HMEF5053 Measurement and Evaluation in Education_vDec19

HMEF5053

Measurement and Evaluation in Education

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HMEF5053
MEASUREMENT
AND EVALUATION
IN EDUCATION

Prof Dr John Arul Phillip
Yap Yee Khiong

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dr Widad Othman
Dr Aliza Ali
Module Writers: Open University Malaysia
Moderator:
Enhancer: Prof Dr John Arul Phillip
Developed by: Yap Yee Khiong

Prof Dr Kuldip Kaur
Open University Malaysia

Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek

Centre for Instructional Design and Technology
Open University Malaysia

First Edition, May 2006
Fourth Edition, August 2016 (rs)
Sixth Edition, December 2019 (MREP)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2019, HMEF5053
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table of Contents

Course Guide xiăxv

Topic 1 The Role of Assessment in Teaching and Learning 1
1.1 Test, Measurement and Assessment 2
2
1.1.1 Test 3
1.1.2 Measurement 3
1.1.3 Assessment or Evaluation 5
1.2 The Why, What and How of Educational Assessment 6
1.3 Purposes of Assessment 7
1.3.1 To Help Learning 9
1.3.2 To Improve Teaching 10
1.4 General Principles of Assessment 12
1.5 Types of Assessment 13
1.5.1 Formative versus Summative Assessments 15
1.5.2 Norm-referenced versus Criterion-referenced Tests 17
1.6 Trends in Assessment 18
Summary 19
Key Terms 19
References

Topic 2 Foundation of Assessment: What to Assess? 21
2.1 Identifying What to Assess 22
23
2.1.1 Three Types of Learning Outcomes 25
2.2 Assessing Cognitive Learning Outcomes or Behaviour 26
28
2.2.1 BloomÊs Taxonomy 32
2.2.2 The Helpful Hundred 37
2.3 Assessing Affective Learning Outcomes or Behaviour 41
2.4 Assessing Psychomotor Learning Outcomes or Behaviour 42
2.5 Important Trends in What to Assess 43
Summary 44
Key Terms
References

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iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS

Topic 3 Planning Classroom Tests 45
3.1 Purposes of Classroom Testing 46
3.2 Planning a Classroom Test 47
47
3.2.1 Deciding Its Purposes 48
3.2.2 Specifying the Intended Learning Outcomes 50
3.2.3 Selecting Best Item Types 53
3.2.4 Developing a Table of Specifications 58
3.2.5 Constructing Test Items 60
3.2.6 Preparing Marking Schemes 61
3.3 Assessing TeacherÊs Own Test 62
Summary 62
Key Terms
63
Topic 4 How to Assess? ă Objective Tests 64
4.1 What is an Objective Test? 65
4.2 Multiple-choice Questions (MCQs) 65
67
4.2.1 What is a Multiple-choice Question? 73
4.2.2 Construction of Multiple-choice Questions 74
4.2.3 Advantages of Multiple-choice Questions 75
4.2.4 Limitations of Multiple-choice Questions 76
4.3 True-False Questions 76
4.3.1 What are True-False Questions? 77
4.3.2 Advantages of True-False Questions 78
4.3.3 Limitations of True-False Questions 80
4.3.4 Suggestions for Constructing True-False Questions 80
4.4 Matching Questions 81
4.4.1 Construction of Matching Questions 82
4.4.2 Advantages of Matching Questions 82
4.4.3 Limitations of Matching Questions
4.4.4 Suggestions for Constructing Good Matching 83
84
Questions
4.5 Short-answer Questions 85

4.5.1 Strengths and Weaknesses of Short-answer 88
Questions 89
89
4.5.2 Guidelines on Constructing Short-answer
Questions

Summary
Key Terms
References

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TABLE OF CONTENTS  v

Topic 5 How to Assess? ă Essay Tests 90
5.1 What is an Essay Question? 91
5.2 Formats of Essay Tests 92
5.3 Advantages of Essay Questions 94
5.4 Deciding Whether to Use Essay Questions 95

or Objective Questions 96
5.5 Limitations of Essay Questions 97
5.6 Misconceptions About Essay Questions in Examinations 99
5.7 Guidelines on Constructing Essay Questions 107
5.8 Verbs Describing Various Kinds of Mental Tasks 110
5.9 Marking an Essay 117
5.10 Suggestions for Marking Essays 119
Summary 120
Key Terms 120
References
122
Topic 6 Authentic Assessment 123
6.1 What is Authentic Assessment in the Classroom? 124
6.2 Alternative Names for Authentic Assessment 125
6.3 How to Use Authentic Assessment? 126
6.4 Advantages of Authentic Assessment 128
6.5 Disadvantages of Authentic Assessment 130
6.6 Characteristics of Authentic Assessment 132
6.7 Differences between Authentic and Traditional
135
Assessments 135
Summary 136
Key Terms
References 137
138
Topic 7 Project and Portfolio Assessments 141
7.1 Project Assessment 144
147
7.1.1 What is Assessed Using Projects? 148
7.1.2 Designing Effective Projects 150
7.1.3 Possible Problems with Project Work 154
7.1.4 Group Work in Projects 156
7.1.5 Assessing Project Work 158
7.1.6 Evaluating Process in a Project 159
7.1.7 Self-assessment in Project Work 160
7.2 What is a Portfolio? 161
7.2.1 What is Portfolio Assessment?
7.2.2 Types of Portfolios
7.2.3 Developing a Portfolio

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vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS

7.2.4 Advantages of Portfolio Assessment 162
7.2.5 Disadvantages of Portfolio Assessment 164
7.2.6 How and When Should Portfolios be Assessed? 165
Summary 169
Key Terms 171
References 171

Topic 8 Reliability and Validity of Assessment Techniques 173
8.1 What is Reliability? 174
8.2 The Reliability Coefficient 175
8.3 Methods to Estimate the Reliability of a Test 179
8.4 Inter-rater and Intra-rater Reliability 183
8.5 Types of Validity 185
8.6 Factors Affecting Reliability and Validity 189
8.7 Relationship between Reliability and Validity 191
Summary 192
Key Terms 193
References 193

Topic 9 Item Analysis 195
9.1 What is Item Analysis? 196
9.2 Steps in Item Analysis 197
9.3 Difficulty Index 199
9.4 Discrimination Index 200
9.5 Application of Item Analysis on Essay-type Questions 203
9.6 Relationship between Difficulty Index and 206

Discrimination Index 208
9.7 Distractor Analysis 210
9.8 Practical Approach in Item Analysis 212
9.9 Usefulness of Item Analysis to Teachers 213
9.10 Caution in Interpreting Item Analysis Results 214
9.11 Item Bank 216
9.12 Psychometric Software 216
Summary 217
Key Terms 218
References

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TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii

Topic 10 Analysis of Test Scores 219
10.1 Why Use Statistics? 220
10.2 Describing Test Scores 222
223
10.2.1 Central Tendency 224
10.2.2 Dispersion 229
10.3 Standard Scores 230
10.3.1 Z-score 231
10.3.2 Example of Using the Z-score to Make Decisions 232
10.3.3 T-score 233
10.4 The Normal Curve 235
10.5 Norms 237
Summary 239
Key Terms

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xxvi X COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

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COURSE GUIDE  xi

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please refer to the Course Guide from
time to time as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.

INTRODUCTION

HMEF5053 Measurement and Evaluation in Education is one of the courses
offered at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth three credit
hours and should be covered over eight to 15 weeks.

COURSE AUDIENCE

This course is a core subject for learners undertaking the Master of Education
(MEd) programme. Its main aim is to provide you with a foundation in the
principles and theories of educational testing and assessment as well as their
applications in the classroom.

The course introduces the differences between testing, measurement and
assessment. The focus is on the role of assessment in teaching and learning,
followed by discussions on „what to assess‰ and „how to assess‰. Regarding
the „what‰, the emphasis is on the cognitive, affective and psychomotor learning
outcomes. Next, the „how‰ of assessment is discussed with emphasis on the
various assessment techniques that teachers can adopt. Besides the usual
traditional assessment techniques such as objective and essay tests, authentic
assessment techniques such as projects and portfolios are presented. There is also
a general discussion on how authentic assessment is similar to and different from
traditional assessment. Also discussed are techniques to determine the
effectiveness of various assessment approaches, focusing on reliability, validity
and item analysis. Finally, various statistical procedures are presented in the
analysis of assessment results and their interpretation.

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning
independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.

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xii  COURSE GUIDE

STUDY SCHEDULE

It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Study Activities Study
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions
Study the module 4
Attend five tutorial sessions 60
Online participation 15
Revision 11
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 15
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 15
120

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to:

1. Identify the different principles and theories of educational testing and
assessment;

2. Compare the different principles, theories and procedures of educational
testing and assessment;

3. Apply the different principles and theories in the development of
assessment techniques for use in the classroom; and

4. Critically evaluate the principles and theories in educational testing and
assessment.

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COURSE GUIDE  xiii

COURSE SYNOPSIS

This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is as follows:

Topic 1 discusses the differences between testing, measurement, evaluation and
assessment, the role of assessment in teaching and learning and some general
principles of assessment. Also explored is the difference between formative and
summative assessments as well as the differences between criterion and norm-
referenced tests. The topic concludes with a brief discussion of the current trends
in assessment.

Topic 2 discusses the behaviours to be tested focussing on cognitive, affective
and psychomotor learning outcomes and reasons why assessments of the latter
two outcomes are ignored.

Topic 3 provides some useful guidelines to help teachers plan valid, reliable and
useful classroom tests. It discusses the steps involved in planning and designing
a test. These steps are deciding the purpose, specifying the intended learning
outcomes, selecting best item types, developing a table of specifications,
constructing test items and preparing marking schemes. The topic also includes a
subtopic on how teachers can assess their own tests.

Topic 4 discusses the design and development of objective tests in the assessment
of various kinds of behaviours with emphasis on the limitations and advantages
of using this type of assessment tool.

Topic 5 examines the role of essay tests in assessing various kinds of learning
outcomes as well as its limitations and strengths, and the procedures involved in
the design of good essay questions.

Topic 6 introduces a form of assessment in which learners are assigned to
perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of essential
knowledge and skills. Teachers will be able to understand how authentic
assessment is similar to or different from traditional assessment. Emphasis is also
given to scoring rubrics.

Topic 7 discusses in detail two examples of authentic assessments, namely
portfolio and project assessments. Guidelines to portfolio entries and project
works and evaluation criteria are discussed in detail.

Topic 8 focuses on basic concepts of test reliability and validity. The topic also
includes methods to estimate the reliability of a test and factors to increase
reliability and validity of a test.

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xiv  COURSE GUIDE

Topic 9 examines the concept of item analysis and the different procedures for
establishing the effectiveness of objective and essay-type tests focussing on item
difficulty and item discrimination. The topic concludes with a brief discussion on
the usefulness of item analysis and the cautions in interpreting the item analysis
results.

Topic 10 focuses on the analysis and interpretation of the data collected by tests.
For quantitative analysis of data, various statistical procedures are used. Some of
the statistical procedures used in the interpretation and analysis of assessment
results are measures of central tendency and correlation coefficients. There is also
a brief discussion on the use of standard scores.

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:

Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations
throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various
locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.

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COURSE GUIDE  xv

Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.

Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful
textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.

PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Although this course assumes no previous knowledge of educational assessment
and measurement, you are encouraged to tap into your experiences as a teacher,
instructor, lecturer or trainer and relate them to the principles of assessment and
measurement discussed.

ASSESSMENT METHOD

Please refer to myINSPIRE.

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL
LIBRARY

The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

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xvi  COURSE GUIDE

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Topic  The Role of

1 Assessment in
Teaching and
Learning

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate between test, measurement and assessment;
3. Explain the purposes of assessment;
4. Discuss the general principles of assessment; and
5. Identify four types of assessment and examine their differences.

 INTRODUCTION

This topic discusses the difference between test, measurement, and evaluation, the
purposes of assessment and some general principles of assessment. Also explored
are the differences between formative assessment and summative assessment as
well as the differences between criterion tests and norm-referenced tests.

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2  TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

1.1 TEST, MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT

Many people are confused about the fundamental differences between test,
measurement and assessment as they are all used in education. Do you know what
they entail? Let us find out the answer in this subtopic.

1.1.1 Test

Most of us are familiar with tests because at some point in our lives, we are
required to sit for tests. In school, tests are given to measure our academic aptitude
and evaluate whether we have gained any understanding from our learning. In
the workplace, tests are conducted to select people for specific jobs, for promotion
and to encourage re-learning. Physicians, lawyers, insurance consultants, real-
estate agents, engineers, civil servants and many other professionals are required
to take tests to demonstrate their competence in specific areas and in some cases
to be granted licence to practise their profession or trade.

Throughout their professional careers, teachers, counsellors and school
administrators are required to give, score and interpret a wide variety of tests. For
example, school administrators rate the performance of individual teachers and
school counsellors record the performance of their clients. It is possible that a
teacher may construct, administer and mark thousands of tests during his or her
career! According to the joint committee of the American Psychological
Association (APA), the American Educational Research Association (AERA) and
the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME), a test may be
thought of as a set of tasks or questions intended to elicit particular types of
behaviour when presented under standardised conditions to yield a score that has
desirable psychometric properties. Psychometrics is concerned with the objective
measurement of skills and knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits and
educational achievement. So, when a teacher assigns a set of questions to
determine studentsÊ achievement in Mathematics, he or she is conducting a
Mathematics test. While most people know what a test is, many have difficulty
differentiating it from measurement, evaluation and assessment. Some have even
argued that they are the same!

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TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING  3

1.1.2 Measurement

Generally, measurement is the act of assigning numbers to a phenomenon. In
education, it is the process by which the attributes of a person are measured and
assigned numbers. Remember, it is a process which indicates that there are certain
steps involved. As educators, we frequently measure human attributes such as
attitudes, academic achievements, aptitudes, interests, personalities and so forth.
Hence, to measure these attributes, we have to use certain instruments so that we
can conclude that, for example, Ahmad is better in Mathematics than Kumar, while
Tajang is more inclined towards Science than Kong Beng. We measure to obtain
information about „what is‰. Such information may or may not be useful,
depending on the accuracy of the instruments we use and our skill at using them.
For example, we measure temperature using a thermometer and so the
thermometer is an instrument.

How do you measure performance in Mathematics? We use a Mathematics test
which is an instrument containing questions and problems to be solved by
students. The number of right responses obtained by a student is an indication of
his performance in Mathematics. Note that we are only collecting information. The
information collected is a numerical description of the degree to which an
individual possesses an attribute. Measurement answers the question „How much
does an individual possess a particular attribute?‰ Note that we are not assessing!
Assessment is therefore quite different from measurement.

1.1.3 Assessment or Evaluation

The literature has used the terms „assessment‰ and „evaluation‰ in education as
two different concepts and yet the two terms are used interchangeably i.e. they are
regarded as similar. For example, some authors use the term „formative
evaluation‰ while others use the term „formative assessment‰. We will use the two
terms interchangeably because there is too much overlap in the interpretations of
the two concepts. In this module, we will use the term „assessment‰. Generally,
assessment is viewed as the process of collecting information with the purpose of
making decisions about students.

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4  TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

We may collect information using various tests, observations of students and
interviews. Rowntree (1974) views assessment as a human encounter in which one
person interacts with another directly or indirectly with the purpose of obtaining
and interpreting information about the knowledge, understanding, abilities and
attitudes possessed by that person. For example, based on assessment information,
we can determine, whether Chee Keong needs special classes to assist him in
developing reading skills or whether Khairul, who was identified as dyslexic,
needs special attention. The key words in the definition of assessment is collecting
data and making decisions. However, to make decisions, one has to evaluate,
which is the process of making judgement about a given situation.

When we evaluate, we are saying that something is good, appropriate, valid,
positive and so forth. To make an evaluation, we need information, and it is
obtained by measuring using a reliable instrument. For example, you measure the
temperature in the classroom and it is 30C, which is simply information. Some
students may find the temperature in the room too warm for learning, while others
may say that it is ideal for learning. Educators are constantly evaluating students
and it is usually done in comparison with some standards. For example, if the
objective of the lesson was for students to apply BoyleÊs Law to the solution of a
problem and 80 per cent of learners were able to solve the problem, then the
teacher may conclude that his or her teaching of the principle was quite successful.
So, evaluation is the comparison of what is measured against some defined criteria,
to determine whether the criteria have been achieved, and whether it is
appropriate, good, reasonable, and valid and so forth.

The three terms „test‰, „measurement‰ and „assessment‰ are easily confused
because all may be involved in a single process. For example, to determine a
studentÊs performance in Mathematics, a teacher may assign him or her a task or a
set of questions, which is a test to obtain a numeric score, which is a measurement.
Based on the score, the teacher decides whether this particular student is good,
average or poor in Mathematics, which is an assessment.

SELF-CHECK 1.1

Explain the differences between test, measurement and assessment.

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TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING  5

1.2 THE WHY, WHAT AND HOW OF
EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT

The practice among many educators who want to assess students is to either use
ready-made tests or construct their own tests or a combination of both. In the
United States, it is common for teachers to use various standardised tests in
assessing their students. These tests have national norms, against which teachers
can compare the performance of their students. For example, a student scores 78
in a Mathematics test; the score when compared with the norm may put the
student in the 85th percentile. It means that 15 per cent of students tested earlier
scored higher than him or her. It also means that 85 per cent of students tested
earlier scored lower than him or her. Figure 1.1 shows the why, what and how of
assessment.

Figure 1.1: The why, what and how of assessment
The focus of this course will be on how teachers can build their own assessment
instruments, how to ensure their instruments are effective, how to interpret
assessment results and how to report these assessment results. In this topic, we
will discuss the role of assessment, which is, „Why do we assess?‰ In Topic 2, we
will focus on the foundation of assessment, which is „What to assess?‰ which
involves determining the behaviours of students to be assessed. Topic 3 will focus
on planning classroom tests. Topics 4 to 7 will address the issue „How to assess?‰
In Topics 8 and 9, we will attempt to answer the question „How do we know our
assessment is effective?‰ Finally, in Topic 10, we will deal with the question „How
do we interpret assessment results?‰

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6  TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

1.3 PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT

Let us begin this subtopic by asking the question, „Why do we as educators assess
students?‰ Some of us may find the question rather strange. The following may be
a likely scenario:

Question: Why do you assess?
Answer: Well, I assess to find out whether my students understand what has

been taught.
Question: What do you mean by „understand‰?
Answer: Whether they can remember what I taught them and how to solve

problems.
Question: What do you do with the test results?
Answer: Well, I give students the right answers and point out their mistakes

in answering the questions.

Educators may give the above reasons when asked about the purpose of
assessment. In the context of education, assessment is performed to gain an
understanding of an individualÊs strengths and weaknesses in order to make
appropriate educational decisions. The best educational decisions are based on
information, and better decisions are usually based on more information (Salvia &
Ysseldyke, 1995). Based on the reasons for assessment provided by Harlen (1978)
and Deale (1975), two main reasons or purposes of assessment may be identified
(refer to Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: Purposes of assessment
These two purposes are further explained in the next subtopics.

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TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING  7

1.3.1 To Help Learning

With regard to learning, assessment is aimed at providing information that
will help make decisions concerning remediation or enrichment, placement,
exceptionality and certification. It also aims at providing information to parents so
that they are kept informed of their childrenÊs learning progress in school.
Likewise, school administration collects assessment information to determine how
the school is performing and for student counselling purposes (refer to Table 1.2).

Table 1.2: Why We Assess: To Help Learning

Aspect Questions to be Answered

Diagnosis for  Should the student be sent for remedial classes so that
remedial action difficulty in learning can be overcome?

Diagnosis for  Should the student be provided with enrichment
enrichment activities?

Exceptionality  Does the student have special learning needs that require
special education assistance?

Placement  Should the student be streamed to X or Y?

Progress  To what extent is the student making progress towards
specific instructional goals?

Communication to  How is the child doing in school and how can parents
parents help?

Certification  What are the strengths and weaknesses in the overall
performance of a student in the specific areas assessed?

Administration and  How is the school performing in comparison with other
counselling schools?

 Why should students be referred for counselling?

(a) Diagnosis
Diagnostic assessment is performed at the beginning of a lesson or unit for a
particular subject area to assess studentsÊ readiness and background for what
is about to be taught. This pre-instructional assessment is done when you
decide that you need information on a student, group of students or a whole
class before you can proceed with the most effective form of instruction. For
example, you can administer a Reading Test to Year One students to assess
their reading level. Based on the information, you may want to assign
weak readers for special intervention or remedial action programme.

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8  TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

Alternatively, the tests may reveal that some students are reading at an
extremely high level and you may want to recommend that they be assigned
to an enrichment programme.

(b) Exceptionality
Assessment is also conducted to make decisions on exceptionality. Based on
the information obtained from assessment, teachers may make decisions as
to whether a particular student needs to be assigned to a class with
exceptional students. Exceptional students are those who are physically,
mentally, emotionally or behaviourally different from the normal
population. For example, based on assessment information, a child may be
discovered to be dyslexic and may be assigned to a special treatment
programme. In another example, a student who has been diagnosed as
having learning disability may be assigned to a special education
programme.

(c) Certification
Certification is perhaps the most important reason for assessment. For
example, Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) is an examination aimed at
providing students with certificates. The marks obtained are converted into
letter grades signifying performance in different subject areas and used as a
basis for comparison between students. The certificate obtained is further
used in selecting students for further studies, scholarships or jobs.

(d) Placement
Besides certification, assessment is conducted for the purpose of placement.
Students are endowed with varying abilities and one of the tasks of the
school is to place them in classes according to their aptitude and interest. For
example, performance in the SPM is used as the basis for placing students in
the arts or science stream in Form Six. Assessment is also used to stream
students according to their academic performance. It has been the tradition
that the A and B classes will consist of high achievers from the end-of-
semester examinations or end-of-year examinations. Placement tests have
even been used in preschools to stream children according to their literacy
levels! The practice of placing students according to academic achievement
has been debated for decades with some educationists arguing against it and
others supporting it.

(e) Communicate to Parents
Families want to know how their children are doing in school and family
members appreciate specific indicators of studentsÊ progress. Showing
examples of a childÊs work over time enables parents to personally assess the
growth and progress of their child. It is essential to tell the whole story when

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TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING  9

reporting information about performance progress. Talking with families
about standards, sharing student work samples, using rubrics in conferences
and differentiating between performance and progress are some ways to
ensure that families are given an accurate picture of student learning.

(f) School Administration and Counselling
A school collects assessment information in order to determine how the
school is performing in relation to other schools for a particular semester or
year. Assessment results are also used to compare performance over the
years for the same school. Based on the results, school administrators may
institute measures to remedy weaknesses such as channelling more
resources into teaching students who are performing poorly in their studies.
This kind of measure is pertinent, in view of the increasing number of
students who are unable to read and write at a satisfactory level.

Assessment results (especially relating to socio-emotional development)
may be used by school administrators and counsellors in planning
intervention strategies for at-risk students. Assessment by counsellors will
enable them to identify students presenting certain socio-emotional
problems that require counselling services or referral to specialists such as
psychiatrists, legal counsellors and law enforcement authorities.

1.3.2 To Improve Teaching

With regard to teaching, assessment provides information regarding achievement
of intended learning outcomes, effectiveness of teaching methods and learning
materials.

If 70 per cent of your students fail in a test, do you investigate whether your
teaching and learning strategy is appropriate or do you attribute it to your students
being academically weak or not having revised their work? Most teachers would
attribute the poor performance to the latter. This is not a fair judgment about your
studentsÊ performance and abilities. The problem might lie with the teachers.

Assessment information is valuable in indicating which of the learning outcomes
have been successfully achieved and which concepts students have the most
difficulty with and require special attention. Assessment results are also valuable
in providing clues to the effectiveness of the teaching strategy implemented and
teaching materials used. Besides, assessment information might indicate whether
students have the required prior knowledge to grasp the concepts and principles
discussed. All this assessment information will indicate to the teachers what they
should do to improve their teaching. They should reflect on the information and
examine their approaches, methods and techniques of teaching. Finally,

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10  TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

assessment data may also provide insight into why some teachers are more
successful in teaching a particular group of students as compared to others (refer
to Table 1.3).

Table 1.3: Why We Assess: To Improve Teaching

Aspect Questions to be Answered
Objectives Were the desired learning outcomes achieved?
Teaching method Were the teaching methods effective?
Prior knowledge Did students have the relevant prior knowledge?
Teaching materials Were the teaching materials effective?
Teacher differences Were particular teachers more effective than others?

ACTIVITY 1.1

In the myINSPIRE online forum, discuss the following:

(a) „Streaming according to academic abilities should be discouraged
in schools‰.

(b) To what extent have you used assessment data to review your
teaching and learning strategies?

1.4 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT

There are literally hundreds of guiding principles of assessment generated by
various sources such as educational institutions and individual scholars. The
following are a few principles, which can be applied in every level of assessment:

(a) What is to be assessed has to be clearly specified. The specification of the
characteristics to be measured should precede the selection or development
of assessment procedures. In other words, in assessing student learning, the
intended learning outcomes should be clearly specified. Only with a clear
specification of the intended learning outcomes to be measured would
appropriate assessment procedures or methods be selected. The following is
an example of an intended learning outcome for an assessment course:

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TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING  11

By the end the lesson, the student will be able to write effective learning
outcomes that include lower-order and higher-order cognitive skills for a
one-semester course.

A clear statement of learning outcome normally consists of three
components, a verb, condition and standard. The verb describes what the
student will be doing or the behaviour, the condition refers to the context
under which the behaviour is to occur and the standard indicates the criteria
of acceptable level of performance. The three components of the intended
learning outcome are as follows (refer to Table 1.4):

Table 1.4: Components in Learning Outcome

Verb Condition Standard
Write
effective learning outcomes that for a one-semester
include lower-order and higher-order course.
cognitive skills

The verb used in the statement of learning outcome should be specific,
measurable, achievable and realistic. Avoid words such as „understand‰,
„appreciate‰, „know‰ and „learn‰.

Note that it is not mandatory for every learning outcome to have all the three
components of verb, condition and standard. However, it must at least have
the verb and the condition, while the standard may be optional as
exemplified as follows:

By the end the lesson, the students will be able to write effective learning
outcomes that include lower-order and higher-order cognitive skills.

(b) An assessment procedure or method should be selected based on its
relevance to the characteristics or performance to be measured. When
selecting an assessment procedure to measure a specific learning outcome,
teachers should always ask themselves whether the procedure is the most
effective method for measuring the learning or development to be assessed.
There must be a close match between the intended learning outcomes and
the types of assessment tasks to be used. For example, if the development of
the ability to organise ideas is being measured, the use of multiple-choice test
would be a poor choice. Instead, the appropriate assessment method to be
used should be essay questions.

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12  TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

(c) Different assessment procedures are required to provide a complete picture
of student achievement and development. This is because no single
assessment procedure can assess all the different learning outcomes in a
school curriculum. Different assessment procedures are different in their
usefulness. For example, multiple-choice questions are useful for measuring
knowledge, understanding and application of outcomes, while essay tests
are appropriate for measuring the ability to organise and express ideas.
Projects that require conducting library research are needed to measure
certain skills in formulating and solving problems. Observational techniques
are needed to assess performance skills and various aspects of student
behaviour.

(d) The assessment must be aligned to instruction. What to be assessed in the
classroom must be consistent with what has been taught and vice versa. For
example, it would not be fair to assess studentsÊ higher-order thinking skills
when what is taught is only lower-order level thinking skills. Of course, what
is taught in class must be in line with what has been planned as indicated by
the learning outcomes for the course. According to Biggs and Tang (2007),
the relationship among assessment, instruction and learning outcomes is
referred to as constructive alignment (refer to Figure 1.3)

Figure 1.3: Constructive alignment

1.5 TYPES OF ASSESSMENT

Before we proceed to discuss assessment in detail, you need to be clear about these
often-used concepts in assessment:
(a) Formative and summative assessments (or evaluation); and
(b) Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced tests.

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TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING  13

1.5.1 Formative versus Summative Assessments

Assessment can be done at various times throughout the school year. A
comprehensive assessment plan will include both formative and summative
assessments. The point at which assessment occurs and the aim of assessing
distinguish these two types of assessment.

(a) Formative Assessment
Formative assessment is often done at the beginning or during the school
year, thus providing the opportunity for obtaining timely information about
student learning in a particular subject area or at a particular point in a
programme. Classroom assessment is one of the most common formative
assessment techniques. The purpose of this technique is to improve the
quality of student learning. It should not be evaluative or involved grading
students.

In formative assessment, the teacher compares the performance of a student
with the performance of other students in the class and not all students in the
same year (or form). Usually, a small section of the content is tested to
determine whether the learning outcomes have been achieved. Formative
assessment is action-oriented and forms the basis for improvement of
instructional methods (Scriven, 1996).

For example, if a teacher observes that some students have not grasped a
concept, he or she may design a review activity or use a different
instructional strategy. Likewise, students can monitor their progress with
periodic quizzes and performance tasks. The results of formative
assessments are used to modify and validate instruction. In short, formative
assessments are ongoing and include reviews and observations of what is
happening in the classroom. Some examples of formative assessment are
monthly tests, weekly quizzes, class exercises and homework.

(b) Summative Assessment

When the cook tastes the soup, thatÊs formative evaluation; when the
guests taste the soup, thatÊs summative evaluation.

(Robert Stakes)

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14  TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

Summative assessment is comprehensive in nature, provides accountability
and is used to check the level of learning at the end of the programme (which
may be at the end of the semester, end of the year or after two years). For
example, after five years in secondary school, students take Sijil Pelajaran
Malaysia (SPM) which is summative in nature since it is based on the
cumulative learning experiences of students. Summative assessments are
typically used to evaluate the effectiveness of an instructional programme at
the end of an academic year or at a pre-determined time. The goal of
summative assessments is to make a judgement on a studentÊs competency
after an instructional phase is completed. For example, national
examinations are administered in Malaysia each year. It is a summative
assessment to determine each studentÊs acquisition of knowledge in several
subject areas during a period of five years. Summative evaluations are used
to determine whether students have mastered specific competencies and
letter grades are assigned to assess student achievement. Besides the national
examinations such as Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) and Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran
Malaysia (STPM), end of the year or semester examinations in schools,
colleges and universities can also be considered as examples of summative
assessment.

The question that arises is whether summative assessment data can be used
formatively. The answer is positive and it can be done for the following
purposes:

(i) To Improve Learning among Students
Based on summative assessment data, poor and good students may be
identified and be given different attention in the subsequent year or
semester.

(ii) To Improve Teaching Methods
Based on summative assessment data, teachers are able to find out if
their teaching methods or strategies are appropriate and effective.

(iii) To Plan and Improve Curriculum
Based on summative assessment data, teachers and administrator can
identify if the curriculum designed is appropriate for the studentsÊ
ability levels and the needs of the industry.

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TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING  15

Let us look at Table 1.5 which summarises the differences between formative and
summative assessments.

Table 1.5: Differences between Formative and Summative Assessments

Criteria Formative Assessment Summative Assessment
Timing
Method  Conducted throughout the  Conducted at the end of a
teaching-learning process teaching-learning phase (such
Aim (monthly, weekly or even as end of semester or year)
daily).
Example
 Paper-and-pencil tests,  Paper-and-pencil tests, oral

observations, quizzes, tests administered to the

exercises, practical sessions group

administered to the group and

individually

 To assess learning progress  To assess achievement of the
instructional goals of a course
 To identify needs for or programme i.e. terminal
remediation or enrichment exam

 To certify students and
improve curriculum

 Monthly tests, weekly quizzes,  Final exam, qualifying tests,

daily reports, etc. national examinations (UPSR,

SPM, STPM, etc.)

1.5.2 Norm-referenced versus Criterion-referenced
Tests

The main difference between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests lies
in the purpose or aim of assessing students, the way in which content is selected
and the scoring processes which define how the test results are interpreted.

(a) Norm-referenced Tests
The major reason for norm-referenced tests is to classify students. It is
designed to highlight achievement differences between and among students
to produce a dependable rank order of students across a continuum of
achievement from high achievers to low achievers (Stiggins, 1994). With
norm-referenced tests, a representative group of students is given a test and
their scores form the norm after having gone through a complex
administration and analysis. Anyone taking the norm-referenced test can
compare his or her score against the norm. For example, a score of 70 on a
norm-referenced test will not mean much until it is compared with the norm.

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16  TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

When compared with the norm, if the studentÊs score is in the 80th percentile,
this means that he or she performed as well or better than 20 per cent of the
students in the norm group. This type of information can be useful for
deciding whether or not the student needs remedial assistance or is a
candidate for the gifted programme.

However, the score gives little information about what the student actually
knows or can do. A major criticism of norm-referenced tests is that they tend
to focus on assessing low-level, basic skills (Romberg, Zarinnia & Williams,
1989).

(b) Criterion-referenced Tests
Criterion-referenced tests determine what students can or cannot do, and not
how they compare with others (Anastasi, 1988). Criterion-referenced tests
report how well students are doing relative to a pre-determined performance
level on a specified set of educational goals or outcomes included in the
curriculum. Criterion-referenced tests are used when teachers wish to know
how well students have learnt the content and skills which they are expected
to have mastered. This information may be used to determine how well the
students are learning the desired curriculum and how well the school is
teaching that curriculum. Criterion-referenced tests give detailed
information about how well each student has performed on each of the
educational goals or outcomes included in that test. For instance, a criterion-
referenced test score might describe which arithmetic operations a student
could perform or the level of reading difficulty he or she experienced.

Let us look at Table 1.6 which summarises the differences between these two types
of assessments.

Table 1.4: Differences between Norm-referenced and Criterion-referenced Tests

Criteria Norm-referenced Test Criterion-referenced Test
Aim
 Compares a studentÊs  Compares a studentÊs
Types of performance with that of performance against some criteria
questions other students
Reporting of  Determines the extent to which a
results  Selects students for student has acquired the
certification knowledge or skill

 Improves teaching and learning

 Questions from simple to  Questions of nearly similar

difficult difficulty relating to the criteria

 Grades are assigned  No grades are assigned (whether
skill or knowledge has been
achieved or not)

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TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING  17

Content  Wide content coverage  Specific aspects of the content
coverage
 UPSR, SPM, STPM  Class tests, exercises and
Examples national examinations, assignments
end-of-semester
examinations, end-of-
year examinations

SELF-CHECK 1.2

1. List the main differences between formative and summative
assessments.

2. Explain the differences between norm-referenced and criterion-
referenced tests.

1.6 TRENDS IN ASSESSMENT

In the past two decades, major changes have occurred in assessment practices
in many parts of the world. The following trends in educational assessment have
been identified:

(a) Written examinations are gradually being replaced by more continuous
assessment and coursework;

(b) There is a move towards more student involvement and choice in
assessment;

(c) Group assessment is becoming more popular in an effort to emphasise
collaborative learning among students and to reduce excessive competition;

(d) Subject areas and courses state more explicitly the expectations in
assessment. Students are clearer about the kinds of performance required of
them when they are assessed. This is unlike earlier practice where assessment
was so secretive that students had to figure out for themselves what was
required of them;

(e) An understanding of the process is now seen as equally important to
knowledge of facts. This is in line with the general shift from product-based
assessment towards process-based assessment; and

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18  TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

(f) Student-focused „learning outcomes‰ have begun to replace teacher-
oriented „objectives‰. The focus is more on what the students will learn
rather than what the teacher plans to teach. This is in line with the principle
of outcomes-based teaching and learning.

ACTIVITY 1.2

To what extent do you agree with the current trends in assessment?

Discuss this issue with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online
forum.

 A test may be thought of as a set of tasks or questions intended to elicit
particular types of behaviours when presented under standardised conditions
to yield scores that have desirable psychometric properties.

 Measurement in education is the process by which the attributes of a person
are measured and assigned numbers.

 Assessment is the process of collecting information with the purpose of making
decisions about students. Assessment is aimed at helping learning and
improving teaching.

 What is to be assessed must be clearly specified in the intended learning
outcomes.

 An assessment procedure or method should be selected based on its relevance
to the characteristics or performance to be measured.

 The assessment must be aligned to instruction and learning outcomes. The
relationship among assessment, instruction and learning outcomes is referred
to as constructive alignment.

 Different assessment procedures are required to provide a complete picture of
student achievement and development.

 There are four types of assessment namely formative, summative, norm-
referenced and criterion-referenced.

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TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING  19

 Formative assessment is often done at the beginning of or during, the school
year, thus providing the opportunity to obtain timely information about
students' learning in a particular subject area or at a particular point in a
programme.

 Summative assessment is comprehensive in nature, provides accountability
and is used to check the level of learning at the end of a programme.

 The major reason for norm-referenced tests is to classify students. These tests
are designed to highlight achievement differences between and among
students to produce a dependable rank order of students.

 Criterion-referenced tests determine what students can or cannot do, and not
how they compare with others.

 Among the trends in assessment are more continuous assessment and
coursework as well as more choices of assessment.

Assessment Measurement
Constructive alignment Norm-referenced
Criterion-referenced Psychometrics
Formative assessment Summative assessment
Learning outcome Test

Anastasi, A. (1988). Psychological testing. New York, NY: MacMillan.
Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2007). Teaching for quality learning at university. Berkshire,

England: McGraw Hill.
Deale, R. N. (1975). Assessment and testing in secondary school. Chicago, IL:

Evans Bros.

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20  TOPIC 1 THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

Flanagan, D. P., Genshaft, J., & Harrison, P. L. (1997). Contemporary intellectual
assessment: Theories, tests and issues. New York, NY: Guildford Press.

Harlen, W. (1978). Does content matter in primary science? School Science Review,
59(Jun), 614ă625.

Irvine, P. (1986). Sir Francis Galton (1822ă1911). Journal of Special Education, 20(1),
6ă7.

Romberg, T. A., Zarinnia E. A., & Williams, S. R. (1989). The influence of mandated
testing on mathematics instruction: Grade eight teachersÊ perceptions.
Madison, WI: National Center for Research in Mathematical Sciences
Education.

Rowntree, D. (1974). Educational technology in curriculum development. New
York, NY: Harper & Row.

Salvia, J., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (1995). Assessment (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin.

Scriven, M. (1996). Types of evaluation and types of evaluator. American Journal
of Evaluation, 17(2), 151ă161.

Stiggins, R. J. (1994). Student-centered classroom assessment. New York, NY:
Merrill.

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Topic  Foundation of

2 Assessment:
What to
Assess?

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1. Justify the behaviours to be measured to present a holistic

assessment of students;
2. Describe the various levels of cognitive learning outcomes to be

assessed;
3. Explain the various levels of affective learning outcomes to be

assessed; and
4. Describe the various levels of psychomotor learning outcomes to be

assessed.

 INTRODUCTION

If you were to ask a teacher about the things that should be assessed in the
classroom, the immediate response would most probably be „the facts and
concepts taught‰. The facts and concepts may be in Science, History, Geography,
Language, Arts, Religious Education and other similar subjects. The Malaysian
Philosophy of Education states that education should aim towards the holistic
development of the individual.

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22  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION OF ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS?

Hence, it is only logical that the assessment system should also seek to assess more
than the acquisition of facts and concepts of a subject area. What about assessment
of physical and motor abilities? What about socio-emotional behaviours such as
attitudes, interests, personality and so forth? Do they not contribute to the holistic
person? Let us find out the answer as this topic will highlight what to assess.

2.1 IDENTIFYING WHAT TO ASSESS

When educators are asked what should be assessed in the classroom, the majority
would refer to evaluating the acquisition of facts, concepts, principles, procedures
and methods of a subject area. You might find a minority of educators who insist
that skills acquired by students should also be assessed especially in subjects such
as physical education, art, drama, music, technical drawing, carpentry, automobile
engineering and so forth. Even fewer educators would propose that the socio-
emotional behaviour of students should also be assessed.
Let us refer to the National Philosophy of Malaysian Education (see Figure 2.1),
which has important implications for assessment.

Figure 2.1: The National Philosophy of Malaysian Education
Theoretically, a comprehensive assessment system should seek to provide
information on the extent to which the National Philosophy of Education has
achieved its goal. In other words, the assessment system should seek to determine:
(a) Whether our schools have developed „the potential of individuals in a

holistic and integrated manner‰;
(b) Whether students have developed „intellectually, spiritually, emotionally

and physically‰;

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TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION OF ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS?  23

(c) Whether students are „knowledgeable and competent‰ and „possess high
moral standards‰;

(d) Whether students have achieved a „high level of personal well-being‰; and
(e) Whether students are equipped with abilities and attitudes that will enable

them „to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, society and
the nation at large‰.

Yet, in actual practice, assessment tends to overemphasise on assessing intellectual
competence which translates into the measurement of cognitive learning outcomes
of specific subject areas. The other aspects of the holistic individual are given
minimal attention because of various reasons. For example, how does a teacher
assess spiritual or emotional growth or development? These are constructs that are
difficult to evaluate and extremely subjective. Hence, it is no surprise that
assessment of cognitive outcomes has remained the focus of most assessment
systems all over the world because it is relatively easier to observe and measure.

However, in this topic, we will make an attempt to present a more „holistic‰
assessment of learning which focuses on three main types of human behaviour.
These are behaviours psychometricians and psychologists have attempted to
assess and are closely aligned in realising the goals of the National Philosophy of
Malaysian Education.

2.1.1 Three Types of Learning Outcomes

Few people will dispute that the purpose of schooling is the development of a
holistic person. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, a group of psychologists and
psychometricians proposed that schools should seek to assess three domains of
learning outcomes which are:
(a) Cognitive learning outcomes (knowledge or mental skills);
(b) Affective learning outcomes (growth in feelings or emotional areas); and
(c) Psychomotor learning outcomes (manual or physical skills).

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24  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION OF ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS?

These three domains are closely interrelated as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Holistic assessment of students

Domains can be thought of as categories. Educators often refer to these three
domains as KSA (knowledge, skills and attitude). Each domain consists of
subdivisions, starting from the simplest behaviours to the most complex, thus
forming a taxonomy of learning outcomes. Each taxonomy of learning behaviour
can be thought of as „the goals of the schooling process‰. That is, after schooling,
the students should have acquired new skills, knowledge and/or attitudes.

However, the levels of each division outlined are not absolutes. While there are
other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational world, these
three taxonomies are easily understood and are probably the most widely used
today.

To assess these three domains, one has to identify and isolate those behaviours that
represent these domains. When we assess, we evaluate some aspects of the
studentÊs behaviour, such as his or her ability to compare, explain, analyse, solve,
draw, pronounce, feel, reflect and so forth. The term „behaviour‰ is used broadly
to include the studentÊs ability to think (cognitive), feel (affective) and perform a
skill (psychomotor). For example, you have just taught the topic „The Rainforests
of Malaysia‰ and now you want to assess your students in the following ways:

(a) Their Thinking
You may ask them to list the characteristics of the Malaysian rainforest and
compare them with those of the coniferous forests of Canada.

(b) Their Feelings (Emotions, Attitudes)
You may ask them to design an exhibition on how students can contribute
towards conserving the rainforest.

(c) Their Skills
You may ask them to prepare satellite maps on the changing Malaysian
rainforest using websites from the Internet.

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TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION OF ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS?  25

ACTIVITY 2.1

To what extent are affective and psychomotor behaviours assessed in
Malaysian schools?
Discuss this with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.

2.2 ASSESSING COGNITIVE LEARNING
OUTCOMES OR BEHAVIOUR

When we evaluate or assess a human being, we are assessing or evaluating the
behaviour of a person. This might be a bit confusing for some people. Are we not
assessing a personÊs understanding of the facts, concepts and principles of a subject
area? Every subject, be it History, Science, Geography, Economics or Mathematics,
has its unique repertoire of facts, concepts, principles, generalisations, theories,
laws, procedures and methods to be transmitted to students. This concept can be
illustrated as in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Contents of a subject assessed

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26  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION OF ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS?

When we assess, we do not assess studentsÊ storage of facts, concepts or principles
of a subject, but rather what students are able to do with the facts, concepts or
principles of the subject area. For example, we evaluate studentsÊ ability to
compare facts, explain concepts, analyse a generalisation (or statement) or solve a
problem based on a given principle. In other words, we assess understanding or
mastery of a body of knowledge based on what students are able to do with the
contents of the subject.

2.2.1 Bloom’s Taxonomy

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who
developed a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour important to learning.
They found that over 95 per cent of test questions students encountered required
them to think only at the lowest possible level i.e. the recall of information. Bloom
and his colleagues developed a widely accepted taxonomy (method of
classification on differing levels) for cognitive learning outcomes. This is referred
to as BloomÊs taxonomy (refer to Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4: BloomÊs taxonomy of cognitive learning outcomes

There are six levels in BloomÊs classification with the lowest level termed
knowledge. The knowledge level is followed by five increasingly complex levels
of mental abilities namely comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation.
(a) Knowledge (C1)

The behaviours at the knowledge level require students to recall specific
information. The knowledge level is the lowest cognitive level. Examples of
verbs describing behaviours at the knowledge level include the ability to list,
define, name, state, recall, match, identify, tell, label, underline, locate,
recognise and so forth.

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TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION OF ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS?  27

For example, students are able to recite the factors leading to World War II,
quote formula for density and force, and list laboratory safety rules.

(b) Comprehension (C2)
The behaviours at the comprehension level, which is a higher level of mental
ability than the knowledge level, require an understanding of the meaning
of concepts and principles, translation of words and phrases into oneÊs own
words, interpolation which involves filling in missing information, and
interpretation which involves inferring and going beyond the given
information. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the comprehension
level are explain, distinguish, infer, interpret, convert, generalise, defend,
estimate, extend, paraphrase, retell by using own words, rewrite, translate
and so forth.

For example, students are able to rewrite NewtonÊs three laws of motion,
explain in oneÊs own words the steps for performing a complex task and
translate an equation into a computer spreadsheet.

(c) Application (C3)
The behaviours at the application level require students to apply a rule or
principle learnt in the classroom into novel or new situations in the
workplace or unprompted use of an abstraction. Examples of verbs
describing behaviours at the application level are apply, change, compute,
demonstrate, discover, manipulate, modify, give an example, operate,
predict, prepare, produce, relate, show, solve, use and so forth.

For example, students are able to use the formula for projectile motion to
calculate the maximum distance a long jumper can jump and apply the
principles of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test.

(d) Analysis (C4)
The behaviours at the analysis level require students to identify component
parts and describe their relationship, separate material or concepts into
component parts so that its organisational structure may be understood and
distinguish between facts and inferences. Examples of verbs describing
behaviours at the analysis level are analyse, break down, compare,
contrast, diagnose, deconstruct, examine, dissect, differentiate, discriminate,
distinguish, illustrate, infer, outline, relate, select and separate.

For example, students are able to troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using
logical deduction, recognise logical fallacies in reasoning, gather information
from a company and determine needs for training.

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28  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION OF ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS?

(e) Synthesis (C5)
The behaviours at the synthesis level require students to build a structure or
pattern from diverse elements, put parts together to form a whole with
emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. Examples of verbs
describing behaviours at the synthesis level are categorise, combine, compile,
compose, create, devise, design, generate, modify, organise, plan, rearrange,
reconstruct, relate, reorganise, find an unusual way, formulate, revise,
rewrite, tell, write and so forth.
For example, students are able to write a creative short story, design a
method to perform a specific task, integrate ideas from several sources to
solve a problem and revise a process to improve the outcome.

(f) Evaluation (C6)
The behaviours at the evaluation level require students to make a judgement
about materials and methods, as well as the value of ideas or materials.
Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the evaluation level are appraise,
conclude, criticise, critique, defend, rank, give your own opinion,
discriminate, evaluate, value, justify, relate, support and so forth.

For example, students are able to evaluate and decide on the most effective
solution to a problem and justify the choice of a new procedure or course of
action.

2.2.2 The Helpful Hundred

Heinich, Molenda, Russell and Smaldino (2001) suggested 100 verbs which
highlighted performance or behaviours that were observable and measurable.
These 100 verbs are not the only ones but they are a great reference for educators.
Table 2.1 displays the verbs that would be appropriate to use when you are writing
learning outcomes in each level of BloomÊs taxonomy.

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TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION OF ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS?  29

Table 2.1: The Helpful Hundred

add contrast generate operate ski
alphabetise convert graph order solve
correct grasp organise sort
analyse grind outline specify
apply cut hit pack square
arrange deduce hold paint state
assemble defend identify plot subtract
attend define position suggest
bisect demonstrate illustrate predict swing
build derive indicate prepare tabulate
cave describe install present throw
categorise design produce time
choose designate kick pronounce translate
classify diagram label read type
colour distinguish locate reconstruct underline
compare make reduce verbalise
complete drill manipulate remove verify
compose estimate match revise weave
compute evaluate measure select weigh
conduct explain modify sketch write
construct extrapolate multiply
name
fit

Do note that there is a lot of overlap in the use of verbs to describe behaviours. The
same verb may be used to describe different behaviours. For example, the verb
„explain‰ may be used to describe the behaviours of evaluation (C6), analysis (C4)
and comprehension (C2) depending on the context it is used as shown as follows:

(a) Students are able to explain how effective essay questions are in assessing
studentsÊ critical thinking ability. (C6)

(b) Students are able to explain how essay questions are different from multiple
choice questions in assessing studentsÊ performance. (C4)

(c) Students are able explain, in their own words, the criteria that they would
consider when formulating an essay question as a test item. (C2)

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30  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION OF ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS?

Likewise, different verbs may be used to describe the same behaviour. For
example, the behaviour of „analysis‰ may be expressed using the verbs such as
„compare and contrast‰, „explain‰ and „distinguish‰ as follows:

(a) Students are able to compare and contrast formative assessment from
summative assessment. (C4)

(b) Students are able to explain the difference between formative assessment and
summative assessment. (C4)

(c) Students are able to distinguish formative assessment from summative
assessment. (C4)

In 2001, Anderson and Krathwohl modified the original BloomÊs taxonomy and
identified and isolated the following list of behaviours that an assessment system
should address (refer to Table 2.2).

Table 2.2: Revised Version of BloomÊs Taxonomy

Category and Cognitive Alternative Names
Process

1. Remember

(a) Recognising Ć Identifying

(b) Recalling Ć Retrieving

2. Understand

(a) Interpreting Ć Clarifying, paraphrasing, representing, translating

(b) Exemplifying Ć Illustrating, instantiating

(c) Classifying Ć Categorising, subsuming

(d) Summarising Ć Abstracting, generalising

(e) Inferring Ć Concluding, extrapolating, interpolating, predicting

(f) Comparing Ć Contrasting, mapping, matching

(g) Explaining Ć Constructing models

3. Apply

(a) Executing Ć Carrying out

(b) Implementing Ć Using

4. Analyse

(a) Differentiating Ć Discriminating, distinguishing, focusing, selecting

(b) Organising Ć Finding coherence, integrating, outlining, structuring

(c) Attributing Ć Deconstructing

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TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION OF ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS?  31

5. Evaluate Ć Coordinating, detecting, monitoring, testing
(a) Checking Ć Judging
(b) Critiquing
Ć Hypothesising
6. Create Ć Designing
(a) Generating Ć Constructing
(b) Planning
(c) Producing

Source: Anderson and Krathwohl (2001)

Note that the first two original levels of „knowledge‰ and „comprehension‰ were
replaced with „remember‰ and „understand‰ respectively. The „synthesis‰ level
was renamed „create‰. Note that in the original taxonomy, the sequence was
„synthesis‰ followed by „evaluate‰. In the modified taxonomy, however, the
sequence was rearranged to „evaluate‰ followed by „create‰.

As you can see, the primary differences between the „original‰ and the revised
taxonomy are not in the listings or rewordings from nouns to verbs, or in the
renaming of some of the components or even in the re-positioning of the last two
categories. The major differences lie in the more useful and comprehensive
additions of how the taxonomy intersects and acts upon different types and levels
of knowledge ă factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive.

(a) Factual Knowledge
It refers to essential facts, terminology, details or elements students must
know or be familiar with in order to understand a discipline or solve a
problem in it.

(b) Conceptual Knowledge
The knowledge of classifications, principles, generalisations, theories,
models or structures pertinent to a particular disciplinary area.

(c) Procedural Knowledge
It refers to information or knowledge that helps students to do something
specific to a discipline, subject or area of study. It also refers to methods of
inquiry, very specific or finite skills, algorithms, techniques and particular
methodologies.

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32  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION OF ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS?

(d) Metacognitive Knowledge
Metacognition is, simply, thinking about oneÊs thinking. More precisely, it
refers to the processes used to plan, monitor and assess oneÊs understanding
and performance. Activities such as planning how to approach a given
learning task, monitoring comprehension and evaluating progress towards
the completion of a task are metacognitive in nature.

SELF-CHECK 2.1

1. Explain the differences between analysis and synthesis according
to BloomÊs taxonomy.

2. How is the revised version of BloomÊs taxonomy different
from the original version?

ACTIVITY 2.2

Discuss in the myINSPIRE online forum:
(a) Do you agree that BloomÊs taxonomy is a hierarchy of cognitive

abilities? Why?
(b) Do you agree that you need to be able to „analyse‰ before being

able to „evaluate‰? Why?

2.3 ASSESSING AFFECTIVE LEARNING
OUTCOMES OR BEHAVIOUR

Affective characteristics involve the feelings or emotions of a person. Attitudes,
values, self-esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy, interests, aspirations and anxiety
are all examples of affective characteristics. Unfortunately, affective outcomes
have not been a central part of schooling, even though they are arguably as
important as or even more important than, any cognitive or psychomotor domain
of learning outcomes targeted by schools. Some possible reasons for the historical
lack of emphasis on affective outcomes include the following:

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TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION OF ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS?  33

(a) The belief that the development of appropriate feelings is the task of family
and religion.

(b) The belief that appropriate feelings develop automatically from knowledge
and experience with content and do not require any special pedagogical
attention.

(c) Attitudinal and value-oriented instructions are difficult to develop and
assess because:

(i) Affective goals are intangible;

(ii) Affective learning outcomes cannot be attained in the typical periods
of instruction offered in schools;

(iii) Affective characteristics are considered to be private rather than public
matters; and

(iv) There are no sound methods to gather information about affective
characteristics.

However, affective goals are no more intangible than cognitive ones. Some have
claimed that affective behaviours can be developed automatically when specific
knowledge is taught while others argue that affective behaviours have to be
explicitly developed in schools. Affective goals do not necessarily take longer to
achieve in the classroom than cognitive goals. All that is required is to state a goal
more concretely and behaviourally oriented so that it can be assessed and
monitored.

There is also the belief that affective characteristics are private and should not be
made public. While people value their privacy, the public also has the right to
information. If the information gathered is needed to make a decision, then
gathering of such information is not generally considered an invasion of privacy.
For example, if the assessment is used to determine if a student needs further
attention such as special education, then gathering such information is not an
invasion of privacy. On the other hand, if the information being sought is not
relevant to the stated purpose, then gathering of such information is likely to be
an invasion of privacy.

Similarly, information about affect can be used either for good or ill purposes. For
example, if a Mathematics teacher discovers that a student has a negative attitude
towards Mathematics and ridicules that student in front of the class, then the
information has been misused. However, if the teacher uses the information to
change his or her instructional methods so as to help the student develop a more
positive attitude towards Mathematics, then the information has been used wisely.

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