EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES PGA101: LEARNER AND LEARNING NEEDS PREPARED BY: NUR SAFINATUN MADIHAH BINTI MAIKAL (162960) NURUL FATHIN AMIRAH BINTI MUHAMAD BAHANUDDIN (161705)
EDUCATIONAL LEARNING THEORIES BEHAVIORISM THEORY Behaviorism or the behavioral learning theory is a popular concept that focuses on how students learn. Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned from the environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on behavior. COGNITIVE THEORY Cognitivism is a learning theory that focusses on how information is received, organized, stored and retrieved by the mind. It uses the mind as an information processer, like a computer. Therefore, cognitivism looks beyond observable behaviour, viewing learning as internal mental processes. CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just passively take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas).
Individual differences are the unique characteristics and traits which distinguish us from other people. It is often said that no two individuals are exact duplicates which means they differ from each other in some way or the other. Such similarity or difference between persons reveal individual differences. It happens in our daily life when we see people around us which trigger the question of how and why people is different from one to another. For example, when we see someone who is taller than us or having a fair complexion while us having a darker complexion. We also think why some people are talkative and some are not. the intelligence differences are also a dominant difference from other people to another one. In educational psychology, these are called as individual differences referring to the extent and kind of variations or similarities among people on some of the important psychological aspects such as intelligence, personality, interest and aptitude. INTRODUCTION
Individual differences can be defined as personal characteristics that distinguish learners from each other in the teaching and learning processes. Learners are unique individuals who bring a critical set of variables to each learning situations, including delicate traits as indicators of their potential and the history of achievement as signs of previous accomplishments and predictors of future performance. Individual differences can also be referred as variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the mental or physical characters, occurring in the individual member of the group (James Drever). Woodworth, R.S and Marquis D.G quoted individual differences are found in all psychological characteristics physical mental abilities, knowledge, habit, personality and character traits. The psychology of individual differences is largely the study of group differences. This study classifies individuals by age, traits, sex, race, social class and so on, and observes the differences within and between those groups. Physical, mental, social and cultural differences are being studied under individual differences said John P.De Ceeceo. DEFINITION
PHYSICAL DIFFERENCES Physical is relating to the body which means it is something in our body and we can touch and see it. People differ in their physical developments structurally and functionally. These differences are seen in height, weight size of the body, structure of different parts of the body, color of hair, skin, physical strength and precision. It will be more noticeable as people grow older because the changes of their hormones when they reach adolescence ages. Shortness or tallness of stature, darkness and fairness of complexion, fatness, thinness or weakness are various physical individual differences. There are differences in the physical characteristics among people belonging to different races and different regions. For example, Asian people's physicals are differ from Europeans and Africans. TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES INTELLIGENCE DIFFERENCES Intelligence is the ability to learn, understand and make judgements or have opinions that are based on reason. Intelligence is the ability to reason with symbols . In simple words, intelligence refers to our ability and to utilize what has been learned. Intelligence also includes our ability to adjust to new situations and solve new problems. There are differences in intelligence level among different individuals. We can classify the individuals from supernormal (above 120 IQ) to idiots (under 50 IQ) on the basis of their intelligence level. Difference in intelligence level is seen in individuals into different categories such as genius, gifted, superior, bright, averages, imbeciles and idiots.
GENDER DIFFERENCES Cognitive differences refer to the differences that exist in the IQ of learners. People who possess cognitive differences tend to take more time when completing academic tasks and find difficulty in concentrating than learners who have a typical cognitive function. Individuals apparently differ in their cognitive abilities, especially in such things as mental speed, storage capacity and attention span. Some psychologists equate these cognitive abilities with intelligence. Other psychologists do not equate these two but see cognitive abilities as a part of intelligence. People also can have different cognitive approaches to or styles in regard to different tasks. Two of the most investigated cognitive stylistic dimensions are field dependence/independence and reflectivity/impulsivity. Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater motor ability Handwriting of women is superior while men are excel in mathematics and logic Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of taste, touch and smell, while men show greater reaction and conscious of size-weight illusion Women are superior in language while men are superior in physics and chemistry Women are better than men in mirror drawing. Fault of speech in men were found to be three times of such faults in women Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are three times as many colour blind men as there are women Young girls take interest in stories of love, fairy tales, stories of the school and home and day-dreaming and show various levels in their play. On the other hand, boys take interest in stories of bravery, science, war, scouting, stories of games and sports, stories and games of occupation and skills Gender differences are defined as biological differences between sexes. Men and women are alike in many ways. However, there are important biological and behavioural between two genders. Typical differences between men and women that are specific to a particular culture and influenced by its attitude and practices. Gender differences emerge in a variety of domains such as physical, strength, handwriting, emotion and more. McNemar and Terman discovered the following differences between men and women, on the basis of some studies: COGNITIVE DIFFERENCES
According to Psychology Today, an emotion can only be felt through the emotional experiences it gives rise to, even though it might be discovered through its associated thoughts, beliefs, desired and actions. Emotion are not conscious but instead manifest in unconscious mind. Every people have a different emotion based on their environment. If the environment is not good, people tend to feel sad, angry, unhappy and annoyed. If it the opposite, then people will feel happy, content, calm and love. According to a study published in Personality and Social Psychology Review (PSPR), emotion is a feedback system which influence on behavior is indirect. While according to the PSPR study, the behavior is used to pursue anticipated emotional outcomes. EMOTIONAL DIFFERENCES Attitude refers to a person's mental view, regarding the way they think or feel about someone or something. People picked up their attitude from the experience and observation of their environment. To put simply, attitude is a person's mental outlook, which defines the way we think or feel anything. It is a hypothetical construct for example whose direct observation is not possible. It is a predisposition to respond in a settled way to a person, event, opinion and object which is reflected in our body language. It has a strong impact on our decisions, actions and stimuli. Education, experience and environment are the major factors that effect a person's attitude. A person’s attitude can be positive, negative or neutral views, which shows one’s likes and dislikes for someone or something. So, the type of attitude we carry, speaks a lot about us, as we get into that mood and transmits a message to the people around us. There is no such thing like ideal attitude, for a particular situation as it is spontaneous and so we always have a choice to opt the right attitude for us. ATTITUDE DIFFERENCES
RACIAL DIFFERENCES Discussing racial differences in the field of psychology is problematic. The term 'race' can be defined as a distinct biological group of people who share inherited physical and cultural traits that are different from the shared traits in other races. A variety of race comparative studies have been conducted in the field of psychology and more specifically in child development. Race comparative studies on self-esteem, identity formation, out-of-school activity participation, risk taking, parenting style and parental monitoring number in the thousands. Researchers have suggested several possible explanations to account for racial and ethnic differences in intellectual performance. The first explanation is that standardized IQ tests and testing procedures are culturally biased toward European-American middle class knowledge and experiences. According to Janet E. Helms, IQ tests are designed to measure cognitive skills and information that middle class European-American children are more likely to have acquired. Researchers have attempted to make IQ tests more culturally fair, so members of minority groups and lower socioeconomic status are not placed at an instant disadvantage when taking them. A completely culture-free test, however, is good in theory, but not so feasible yet in practice.
Environmental factor, greatly influence our personality. For example, a child raised in a harmonious environment may have a more positive or calm outlook and disposition. In contrast, a child raised in a turbulent household may be more inclined to develop aggression or other adverse traits. Proving this theory further is the famous Minnesota Study of Twins. From 1979 to 1999, researchers studied both identical and fraternal twins separated at birth to determine the effects of genes and environment on their personalities as they aged. This study found that identical twins shared about 50% of the same traits, whereas fraternal twins shared about 20%. The study also found 70% of the variance in IQ was linked to genetic variations, while the remaining 30% was due to environmental effects. FACTORS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ENVIRONMENT Another factor that plays a role in individual differences are the schools people went to and their education. Studies found that various school experiences were associated with personality changes. For example, a student who prioritizes studying and doing their homework may experience an increase in conscientiousness. In contrast, a student exposed to a stressful or volatile school environment may increase neuroticism. If the students receive a better education, then they will get a better grades in their examination while students who do not take education seriously will badly affected their grades. The students also categorized into fast learner and slow learner which has its own advantages and disadvantages. EDUCATION
Culture is defined as the shared values, customary beliefs, traditions, and social norms of a group. It is perhaps one of the most powerful drivers in individual differences and personality dimensions. For example, someone raised in an individualistic culture may value independence or personal success. In contrast, someone raised in a more collectivist culture may value social harmony and the group’s needs over their own. CULTURE Family socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the individual differences factors. It can significantly affecting people's life and how they behave. It is important to have a strong economic status to keep a stable life because today's world require too much money. If someone has enough money, tend can buy their own foods and other essential things to ensure their living. It can also affect how people do in their life because people with much money tend to help people with less money. For people who coming from poor family, tend to work harder to get enough money to continue their living. SOCIOECONOMIC Along with new physical, social and emotional challenges, increasing age brings changes in cognition and emotion that have impacts on subjective well-being, social relationships, decision-making and selfcontrol. Many outcomes and behaviors in older adults are influenced by events, social relationships, non-cognitive character skills, environmental factors, and habits that begin relatively early in life. As the population ages, it will be important to understand how people make decisions about retirement, lifestyle, social relationships, health, and health care. Age-related changes in the interplay between motivation, cognition, and emotion, along with changes in life circumstances, health status, and social roles, combine to shape how individuals make both everyday choices around health behaviors and major decisions related to life transitions and long-term goals AGE
1. Understanding of Cognitive Ability Variations 2. Utilization of Different Capacities Educational Implications of Individual Differences First of all, while teaching a class full of students belonging to different mental levels, it has a partial probability to have mentally slow learners as compared with the highly intelligent students. Therefore, individual differences provide the chance to understand these variations. With the comprehension of individual differences, the teacher can have knowledge about a student’s different capacities, capabilities, interests, knowledge, attitude, and reasoning skills. These variations can be utilized by the teacher to guide them on the right path.
With the understanding of individual differences, a student would be saved from the intelligence uniformity available in every student as each student would have a different level of understanding. The reason behind this is that every student has different background knowledge, experience, self-motivation to learn, and interests in a particular field. These students would not get judged with the understanding of individual differences. 3. Utilization of Different Capacities 4. Appropriate Usage of Instructional Plan 5. Decision upon Teaching Tasks and Activities Due to the knowledge about individual differences, the teacher and the academic institutions would implement the appropriate usage of instructional plans for reducing the gap for the achievement of the learning process. After understanding individual differences, it becomes easy for the teacher to opt for the appropriate teaching tasks and learning activities as per the understanding level of the students.
TEACHER'S ROLE IN TEACHING & LEARNING
The teacher's role in teaching and learning is not an easy thing. In order to bring great chance in teaching and learning process by arranging roles of teachers from teachercentered instruction to learner-centered instructional though it is flexible. The flexibility of instruction is dependent on where and what condition of the classroom, the students‟ group learning, and individual students in the classroom. Flexibility can be arranged if teachers have knowledge about the heterogeneity of students in the classroom. When flexibility of teachers in positioning their own roles and differentiated instruction theyused in the classroom are combined to facilitate students, it becomes a great potency toreduce diversity of students in learning. Students also may find happiness and readiness inlearning in their own potency. Flexible and differentiated instruction would place teacherroles more effective in delivering the lesson and place student role more flexible inconducting their learning in their own way.
In addition to the flexibility of instruction, there are some strategies that are said to be at every teacher‟s disposal to help the different kinds of learners to learn. These include: 1. Getting to know students: Nothing undermines stereotypes or misconceptions quicker than simple knowing yourstudents. Learn something about their strengths, talents, and interests and draw upon those inyour interactions with them. And remember, students who feel connected to you workharder. 2. Grouping Students by ability and interest: According to Salvin (1986) grouping students with the same pace of learning together allows the teacher to direct instruction and target advanced work to the needs of a smallgroup, rather than attempting to meet the divergent needs of the entire class simultaneously. 3. Making sure that students know why the material is worth learning. Students who are engaged and motivated will put more effort into the course.
4. Creating a classroom where student input about content and pedagogy is welcomed No doubt you will feel uncomfortable when students criticize an aspect of your class oryour teaching style. But if you are to reach them effectively, you need to encourage them to reflect critically on their own learning. 5. Varying teachers ‘presentation style. Because students have diverse learning styles, consider using a variety of instructional approaches: lectures, discussion, PowerPoint presentations, audio (including music), video, charts and graphs, simulations, and images. 7. Integrating small group learning into your teaching. Collaborative and team-based learning, including pairs and small group activities, allow students to learn from their peers. To sum up, in the classroom, teachers aren’t simply teaching one students with twenty different faces; they are teaching twenty different students, each with distinctive needs and talents, and different levels of motivation, attention, knowledge, time to devote to your class, and maturity. Understanding learner differences is a must for teachers to create and implement flexible and differentiated instruction that would meet the needs of all kinds of learners.
SUMMARY: Naturally, every student has differences from each other, regardless of cognitive development, socioeconomics and so on. These differences has created a community of school students with a variety of styles and backgrounds. Accordingly, teachers should play an important role in reducing the problem of individual variation that occurs among them so that issues such as student drop out in education can be reduced. Teachers must create an approach to students in order to be able to recognize and detect individual differences to make it easier for them to plan their teaching and learning more systematically and effectively. Therefore, the teacher's role in reducing the problem of variation or individual differences among students is so important to ensure that all students can follow the learning process efficiently and thus be able to adapt the knowledge gained to be developed in their lives. Thank you!
REFERENCES: https://www.academia.edu/5828495/How_would_a_teacher_among_individual_di fferences_and_from_a_learner_centered_approach_teach_in_a_large_classroom https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/psychology/individual-differencespsychology/individual-differences-types-causes-and-role-psychology/2557 https://rodclarken.wordpress.com/2012/08/14/individual-differences-factors/