos, a death of a relative is an opportunity to strengthen ties in
the family. To pay respect and honor the relationship to the deceased, long lost
relatives, friends and even relatives working abroad are reunited.
8. Society. The primary ancestors of Filipinos are Malays who came from the
southeastern country.
9. Christmas. In the Philippines is considered as one of the biggest holidays in the
archipelago. We earned the distinction of celebrating the world’s longest Christmas
season.
10. Fiestas. Held to celebrate a patron saint.
11. Living with parents. Filipinos highly value the presence of family more than anything.
B. CHARACTERISTICS OF FILIPINO CULTURE
1. very resilient
2. take pride in their families
3. very religious
4. very respectful
5. help one another
6. value traditions and culture
7. longest Christmas celebrations
8. love art and architecture
9. hospitable
C. FILIPINO FAMILY VALUES
The center of the social structure is the family. Filipino get strength and stability from their
family. In addition, many children have several godparents.
Nuclear Family
▪ unit composed of father, mother and own children living together
▪ group of people who are united by ties of partnership and parenthood and consisting
of a pair of adults and their socially recognized children
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▪ children in a nuclear family may be the couple’s biological or adopted offspring
Extended Family
▪ an expansion of the nuclear family (parents and dependent children), usually built
around a unilineal descent group (i.e., a group in
which descent through either the female or the male
line is emphasized).
▪ group consisting of a biological family as a nucleus,
together with the kin in the direct or indirect line of
one member or members of the nucleus, or group
consisting of several family nuclei
The Filipino family consists of many traditional values that have been treasured and
passed on for many generations. These values are incredibly beneficial.
1. Paggalang (Respect). Means to be respectful or to give respect to a person.
2. Pakikisama (Helping Others). Getting along with people. This trait fosters general
cooperation and performing good or helpful deeds.
3. Utang na loob (Debt of Gratitude). To pay debt with gratitude.
4. Pagpapahalaga sa pamilya (Prioritizing Family). This implies that a person will
place a high regard on his/her family and prioritize that before anything else.
5. Hiya (Shame). This controls the social behaviors and interactions of a Filipino. It is
the value that drives a Filipino to be obedient and respectful to their parents, older
siblings and other authorities.
6. Damayan System. Extending sympathy for people who lost their loved ones.
7. Compassionate. Trait of being sympathetic to others even the person is a stranger.
8. Fun – loving Trait. A trait that makes Filipino unique that even in times of calamities
and other challenges in life, they always have something to be happy about.
D. SOCIAL VALUES OF THE FILIPINOS
Philippine population is bound together by common values and a common religion. The
Philippine society is characterized by many positive traits. Among these are:
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1. High regard for Amor Propio (Self-esteem). Reflects an individual’s overall
subjective emotional evaluation of his or her own worth. Self-esteem is the beliefs
about oneself.
2. Smooth interpersonal relationship. An interpersonal relationship is the nature of
interaction that occurs between two or more people.
3. Personal alliance system. This scheme is anchored on kinship, beginning with the
nuclear family.
4. The compadre system. Bonds of ritual kinship, sealed on any of three ceremonial
occasions – baptism, confirmation, and marriage – intensify and extend personal
alliances. It is a primary method of extending the group from which one can expect
help in the ways of favors.
5. Utang na loob. A dyadic bond between two individuals formed based on the concept
of utang na loob. Although it is expected that the debtor will attempt repayment, it is
widely recognized that the debt can never be fully repaid and obligation can last for
generations.
6. Suki relationship. It may develop between two people who agree to become regular
customer and supplier.
7. Friendship. Is placed at par with kinship as the most central of Filipino relationships.
E. WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER
1. Passivity and lack of initiative. Acceptance of what happens without active
response or resistance.
2. Colonial mentality. Refers to the attitude the Filipinos feel that the products coming
from other countries are more superior than the local products.
3. Kanya-kanya syndrome. The self-serving attitude that generates a feeling of envy
and competitiveness towards others, particularly one’s peers who seem to have
gained some status or prestige.
4. Extreme personalism. Filipinos view the world in terms of personal relationships and
the extent to which one is able to personally relate things and people determines the
recognition of their existence and the value given to them. This personalism is
manifested in the tendency to give personal interpretation to actions.
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5. Extreme family centeredness. Excessive concern for the family creates an in-group
to which the Filipino is fiercely loyal to the detriment of concern for the larger
community or for the common good.
6. Lack of discipline. Procrastination is one reason of the lack of self-discipline. Lack
of willpower, motivation, and ambition are also caused for a lack of self-discipline.
7. Lack of self-analysis and reflection. There is a tendency in the Filipino to be
superficial and even somewhat flighty. Related to this is the Filipino emphasis on form
(porma) rather than on substance.
8. Ningas cogon. A Filipino attitude of being enthusiastic only during the start of the new
undertaking but ends dismally in accomplishing nothing.
9. Gaya-gaya attitude. A Filipino attitude of imitating or copying other culture specifically
in mode of dressing, language, fashion, rend or even haircut.
References:
Agdalpen, Renato T. and Francisco Joether. (2019). Ethics Ako at ang Kagandahang
Asal Bilang Isang Filipino. Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Buenaflor, Lionel E. (2018). Unraveling the Absolute Moral Principle: Ethics for Filipino
Students. Book Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyong City
Leano Jr., Roman D. and Gubia-on, Arthur B. (2018). Ethics for College Students.
Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 1
Lesson 3 – DYNAMICS OF CULTURE
A. Cultural Relativism
Cultural Relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to
make judgment using the standards of one’s own culture. It is the principle of regarding
the belief, values and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that culture itself. The
goal of this is to promote understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part of
one’s own culture
B. Advantages of Cultural Relativism
1. It promotes cooperation. Differences of perspectives among every individual are
based on their upbringing, experiences, and personal thoughts. By accepting and
embracing the differences among us, the cooperation creates the potential for a
stronger society.
2. It creates society where equality is possible. Cultural relativism allows the
individual to define their moral code without defining the moral code of others. With
this principle, each person is separate in society. That separation creates equality
because each person can set his/her own definition of success.
3. It allows people to pursue a genuine interest. In cultural relativism, you are not
being restricted to pursue your own interests. People can set the definitions of what
they can have and what they cannot have. When implemented successfully, each
person would get to focus on his/her strengths instead of his/her weaknesses.
4. In cultural relativism, respect is encouraged. People from different cultures have
different ideas. They also have different definitions of success. From that process,
a natural level of respect is built.
5. It preserves human cultures. Diverse set of thoughts, traditions, ideas and
practices are found in humanity. There are instances in which these traditions of
humanity are set aside so that a set of standards can be settled. But with cultural
relativism, this will not happen.
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 2
6. Cultural relativism creates society without judgment. Judgement doesn’t exists
in the theory of cultural relativism. Instead of worrying about others, you only worry
about yourself. The only person judges you is your own self.
7. Moral relativism can be excluded from cultural relativism. Under the theory of
cultural relativism, each culture is treated as an individual. Here, the moral codes of
a culture can be defined and an expectation implemented that people follow it. Also
the focus is on the customs of culture and not on the morality that is imposed on
those customs.
8. Personal moral codes can be created based on societal standards with ease.
In this system, individuals are allowed to consult with the standards of their society
or culture in order to determine if a decision would be “right” or “wrong”. This means
the moral codes of a culture and expectation implemented that people follow it. It
also focuses on the customs of the culture not on the morality that is imposed upon
those customs.
9. It stops cultural conditioning. People has the tendency to adapt the attitudes,
thoughts, and beliefs of the people they deal on regular basis. This process is called
cultural conditioning. Cultural conditioning prevents people from having an
individualistic perspective and cultural relativisms stops this.
C. Disadvantages of Cultural Relativism
1. It creates a system that is fueled by personal bias. Naturally, people with similar
thoughts and feelings tend to group together and segregate themselves into
neighborhoods, communities, and social groups. Because of that, they share
specific perspectives. If the people are given the power to define their own moral
code, they will do so based on their own personal bias. Because of that, there is no
longer group perspective, instead people will follow their own code.
2. It would create chaos. Under cultural relativism, there is no right or wrong for
people who follow their own moral code. Instead they would be allowed to do
whatever they want in life. There is no real way to protect people in such society.
Because of that, it creates a system where only the strongest can survive.
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 3
3. It is an idea that is based on the perfection of humanity. Despite the effort of the
people to do good, people can be forgetful, aggressive and has the capacity to lie.
People are not perfect. In the absence of group moral code in place to govern
decisions, anything could happen when we experience these moments of
imperfection.
4. It could promote a lack of diversity. Individualistic point of view is being promoted
in cultural relativism. The only standards that are in place are those which are set by
the individual involved, which means everyone is pursuing his/her own position of
strength. Diversity cannot be created when emphasis of a society is individualistic
gain that can come at the expense of others.
5. It draws people away from one another. Cultural relativism can be a reason for
people to draw apart from one another. C.S. Lewis, in his description of Hell from
The Screwtape Letter, envisions a place where people are constantly going away
from each other to avoid the demons that each person has. The person is uncertain
of what codes and standards another is following. Because of that, person is
inclined for self-preservation that causes them to draw away.
6. It could limit moral progress. Moral progress promotes inclusionary instead of
exclusionary. The laws and customs of the culture reflect this inclusion.
7. It limits humanity’s progress. No definition of success can be implemented
because each is successful in its own way.
8. Cultural relativism can turn perceptions into truth. Bias can becomes a truth
that can be acted upon. The decision to act becomes a righteous one because of
the individual truth that the culture allowed through bias it commits.
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 4
References:
Agdalpen, Renato T. and Francisco Joether. (2019). Ethics Ako at ang Kagandahang
Asal Bilang Isang Filipino. Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Buenaflor, Lionel E. (2018). Unraveling the Absolute Moral Principle: Ethics for Filipino
Students. Book Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyong City
Leano Jr., Roman D. and Gubia-on, Arthur B. (2018). Ethics for College Students.
Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 1
Lesson 2 - CULTURE AND MORALITY
A. Culture
The word culture is derived from the Latin word “cultura” or “cultus” which means care or
cultivation. From that etymology, it implies that every human being is a potential member
of his own social group. Accordingly, Edward B. Tylor defined culture as a complex whole
which includes knowledge, belief, law, art, moral, custom and other capabilities and habits
acquired as a member of society. On the other hand, sociologists defined culture as the
entire way of life followed by people, and everything learned and shared by people in
society.
B. The influence of culture in moral development
1. Culture is always social and communal by
which the relationship of the people towards
one another and their experience as a people
are the culture’s meadow.
2. The culture defines the normative principles
and behaviors of the society.
3. Culture develops restrictions and sets
boundaries and limitations as they live and relate with one another.
4. As culture helps in generating the character and identity of its people.
5. The culture identifies the authorities or the governing individuals or groups.
Culture is very significant in the development of the human person and in moral
development particularly. Culture has a tight grip on the moral development of the people.
Culture is the conditioning principle of the moral development of its members.
Nevertheless, culture as the principle that surrounds the moral development of the people
may not always promote what is good and just for all. It is certain that sometimes there
are principles, attitudes and behaviors that actually hinder good relationships and violate
the welfare of the others. These are indeed difficult to eliminate immediately in a culture,
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 2
yet, they should be subject to people’s discernment that proper changes and
modifications have to be done for the sake of the welfare and justice for everybody.
References:
Agdalpen, Renato T. and Francisco Joether. (2019). Ethics Ako at ang Kagandahang
Asal Bilang Isang Filipino. Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Buenaflor, Lionel E. (2018). Unraveling the Absolute Moral Principle: Ethics for Filipino
Students. Book Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyong City
Leano Jr., Roman D. and Gubia-on, Arthur B. (2018). Ethics for College Students.
Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 1
Lesson 1 - FREEDOM AND MORAL ACTS
For Immanuel Kant, freedom is defined as a concept which is involved in the moral
domain, at the question: what should I do? Freedom is closely linked to the notion of
autonomy, which means law itself: freedom falls obedience to a law that you created
yourself.
To act freely is to act autonomously. To act True human
autonomously is to act according to a law I give myself. freedom is the
Whenever I act according to the laws of nature, demands of ability to choose the
social convention, when I pursue pleasure and comfort, I am best possiblegood.
not acting freely. To act freely is not simply choose a mean to
a given end. To act freely is to choose the end itself, for its
own sake.
The capacity to act autonomously in this manner gives humans that special dignity
that things and animals do not have. Respecting this dignity requires us to treat others
not as means to an end, but as ends in themselves.
A. Categorical Imperative
Categorical imperative is concerned not with the matter of the action and its
presumed results, but with its form, and with the principle form which if follows. What is
essentially good in the action consists in the mental disposition, let the consequence be
what they may.
Categorical imperative is needed for itself, with no other purpose. This is not
subject to any special conditions and is therefore still valid whatever the circumstances.
To cite an example, if honesty is a must then it has to be practiced even if negative results
will compromise one’s academic standing or scholarship.
B. The Role of Freedom in Morality
The personal aspect of morality – which might more properly be called ethics – is
about the cultivation of virtue: the development of character traits so that choosing the
good becomes a matter of habit. But a person, in order to be truly virtuous, must be free
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 2
to cultivate the virtues. There is no virtue in being temperate when you are being forced
not to indulge. There is no virtue in being charitable when someone is forcing you to give
up what yours. Virtue can be guided by cultural traditions and social institutions, but it
cannot be coerced. A virtuous man must also be a free man.
Following rule is the interpersonal aspect of morality. Rule are important to prevent
conflict among people. They also allow us to live together in harmony and to recognize
the rights of others. When some people are permitted to dominate others, they treat
others as merely a means to an end, rather than ends in themselves. With this, basic
dignity within each person will be disregarded and it can also limits the flourishing of
human potential and creativity. Full potential in the human sciences, physical sciences
and creative arts cannot be reached if there is domination in the society.
C. Freedom: The Foundation of Moral Act
Freedom is humans’ greatest quality and it is a reflection of our creator. Freedom
is the power rooted in reason and will, to act or not to act, to do this or that and so to
perform deliberate actions on one’s own responsibility. Having freedom mean having
responsibility. Every action you choose further determines our character.
True freedom is oriented toward the good. We should not understand freedom as
the possibility of doing evil. Evil enslaves us and diminishes our ability to be free. True
freedom requires responsibility. There is no such thing as irresponsible freedom.
References:
Agdalpen, Renato T. and Francisco Joether. (2019). Ethics Ako at ang Kagandahang
Asal Bilang Isang Filipino. Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Buenaflor, Lionel E. (2018). Unraveling the Absolute Moral Principle: Ethics for Filipino
Students. Book Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyong City
Leano Jr., Roman D. and Gubia-on, Arthur B. (2018). Ethics for College Students.
Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 1
Lesson 1 – BASIC UNIVERSAL VALUES
A. Basic Universal Values
The term value is a quality used to assign the moral characteristics that are inherent
in a subject piety, responsibility, secularism, respect, etc. On the other hand, the
term universal is an adjective that is related to what belongs or which relates to the
universe. Also, this term refers to the set of all things created and what is common
to all its kind. With these definitions, we are able to approach the notion of universal
values. Universal values are formed by implied behavioural standards that are
necessary to live in a harmonious and peaceful society.
B. Schwartz Concepts of Universal Values
▪ S. H. Schwartz, along with number of psychology colleagues, has carried out
empirical research investigating whether there are universal values and what
those values are.
▪ Schwartz defined „values‟ as “conceptions of the desirable that influence the way
people select action and evaluate events (Sen, 1999)
▪ Schwartz‟s results from a series of studies that included surveys of more than 25,
000 people in 44 countries with a wide range of different cultural types suggest
that there are fifty-six specific universal values and ten types of universal value.
▪ Below are each of the value types, with the specific related values alongside:
1. Power. Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and
resources.
2. Achievement. Personal success through demonstrating competence
according to social standards.
3. Hedonism. Pleasure or sensuous gratification for oneself.
4. Stimulation. Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.
5. Self – Direction. Independent thought and action – choosing, creating,
exploring.
6. Universalism. Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the
welfare of all people and for nature.
7. Benevolence. Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people with
whom one is in frequent personal contact.
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 2
8. Tradition. Respect, commitment and acceptance of the customs and ideas
that traditional culture or religion provide.
9. Conformity. Restraint of actions, inclinations and impulses likely to upset or
harm others and violate social expectations or norms.
10. Security. Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships and of self.
Schwartz also tested an eleventh possible universal value, „spirituality‟ or the goal of
finding meaning in life, but found that it does not seem to be recognized in all
cultures.
C. UN Charter on Universal Values
Respect for fundamental human rights, social justice and human dignity and respect
for the equal rights of men and women are the values enshrined in the United
Nations (UN) Charter. This serves as predominant values to which suppliers of
goods and services to the UN are expected to adhere. UN Secretary General Kofi
Annan emphasized that Progress, Equal Rights, Human Dignity are acutely
needed in this age of globalization.
Fundamental values as essential to international relations in 21st century
▪ Freedom
▪ Equality
▪ Solidarity
▪ Tolerance
▪ Respect for nature
▪ Shared responsibility
D. Basic Universal Human Values
Most of the basic values aim to make it possible for every human to realize or
maintain the very highest or most basic universal core values of life, love and
happiness.
1. Happiness pertains to the reward for a religious life by an afterlife in Paradise,
Heaven, or Nirvana to enjoy an ultimate and eternal happiness.
2. Peace a basic condition for freedom and happiness
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 3
3. Love feelings or an experience of deep connectedness or oneness with any
other human being, any animal, plant, tree, thing or unnameable.
4. Freedom means the experience of unrestricted and independent of the social
pressure of others.
5. Safety means free of threat, fear and survival – stress.
6. Intelligence capacity for logic, understanding, self – awareness, learning,
emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity and problem solving. It is
the ability to perceive information and to retain it as knowledge to b applied
towards adaptive behaviours within an environment or context.
7. Human respect. Feeling of connectedness which come out of our perception,
empathy and awareness that the other human is basically as we are ourselves.
8. Equality originates from the Latin words aequalis, aequus and aequalitas mean
even, level and equal. Used in political science corresponds to the meaning from
which it originates.
9. Justice the proper administration of the law; the fair and equitable treatment of
all individual under the law.
10. Nature understanding our physical dependence of nature, and our awareness of
being part of it are needed to see the basic value of nature.
11. Health World Health Organization (WHO) defined health as being “a state of
complete physical, mental and social well – being not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity. WHO said that health is “a resource for everyday life.”
E. The Human Dignity
▪ Dignity comes from the Latin word, dignitas which means “worthiness.”
▪ Dignity implies that each person is worthy of honor and respect for who they are,
not just for what they can do. Human dignity cannot be earned and cannot be
taken away.
▪ Dignity is the right of a person to be valued and respected for their own sake, and
to be treated ethically.
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 4
References:
Agdalpen, Renato T. and Francisco Joether. (2019). Ethics Ako at ang
Kagandahang Asal Bilang Isang Filipino. Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Buenaflor, Lionel E. (2018). Unraveling the Absolute Moral Principle: Ethics for
Filipino Students. Book Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyong City
Leano Jr., Roman D. and Gubia-on, Arthur B. (2018). Ethics for College Students.
Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 1
Lesson 2 – DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL CHARACTER
A. Moral Character
It is defined as an idea in which one is unique and can be distinguished from others.
It can assemble qualities and traits that are different from various individuals. It
implies how individuals act or how they express themselves. In other words, it is
“human excellence” or unique thoughts of a character.
B. Importance of having a Strong Moral Character
1. Achieve peace of mind
2. Strengthen trust
3. Build a solid reputation
4. Reduce anxiety
5. Increase leadership effectiveness
6. Build confidence
7. Become a positive role model
8. Live a purpose – driven life
9. Build a strong business
C. Development of Moral Character
1. Define your core values
2. Practice the habits
3. Find people with character
4. Take some risks
5. Stretch yourself
6. Commit to self - improvement
D. Character Traits that Impact One’s Happiness
1. Integrity - Integrity is having strong moral principles and core values and
conducting your life with those as your guide.
2. Honesty - Honesty is more than telling the truth. It’s living the truth. It is being
straightforward and trustworthy in all of your interactions, relationships and
thoughts.
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 2
3. Loyalty - Loyalty is faithfulness and devotion to your loved ones, your friends and
anyone with whom you have a trusted relationship.
4. Respectfulness – You treat yourself and others with courtesy, kindness,
deference, dignity, and civility. You offer respect as a sign of your value for the
worth of all people and your ability to accept the inherent flaws we all possess.
5. Responsibility – You accept personal, relational, career, community and societal
obligations even when they are difficult or uncomfortable.
6. Humility – You have a confidence yet modest opinion of your own self –
importance.
7. Compassion – You feel deep sympathy and pity for the suffering and misfortune
of others, and you have a desire to do something to alleviate their suffering.
8. Fairness – Using discernment, compassion, and integrity, you strive to make
decisions and take actions based on what you consider the ultimate best course
or outcome for all involved.
9. Forgiveness – You make conscious, intentional decisions to let go of resentment
and anger toward someone for an offense.
10. Authenticity – You are able to be your real and true self, without pretension,
posturing or insincerity. You are capable of showing appropriate vulnerability and
self-awareness.
11. Courageousness – Inspite of fear of danger, discomfort or pain, you have the
mental fortitude to carry on with a commitment, plan or decision, knowing it is the
right or best course of action.
12. Generosity – You are willing to offer your time, energy, efforts, emotions, words
or assets without the expectation of something in return.
13. Perseverance – Perseverance is the steadfast persistence and determination to
continue on with a course of action, belief or purpose, even if it’s difficult or
uncomfortable in order to reach a higher goal or outcome.
14. Politeness – You are knowledgeable of basic good manners, common
courtesies, and etiquette and are willing to apply those to all people you
encounter.
15. Kindness – Kindness is an attitude of being considerate, helpful and benevolent
to other.
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 3
16. Lovingness – The ability to be loving toward those you love means showing
them through your words, actions and expressions how deeply you care about
them. It includes the willingness to be open and vulnerable.
17. Optimism – Optimism is a sense of hopefulness and confidence about the
future. It involves a positive mental attitude in which you interpret life events,
people, and situations in a promising light.
18. Reliability – You can be consistently depended upon to follow through on your
commitments, actions, and decisions. You do what you say you will do.
19. Conscientiousness – You have the desire to do things well or to the best of your
ability. You are thorough, careful, efficient, organized, and vigilant in your efforts,
based on your own principles or sense of what is right.
20. Self – disciplines – You are able, through good habits or willpower, to overcome
your desires or feelings in order to follow the best course of action or to rise to
your commitments or principles.
Hum 2 – ETHICS 1 4
References:
Agdalpen, Renato T. and Francisco Joether. (2019). Ethics Ako at ang
Kagandahang Asal Bilang Isang Filipino. Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Buenaflor, Lionel E. (2018). Unraveling the Absolute Moral Principle: Ethics for
Filipino Students. Book Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyong City
Leano Jr., Roman D. and Gubia-on, Arthur B. (2018). Ethics for College Students.
Mindshapers Co.Inc. Manila
Chapter 3
UNIVERSAL VALUES
Recognized and established knowledge, verifiable observation and some basic theories
and conclusions combined with a number of basic theses made up the philosophy of
human basics. This philosophy of most basic knowledge is about an understanding and
awareness of our human nature and our most basic universal human values. It
contains basic information about social, psychological, cultural and moral human
qualities and basic universal human values in relation to political, economic, ecological,
religious, judicial and educational issues in all societies. This basic knowledge tends to
create a basic understanding and more agreement between people and culture but
some of this information also be experienced as confronting
General Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
Explain why universal values are necessary for human survival;
Identify the different universal values;
Discuss the different concepts of universal values; and
Explain and articulate each stage of moral development.