The words you are searching are inside this book. To get more targeted content, please make full-text search by clicking here.

Ver 2.0 for Peer-Review - Open and Inclusive - Reimagining Science in the Global South

Discover the best professional documents and content resources in AnyFlip Document Base.
Search
Published by arulgs, 2022-03-24 02:20:17

Ver 2.0 for Peer-Review - Open and Inclusive - Reimagining Science in the Global South

Ver 2.0 for Peer-Review - Open and Inclusive - Reimagining Science in the Global South

1

Published by

UNESCO New Delhi Cluster Office
for Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, the Maldives, and Sri Lanka
1 San Martin Marg, Chanakyapuri New Delhi 110 021, India
Tel: +91-11-2611 1873/5 & 2611 1867/9
Email: [email protected]
Website: https://en.unesco.org/fieldoffice/newdelhi

Authors

Arul George Scaria, Priyanka Choudhary, Vasundhra Kaul (Centre for Innovation, IP and
Competition, National Law University, Delhi, India)
Chandranath Podder, K. M. Ariful Kabir, Abdul Kadir Farhad (University of Dhaka, Bangladesh)
Sohan Prasad Sha (Martin Chautari, Nepal)

Design

Jameela Ahmed

ISBN:

©: UNESCO (2022)

All contents of this report are made available under the Creative Commons Attribution-
ShareAlike 4.0 International license.

The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication belong solely to the authors and
UNESCO does not necessarily commit and subscribe to the same.



Foreword

Table of Contents

Foreword 4
Acknowledgments 7
Executive Summary 9
Introduction 15

Historical Context Of Open Science 18
UNESCO Recommendation 21
Open Science as Envisaged in the UNESCO Recommendation 22
Open Science and Digital Inclusion 29
Open Science and Digital Inclusion as Pathways for Achieving SDGs 30
Overview of the Chapters 33

Open Science And The Covid19 Pandemic 34

Role of Data Sharing in Saving Lives During a Pandemic 35
Covid19-Related Data Sharing in India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka 37
Common Challenges and Opportunities 49

Making Open Science The Norm: Challenges in South Asia 53

Open Scientific Knowledge 54
Open Science Infrastructures 75
Engagement With Societal Actors 77
Open Dialogue With Other Knowledge Systems 79
Digital Inclusion in South Asia 81

Overcoming The Challenges At National And Regional Levels 92

Recommendations 94

Appendix 1 112

Acknowledgments

The understanding of open science and Abeysinghe (Former Program Director,
measures suggested to foster open science Coordinating Secretariat for Technology and
are often rooted in the experiences of the Innovation, Sri Lanka), Mr Madhan Muthu
Global North. The social, economic, and (Director, Library, Azim Premji University,
cultural barriers prevalent in and unique to India), Dr Madhukar Pai (Associate Professor,
the Global South require more attention if McGill University, Canada), Dr Manu Sikarwar
our aim is to foster open science at the (Project Director, Department of Science and
global level. The current report is an Technology, Government of Rajasthan, India),
attempt to identify the challenges to and Ms Navodi Wickramasinghe (Deputy
opportunities for open science from a Manager, TISC team, Coordinating
Global South perspective. As part of this Secretariat for Technology and Innovation,
effort, researchers from different fields of Sri Lanka), Prof. Neelika Malavige (Professor,
specialisation, from four countries in South University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri
Asia (Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka), Mr Nikesh Balami (Open Knowledge,
Lanka), have worked together to examine Nepal), Dr Nishantha Sampath Punchihewa
the state of open science, to identify the (Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Law, University
challenges to adopting open science of Colombo, Sri Lanka), Dr Rajesh Tandon (Co-
practices, and to evolve implementable Chair, UNESCO Chair on Community Based
suggestions to foster open science within Research and Social Responsibility in Higher
and among these four countries. Education, India), Dr Ranjit Sah (Tribhuvan
University Teaching Hospital, Nepal), Dr
We take this opportunity to thank all the Sameer Mani Dixit (Center for Molecular
researchers and policy makers who were Dynamics, Nepal), Dr Senjuti Saha (Director &
interviewed as part of this research - Dr Scientist, Child Health Research Foundation,
Akhilesh Gupta (Advisor, Department of Bangladesh), Prof. Subbaiah Arunachalam
Science and Technology, Government of (Visiting Professor, Indian Institute of
India), Dr Aqsa Shaikh (Associate Professor, Science, India), Ms Thidasi Dahanayaka (TISC
Hamdard Institute of Medical Sciences and team, Coordinating Secretariat for
Research, India), Ms Bhagya Herath (TISC Technology and Innovation, Sri Lanka), and
team, Coordinating Secretariat for Ms Vindhya Jayawickrama (TISC team,
Technology and Innovation, Sri Lanka), Prof. Coordinating Secretariat for Technology and
Bhramar Mukherjee (Professor, University of Innovation, Sri Lanka). In spite of many
Michigan, United States), Mr Chadan Goopta professional commitments and extremely
(IT entrepreneur, Nepal), Prof. Gagandeep busy schedules, all of them enthusiastically
Kang (Professor, Christian Medical College, participated in the discussions for the
India), Prof. Gautam Menon (Professor, broader benefit of the scientific community.
Ashoka University, India), Dr Geetha While not all of them may have been quoted
in the report, it is important to mention that
the diverse perspectives they shared have
enriched this work and we are grateful to all
of them. We also take this opportunity to
thank all the researchers who took part in

Acknowledgements 8

the surveys conducted as part of this study. work more aesthetically pleasing. We thank
Ms Chelsea Sawlani, Ms E. Sarashika and Ms
This work, which is a result of South-South Saachi Agrawal for carefully reading the
collaboration, would not have been possible proofs of the draft report.
without the support and vision of Mr Bhanu
Neupane (Advisor, Open Solutions and ICT We also express our sincere gratitude to the
and Sciences, Universal Access to peer-reviewers for their insightful comments
Information, Communication and Information and feedback on the draft version of this
Sector, UNESCO, Paris). He has been the report. Their feedback has been extremely
primary force in bringing together helpful in broadening the perspectives in the
researchers from different South Asian work.
countries for this report. We are thankful to
Ms Neha Midha (National Officer for Though we have not been able to mention
Sciences, UNESCO New Delhi), Mr Hezekiel the names of all contributors in this brief
Dlamini (Chief of Communication and acknowledgements section, we remain
Information, UNESCO New Delhi), Ms Mahfuza thankful to each and every one who
Rahman (Programme Officer for Education, contributed to the making of this report,
UNESCO Dhaka), and Ms Huhua Fan directly or indirectly. Though we have
(Education Programme Specialist, UNESCO) specifically named some contributors,
for their constant feedback and support. Ms mistakes, if any in the report, should not be
Rama Dwivedi (UNESCO New Delhi) and Ms attributed to them, but to us alone.
Ashita Singh (UNESCO New Delhi) also need
to be thanked for the administrative support We truly hope that the recommendations
they provided for the successful completion derived through this South-South
of this report. collaboration will pave the way for a stronger
and sustainable open science movement in
We also thank Prof. Srikrishna Deva Rao not just South Asia, but across the Global
(Vice-Chancellor, National Law University, South.
Delhi), Prof. Md. Akhtaruzzaman (Vice-
Chancellor, University of Dhaka), and Prof. Arul George Scaria,
Harpreet Kaur (Registrar, National Law Priyanka Choudhary,
University, Delhi) for providing necessary
support and guidance in the preparation of Vasundhra Kaul
this report. (Centre for Innovation, IP and Competition,

We must also thank all the student National Law University, Delhi, India)

volunteers at the Centre for Innovation, IP Chandranath Podder,
K. M. Ariful Kabir,
and Competition (CIIPC), particularly Mr
Abdul Kadir Farhad
Aagam Jain, Ms Athira Johny, Ms Brincy (University of Dhaka, Bangladesh)

George, Ms Chelsea Sawlani, Ms Dhanya Sohan Prasad Sha
(Martin Chautari, Nepal)
Prasad, Mr Diwakar Dalmia, Ms Nidhi Pratap

Singh, Ms Kashish Agarwal, Mr Madhav Nakra,

Ms Meghna Bhaskar, Ms Priya Rathore, and

Mr Shubhankar Tiwari for actively

contributing to this work at different stages.

We thank Ms Jameela Ahmed for providing
design inputs for this report and making the

9 Executive Summary

Executive Summary

The discourse on open science has been crisis everywhere and solidarity is the only
dominated by scholars and institutions way forward to overcome the challenges we
from the Global North, where access to are facing today as a global community. The
good digital infrastructure is a given. For UN Secretary-General has discussed this
the Global South to participate in the aspect in his recent report titled Our
international web of information, Common Agenda wherein he has emphasised
innovation, and exchange, the social, the need for a renewed social contract to
economic, infrastructural, and cultural rebuild trust and move collectively towards a
barriers prevalent in and unique to the comprehensive vision of human rights. Open
Global South require more attention. This science, in this regard, is an important tool
report is a step in this direction and it for strengthening the foundations of a
highlights the need to have more renewed global social contract and all the
discussions focusing on the challenges, four countries studied as part of this report
including those relating to digital inclusion, have a major role to play in this
in four countries in the Global South - transformation.
Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
Open science as a global movement has the
As in most other parts of the world, science potential to democratise knowledge
has been going through a severe crisis in creation and dissemination, in a fair and
these four countries too. The COVID-19 equitable manner. While it includes within its
pandemic has made this even more evident. ambit different open movements such as
The last two years have exposed some of the open access, open data, open source
major challenges in science, such as lack of software, open educational resources and
transparency, lack of sufficient open hardware, it is not a mere aggregation
communication of scientific results leading of these. It is a far broader and more
to infodemics, misplaced IP priorities comprehensive movement that focuses on
perpetuating inequalities in opportunities all stages of production and consumption of
for quality education and research, science, and calls for equity in knowledge
unethical IP claims over publicly-funded creation and prioritising socially relevant
research outputs preventing quicker and research through inclusive research
decentralised manufacturing of vaccines, approaches.
and non-involvement of voices of women
and marginalised sections in science leading UNESCO, in its 41st Session of the General
to them being the most impacted and Conference in November, 2021 took a major
vulnerable sections during the crisis. The initiative by adopting the UNESCO
COVID-19 pandemic has also illustrated to Recommendation on Open Science, that
the entire world that a crisis anywhere is a outlines a comprehensive definition,
principles and standards for open science. It
has also proposed a set of pragmatic
measures at the individual, institutional,
national, regional and international levels to
ensure fair and equitable operationalisation

Executive Summary 10

of open science for all stakeholders. The countries, in spite of a pandemic like Covid19
Recommendation has been adopted by 193 having no national boundaries, also deserves
member states of the UNESCO, and one can immediate attention from policy makers.
expect more countries, institutions, and
researchers to join the open science The report sheds light on the current status
movement to make science more inclusive of different elements of the open science
and accessible. It has envisaged four key framework advocated in the UNESCO
pillars on which open science is built namely, Recommendation, across the four countries.
open scientific knowledge, open science In the context of open access, empirical data
infrastructures, science communication, from the four countries in the report show
open engagement of societal actors, and that a considerable section of researchers
open dialogue with other knowledge cite unwillingness to pay Article Processing
systems. This inevitably requires narrowing Charges (APCs) for publications or inability
the digital, technological, and knowledge to fund APCs as major factors that dissuade
divides between and within nations. Both them from publishing in open access. While
public and private sectors have important APC payments would be a challenge for the
roles in the implementation of open science. majority of researchers in all the four
If all the member states implement the countries, the data also indicates a general
recommendations in a holistic manner, they lack of awareness among scholarly
may radically change the manner in which communities regarding the alternate open
the global scientific community engages in, access options including the green open
and with, science. To facilitate this, in-depth access route. Moreover, lack of sufficient IT
studies are required in all member states to infrastructure and funding for creating open
identify the challenges and solutions that access repositories and limited institutional
are in tune with the local and regional or policy support mechanisms to create and
realities. As a first step in this direction, this manage community-owned open access
report highlights some of the major journals remain major challenges for the
challenges and potential solutions for open open access movement in the four
science at the national and regional levels in countries. In spite of the existence of all
South Asia by taking four countries these challenges, it is good to observe the
(Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka) as progress in the total number of works
case studies. available in open access. Data from SCOPUS
for the years 2016-20 indicate that 66.2% of
In order to illustrate how these countries the works published from Nepal (Table 3.6),
have approached one of the integral 59% of the works published from Sri Lanka
elements of open science, open sharing of (Table 3.8), 51.4% of the work published from
data, the report analyses the major steps Bangladesh (Table 3.4), and 30.7% of the
taken for dissemination of diverse kinds of work published from India (Table 3.2) during
Covid19-related data among researchers and that time-period are available in at least
the general public. The report observes some form of open access. However, a lot
many common characteristics in the more can be, and needs to be done on the
limitations and challenges faced by these open access front.
four countries in this regard. This includes
data denial, data opacity, and data scarcity Similar challenges could be seen with regard
(primarily, the lack of availability of granular, to open data. While all the four countries
historical and interlinked data in accessible have made efforts to make more data
and easily reusable formats). The lack of available to the public, the report observes
specific measures to facilitate and promote several common challenges across the four
data sharing among researchers in these countries. These include incomplete

11 Executive Summary

datasets, lack of regular updates, lack of government, can help in creating awareness
release of datasets in machine readable about the potential benefits of OSS and
and/or reusable formats, and lack of clarity enhance capacity-building on diverse skills.
on licences. The empirical data from the The common challenge seen for the open
study also suggests that researchers are hardware movement is lack of awareness
generally willing to share data generated by among researchers and students about the
them openly only after ensuring that all movement. Unlike OSS, it is yet to receive
potential research and publications are much attention among the policy makers
made from their datasets, and this in turn and the public in all the four countries.
would mean non-release or delayed release
of data generated by researchers. This The report illustrates that even though the
particular challenge can only be addressed potential benefits of open science
through strong mandates from the side of infrastructures are fairly intuitive, a lot more
institutions or funding agencies and the needs to be done in all the four countries to
study reveals these mandates to be create open science infrastructures. India
implemented slowly or to be non-binding. has recently seen some promising initiatives,
like the Indian Science, Technology and
The common challenges observed in the Engineering facilities Map (I-STEM). It aims to
context of open educational resources (OER) enable the sharing of equipment with
include lack of awareness about OER, lack of internal and external users in a transparent
quality in content, lack of regular updates, manner through the portal. Similarly in Nepal,
lack of clarity on licensing conditions, and a web portal was initiated with the support
copyright related limitations placed upon of the Health for Life (H4L) project, for
reproduction and publication of materials. sharing raw data and to encourage
Further, the education systems in most of researchers to investigate questions beyond
these countries are predominantly teacher- those in the studies for which data was
centric and more non-monetary incentives initially collected. But a lot more needs to be
might be required for incentivising the done in all the four countries, particularly
development and curation of dynamic and with regard to more open sharing of library
student-centric OERs. The challenges resources and lab resources that are created
discussed in the report with regard to digital with public funds. Some of the common
inclusion in these four countries also need to challenges across the four countries include
form an integral part of discussions on OER. lack of sufficient investments in STI
ecosystems, internet connectivity and
The key common challenges identified in the bandwidth issues, lack of infrastructure for
report with regard to open source software non-digital materials, and lack of knowledge
(OSS) movements are the lack of funding for co-creation and exchange platforms.
OSS projects, lack of comprehensive
educational and training programs for In order to enhance engagement with
creating awareness on OSS, lack of strong societal actors in the scientific process, new
governmental initiatives for implementation collaborative tools are helping to develop a
of OSS in potential areas, cost of internet collective intelligence compatible with
services in these countries, and inadequate multiple needs, concerns and aspirations of
educational infrastructure. There is a different stakeholders. The UNESCO
pressing need to educate enterprises about Recommendation mentions that for the
the benefits of contributing to open source effective reuse of the outputs of citizen and
projects. Collaborative efforts in this regard participatory science by other actors,
amongst all stakeholders, including including scientists, it is important to ensure
developers, industry, academia, and the that the outputs of such collaboration are

Executive Summary 12

subject to curation, standardisation and countries, ranging from 41% in India to 12% in
preservation methods necessary to ensure Bangladesh. This provides a clearer picture
the maximum benefit to all. All the four of internet penetration at the grassroots
countries analysed as part of this study are level. The cost of accessing the internet also
home to rich and diverse indigenous remains a challenge in all the four countries
knowledge systems. The potential benefits for a substantial segment of the public.
of conversations between the rich Among the four countries studied, the cost
indigenous knowledge systems in these four of 100MB of data appears to be lowest in
countries and the formal science system are Nepal (47.14) and highest in Sri Lanka
beyond doubt. However, a lot more needs to (83.64). To see these figures from a
be done in all the four countries for building comparative perspective, one may notice
mutual respect for the knowledge systems that the average cost in South Asia for
and ensuring fair and equitable sharing of 100MB is 54.78, which is lower than India, Sri
benefits, so as to foster such partnerships Lanka and Bangladesh. In the context of
between knowledge systems. discussions on the affordability of internet
access, it is also important to look at the
As the report points out, any discussion on affordability of internet access devices in
open science in these four countries would these countries. Similar to the findings on
be incomplete without a discussion on the affordability of data, when it comes to
digital inclusion-related challenges in these the cheapest internet-enabled mobile
countries. In order to analyse digital device prices, the average cost at the South
inclusion-related challenges in a Asia level (32.28) is lower than the prices
comprehensive manner, we have used the seen in Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka. The
methodological framework provided by UNU- diverse data on digital inclusion, discussed in
EGOV researchers in the 2019 report titled Chapter 3, certainly indicates the need for
Measuring the margins: A global framework proactive measures from the side of all the
for digital inclusion. The Framework relies on four countries. It can also be noted that
a combination of multiple indices - access, there is not much data available on gendered
skills, usage, and supportive environment. access to the internet in the countries
With regard to the first dimension of access, examined, or on the numbers of women and
some of the important parameters analysed gender minorities in science and research.
are access to electricity, access to the
internet, access to devices and the quality There are many country-specific challenges
of access. While the majority of the for open science and digital inclusion in
population in all the four countries is these four countries and several of them
reported to have access to electricity, it is deserve specific studies within these
not clear whether this access is countries to identify tailored solutions.
uninterrupted. The access to fixed However, Chapter 4 has identified and
broadband connection is low across all the suggested some recommendations which
four countries and this has important are commonly applicable for all the four
implications on the opportunities for people South Asian countries studied as part of this
to access, share, and produce scientific research. Specific recommendations have
information. The average mobile download been made for the two important
and upload speeds in all the four countries stakeholders - policymakers and the
surveyed are on the lower side, compared to scientific research community. Most
the global averages. There is a marked importantly, openness is yet to become a
difference in the percentage of population norm among the scientific and research
that used the internet at least once in the communities in these countries and hence
past three months among the four more dialogue and awareness campaigns are

13 Executive Summary

required to be organised to convey the inclusion-related challenges seen in these
importance of open science to all four countries. Citizen science initiatives
stakeholders. There is a need to revisit the need to be supported in diverse areas like
existing policies that can have an impact on ecological protection, law/policy making,
science, including STI policies, IP policies, etc. to increase research opportunities for
educational policies and institutional-level everyone. Similarly, collaborations with
policies, to ensure that incentive structures grassroots innovators and traditional
in those policies are aligned with the broader knowledge holders, based on the CARE
goals of open science. More collaborations principles discussed in the report, should be
need to be facilitated between the a policy priority. Policymakers should ensure
policymakers in all these four countries to that there are institution-level IP policies
address their common challenges. In the and that they provide adequate clarity on IP
context of exceptions provided under ownership in collaborative projects. In order
copyright laws in these four countries, the to make science more inclusive and have
report recommends that the exceptions broader participation of all societal actors,
under the copyright laws need to be specific policy measures are required and
reviewed urgently to ensure that broad fair some of the specific suggestions provided in
use exceptions are incorporated and that Chapter 4 include steps for facilitating
they are also complemented with meaningful participation of persons with
enumerated exceptions for teaching and disabilities, active dissemination of
research. Specific exceptions for text and information in regional languages, more
data mining (TDM) can also be helpful as it funding support to conduct socially and
would reduce legal uncertainties for regionally relevant research, and active
researchers. It is very important for the efforts to enhance participation cutting
scientific community to realise that if across all barriers of gender, caste, and class.
science has to be open and inclusive, the The report also recommends that science
most vital steps will have to be taken by the and science education in these countries
researchers themselves. While ‘open’ should need to be depoliticised and greater
be the default norm for all publicly-funded learning opportunities should be ensured for
infrastructure, the private sector also needs the public, particularly for children, on
to be encouraged to open up its different knowledge systems.
infrastructure for use by the public. It needs
to be ensured that access to cutting-edge
technological tools and lab facilities is
provided to the public in different parts of
the country in the easiest possible manner
to enrich the research and innovation
ecosystem.

Offline measures including distribution of
printed materials and active encouragement
of community radio stations are also needed
to promote science to the wider community
which does not have access to online
measures, especially in view of the digital

Closed practises are no longer
viable or useful because you
cannot survive inside bubbles.

Why do you do research if you don't want to share
your data and don't want the world to benefit from
it? Why make the effort? Why waste money? The
whole world is in a precarious situation and we
need to work together (...) wherever we are in the
globe it doesn't matter (…) now is the time to
dilute the boundaries and work together (…) we
cannot do research without people's help so we
are bound to give the outcome and benefit of our
efforts back to the people. Main thing is to
dissolve the country boundaries and as scientists
put the 'I' a bit low and get the 'we' a bit high in our
scale.”

- Dr Geetha Abeysinghe¹

1 Interview with Dr Geetha Abeysinghe, Former Program Director, Coordinating Secretariat for Technology and
Innovation, Sri Lanka (9 November 2021)

01ChCahptaerp1ter
Introduction

Introduction 16

Introduction collectively towards a comprehensive vision
of human rights. The three foundations of
The current global crisis is a wake-up call the renewed social contract, as envisaged in
for all of us to radically change the manner Our Common Agenda, are trust; inclusion,
in which we view many aspects of our lives protection and participation; and measuring
including health, education and prosperity. and valuing what matters to people and the
As the Covid19 pandemic has illustrated planet. As one would notice from different
over the past two years, a crisis anywhere is pages of the current report, open science is,
a crisis everywhere, and the only path to and can act as, an important tool for
sustainable progress and prosperity for any strengthening the three foundations of a
individual or country is to act in solidarity renewed social contract for everyone to
towards global challenges. work together towards a common agenda.

The recently released report, Our Common While there has been increasing realisation
Agenda, by the United Nations Secretary- over the years that science is going through
General, gives due recognition to this a severe crisis, both in terms of the manner in
aspect when it highlights the need for a which science is produced and the manner in
renewed social contract between which it is disseminated, the last two years
governments and their people and within have made this even more evident in light of
societies, in order to rebuild trust and move the Covid19 pandemic. For example, lack of
transparency in research and data as well as
lack of sufficient communication of
scientific results in a manner accessible to
the broader population has created fertile
ground for an infodemic.⁴ This in turn has led
to considerable vaccine hesitancy and non-
acceptance of Covid19-appropriate
behaviour like wearing masks even in
countries with high levels of formal
education. Similarly, misplaced IP priorities
continue to prevent equitable and equal
access to important scientific literature for
students and researchers across the globe,
thereby perpetuating inequalities in
opportunities for quality education and
research. Unethical IP priorities over
publicly-funded research have also
prevented the possibilities of quicker and
decentralised manufacturing of vaccines, in
spite of broad consensus among the

2 Report of the Secretary-General, ‘Our Common Agenda’ (2021) 14
3 ibid 22.
4 An infodemic is too much information including false or misleading information in digital and physical environments
during a disease outbreak. It causes confusion and risk-taking behaviours that can harm health. It also leads to mistrust
in health authorities and undermines the public health response. An infodemic can intensify or lengthen outbreaks when
people are unsure about what they need to do to protect their health and the health of people around them. With
growing digitization – an expansion of social media and internet use – information can spread more rapidly. This can
help to more quickly fill information voids but can also amplify harmful messages. <https://www.who.int/health-topics/
infodemic>accessed 16 March 2022

17 Introduction

scientific community that only quick and ‘Open science’, as a global movement, has
equitable distribution of vaccines at the the potential to transform the global
global level can end the current crisis. approaches in this regard by facilitating
Women and marginalised sections of the democratisation of knowledge creation and
society remain the most impacted and knowledge dissemination in a fair and
vulnerable sections even during this equitable manner. Though a universally
pandemic.⁵ accepted definition is still lacking for open
science, most scholars would agree that
Technology and innovation can play a major open science is an umbrella term that
role in ending this crisis and ensuring includes various open movements such as
sustainable development of the post-Covid open access, open data, open educational
world.⁶ However this requires the creation of resources, open lab books, open source
an inclusive, open, fair and non- software, and open hardware.⁹ However, it is
discriminatory science eco-system. not a mere aggregation of different open
Improving data availability, including on movements, but a far broader and more
health and environmental issues, and comprehensive movement that focuses on
harnessing the wealth of data produced by all stages of production and consumption of
digitalisation, is critical in this regard.⁷ science. UNESCO has taken a major initiative
Unfortunately, instead of leveraging the in open science by outlining a
potential of open digital infrastructures to comprehensive definition and highlighting
promote collaborations in an open, inclusive, the need for shared values, principles and
equitable, transparent, and responsible way, standards for open science. It has also
we are seeing the creation of more and more proposed a set of pragmatic measures at the
digital walls between countries and individual, institutional, national, regional
researchers. This could primarily be due to and international levels to ensure fair and
the fact that many countries and political equitable operationalisation of open science
leaders are now blindly following the ‘data as for all stakeholders.
the next oil’ protectionist narrative, instead
of exploring how data can be used for
inclusive, fair, non-discriminatory and
sustainable global prosperity.⁸

5 United Nations, Policy Brief: The Impact of COVID-19 on Women (9 April 2020) <https://www.un.org/
sexualviolenceinconflict/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/report/policy-brief-the-impact-of-covid-19-on-women/policy-
brief-the-impact-of-covid-19-on-women-en-1.pdf> accessed 16 March 2022
6 G20 Rome Leaders’ Declaration (2021) <https://www.gpfi.org/sites/gpfi/files/
7_G20%20Rome%20Leaders%27%20Declaration.pdf> accessed 16 March 2022
7 ibid.
8 Nigal Cory and Luke Dascoli, ‘How Barriers to Cross-Border Data Flows Are Spreading Globally, What They Cost, and
How to Address Them’ (ITIF, 2021) <https://itif.org/publications/2021/07/19/how-barriers-cross-border-data-flows-are-
spreading-globally-what-they-cost> accessed 16 March 2022
9 A study conducted by CIIPC has mapped around 15 different definitions for open science. Another definition was
eventually derived by CIIPC, based on the existing understandings of the term - “Open science broadly refers to scientific
inquiries wherein the characteristics of accessibility, transparency, usability, non-or minimal existence of IP
restrictions, are evident and exist throughout all stages of research. It is also characterised by openness
to inclusiveness, collaboration, constant and continuous transfer of knowledge between producers and users of
knowledge, and prioritisation of research and innovation based on social needs.” The data sheet on diverse
definitions can be accessed at <http://ciipc.org/projects/open-science-for-an-innovative-india/> accessed 16 March
2022

Historical Context Historical Context of Open Science 18
Of Open Science
gulf between creation and dissemination of
For a long time, the desire for exclusivity science.¹⁵ Most empirical data points
prevented broader dissemination of towards the concerning fact that
scientific knowledge. Different approaches oligopolistic publishers are substantially
have been taken in different parts of the controlling the dissemination of scientific
world to facilitate exclusivity and control knowledge today. While the number of
over knowledge.¹⁰ Even as science became journals has increased substantially from
more formalised, scientists followed a closed 1665 to today, there has been no
model of exclusivity due to their corresponding increase in access to
dependence on patrons.¹¹ However, in the scientific scholarly literature for the vast
post-Renaissance period, one could see a majority of the global population. Thanks to
radical shift in this regard and the idea that the paywalls around most journals, many
open exchange of knowledge contributes to communities and groups remain knowledge-
knowledge creation came to be widely deprived even today.¹⁶
accepted.¹²
Digitisation and the internet have radically
The first peer-reviewed academic science reduced the costs for communication,
journal, Philosophical Transactions, was thereby opening up far greater
published in 1665.¹³ Since then, journal- opportunities for open and free
based communication systems have become dissemination of science, as compared to
the bedrock of modern scientific the print era. However, thanks to the
communication, thereby facilitating greater extensive control publishers hold over the
openness in science.¹⁴ However, this mode of scholarly communications ecosystem,
scientific communication turned into digitisation and the internet haven't been
institutionalised and commercialised able to ensure access to scholarly
structures very quickly, and has resulted in a communication to desirable extents. To
address this, the open access movement
emerged from within the research
community.

10 For a discussion on how the caste system might have been used in India to prevent dissemination of knowledge, see
Arul George Scaria and Shreyashi Ray, ‘Knowledge Sharing and the Sharing Economy in India’ in KC. Liu, U. Racherla
(eds), Innovation, Economic Development, and Intellectual Property in India and China (Springer Open 2019).493-496
<https://www.springerprofessional.de/en/knowledge-sharing-and-the-sharing-economy-in-india/17147762> accessed
16 March 2022; B.R. Ambedkar, Annihilation of Caste (print edition of 2004) 27 <https://ccnmtl.columbia.edu/
projects/mmt/ambedkar/web/readings/aoc_print_2004.pdf> ; Uma Chakravarti, Gendering Caste (1st edn, Sage
Publications 2018) 11
11 Paul A. David, ‘The Historical Origins of “Open Science”: An Essay on Patronage, Reputation and Common Agency
Contracting in the Scientific Revolution’ (2008) 3 Capitalism and Society 1, 29
12 Bastian Wolf and Daniel Schlagwein, ‘From Open Science to Open Source (and beyond): A Historical Perspective on
Open Practices without and with IT’ (2021) OpenSym 2021: 17th International Symposium on Open Collaboration
13 Julie McDougall-Waters, Noah Moxham and Aileen Fyfe, ‘Philosophical Transactions: 350 years of publishing at the
Royal Society (1665-2015)’ The Royal Society 4 <https://royalsociety.org/~/media/publishing350/publishing350-
exhibition-catalogue.pdf> accessed 16 March 2022
14 Christian Heise, ‘From Open Access to Open Science: The Path From Scientific Reality to Open Scientific
Communication’ (2020) 10 Sage Open 1, 2 <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2158244020915900>
accessed 16 March 2022
15 Sönke Bartling and Sascha Friesike, ‘Towards Another Scientific Revolution’ in Sönke Bartling and Sascha Friesike(eds)
, Opening Science: The Evolving Guide on How the Internet is Changing Research, Collaboration and Scholarly
Publishing (Springer 2014)
16 Julian Cribb and Tjempaka Sari, Open Science: Sharing Knowledge in the Global Century (CSIRO 2010)

19 Historical Context of Open Science

As defined by Peter Suber, a work may be journals. Estimates suggest that as many as
called open access (OA) when it is digital, 862 research institutions across the globe
online, free of charge, and free of most have adopted open access mandates so
copyright and licensing restrictions.¹⁷ far.²¹

However, as highlighted in Chapter 3 of this However, there has also been an increasing
report, access to the internet is also a major realisation that open access alone may not
issue in many countries, and acts as another help us address the multi-faceted crisis in
major roadblock to open access in the Global science. A broader scientific and cultural
South. movement characterised by openness,
including transparency and inclusiveness in
Some of the major turning points in the open scientific research and broader and
access movement include the Budapest accessible dissemination of research, is
Open Access Initiative¹⁸, the Bethesda required to address the crisis.²² The open
Statement on Open Access Publishing¹⁹, and science movement, which advocates for not
the Berlin Declaration on Open Access to just openness in sharing, but also openness
Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities²⁰. and inclusivity in knowledge production, is a
All of these proved influential in the major step in this regard.²³ Open science
development of open access principles in encompasses other major open movements
different ways. These declarations solidified such as open access, open data, open
the global open science community’s call for source software, open educational
removal of legal, social, economic and resources and open hardware.²⁴ Open
technical barriers towards access to science also calls for equity in knowledge
knowledge. They also led to diverse open creation and prioritising socially relevant
access mandates from educational/research research through inclusive research
institutions and funding agencies across the approaches. ²⁵
globe. Some of these mandates require
researchers to self-archive the final Different countries and regional blocks have
accepted versions of their manuscripts in an started taking diverse open science
open repository and others require authors initiatives. For example, open science
to publish their works only in open access components appear prominently in different

17 Peter Suber, ‘Open Access Overview: Focusing on open access to peer-reviewed research articles and their preprints’
(2004) <https://legacy.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/overview.htm> accessed 16 March 2022
18 Budapest Open Access Initiative (2002) <https://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org/read/> accessed 16 March
2022
19 Bethesda Statement on Open Access Publishing (20 June 2003) <https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/
1/4725199/Suber_bethesda.htm?sequence=3&isAllowed=y> accessed 16 March 2022
20 Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities (22 October 2003) <https://
openaccess.mpg.de/Berlin-Declaration> accessed 16 March 2022
21 Registry of Open Access Repository Mandates and Policies (ROARMAP) <http://roarmap.eprints.org/> accessed 16
March 2022
22 International Scientific Council, ‘Open Science for the 21st Century’ Draft ISC Working Paper (June 2020) <https://
en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/isc_paper_for_unesco_open_science_consultation_2020.pdf> accessed 16 March
2022
23 Ruben Vicente-Saez, Robin Gustafsson and Clara Martinez-Fuentes, ‘Opening up science for a sustainable world: An
expansive normative structure of open science in the digital era’ (2021) 48 (6) Science and Public Policy 799
24 UNESCO, ‘Recommendation on Open Science’ (2021) SC-PCB-SPP/2021/OS/UROS 9-10
25 supra (n 6).

Historical Context of Open Science 20

parts of the draft Science, Technology and
Innovation Policy of India.²⁶ Countries like
France have released detailed plans for
making open science the default norm in
science within the country.²⁷ The European
Union has also taken different open science
initiatives, including the creation of an
European Open Science Cloud.²⁸ Similarly,
the African Open Science Platform has
started taking different open science
initiatives across Africa.²⁹

26 Department of Science and Technology, ‘Science, technology, and innovation policy’ (December 2020) 11 <https://
dst.gov.in/sites/default/files/STIP_Doc_1.4_Dec2020.pdf> accessed 16 March 2022
27 Second French Plan for Open Science (2021) <https://www.ouvrirlascience.fr/second-national-plan-for-open-
science/> accessed 16 March 2022
28 European Commission, ‘The EU's open science policy’ <https://ec.europa.eu/info/research-and-innovation/strategy/
strategy-2020-2024/our-digital-future/open-science_en> accessed 2 January 2022.
29 Committee on Data, International Science Council,‘African Open Science Platform: Strategy and Vision’ <https://
codata.org/initiatives/decadal-programme2/global-open-science-cloud/african-open-science/> accessed 16 March
2022

21 UNESCO Recommendation common good; inclusive and non‐
discriminatory work conditions and access
UNESCO to education and employment in science;
Recommendation any scientific conduct to be subject to
universal human rights standards; balancing
UNESCO in its 36th session of the General the freedoms, rights and responsibilities of
Conference (2011) had also recognised the researchers; scientific integrity and ethical
need to promote universal and open access codes of conduct for science and research
to scientific information and research, and and their technical applications; the vital
consequently adopted the ‘strategy on importance of human capital for a sound and
UNESCO’s contribution to the promotion of responsible science system; and the role of
open access to scientific information and Member States in creating an enabling
research’.³⁰ It further invited Member States environment for science and research.
and other funding bodies to make
extrabudgetary contributions for the With the recent adoption of the UNESCO
implementation of the open access Recommendation on Open Science by 193
strategy. member states of the UNESCO (hereinafter
referred to as ‘UNESCO Recommendation’),
This was followed by the UNESCO one can expect more countries, institutions,
Recommendation on Science and Scientific and researchers to join the open science
Researchers in 2017 wherein Member States movement to make science more inclusive
were invited to focus on 10 key areas.³¹ These and accessible.³³ Though the UNESCO
included the responsibility of science Recommendation may not have a direct
towards the United Nations’ ideals of human legally binding effect on the member states,
dignity, progress, justice, peace, welfare of it is a reflection of the desire of the global
humankind and respect for the environment; community to make substantial changes in
the need for science to meaningfully the manner in which science is produced and
interact with society and vice versa; the role shared today, and may contribute
of science in national policy and decision substantially to making open science the
making, international cooperation and global norm.
development; the promotion of science as a

Major initiatives of UNESCO in the area of Open Science

Revised draft strategy - Recommendation on UNESCO
Promotion of Open Access to Science and Scientific Recommendation
Researchers' (Revised on Open Science
Scientific Information and
Research version)

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

30 UNESCO, ‘Records of the General Conference, 36th session, Paris, 25 October - 10 November 2011, v. 1:
Resolutions’ <https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000215084> accessed 16 March 2022
31 UNESCO, ‘Focused implementation: the 10 key areas of the UNESCO Recommendation on the Status of Scientific
Researchers’ (2017) <https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000369170/PDF/369170eng.pdf.multi> accessed
16 March 2022
32 UNESCO Recommendation (n 24).
33 UNESCO, ‘UNESCO sets ambitious international standards for open science’ (26 November 2021) <https://
www.unesco.org/en/articles/unesco-sets-ambitious-international-standards-open-science?hub=hub%3D686> accessed
16 March 2022

UNESCO Recommendation 22

Open Science as subsystems of knowledge by means of
Envisaged in the
UNESCO systematic reflection and
Recommendation
conceptualization; and thereby furnishes
The UNESCO Recommendation, adopted in
the 41st Session of the UNESCO General itself with the opportunity of using, to its
Conference in November 2021, intends to
establish an international framework by own advantage, understanding of the
putting forward a comprehensive and
inclusive definition of Open Science, processes and phenomena occurring in
identifying certain core principles that guide
open science, and providing specific nature and society.”³⁴ Clearly, this is a broad
recommendations on priority areas of action.
The Recommendation also gives due definition that takes into consideration the
consideration to regional, cultural and
disciplinary differences in approaches to diversity of disciplines. It breaks the
open science. This acceptance of the value
of diversity, and the manifold steps conservative approach of limiting ‘science’
suggested for achieving epistemic justice at
the global level, can go a long way in to the natural sciences by including within
ensuring a sustainable global open science
movement. its ambit other important areas like

Definition and Pillars of Open humanities and social sciences.
Science
As the UNESCO Recommendation clarifies at
The UNESCO Recommendation derives the the outset, open science integrates
definition of the term “Science” from the practices for reproducibility, transparency,
2017 UNESCO Recommendation on Science sharing and collaboration, resulting from the
and Scientific Researchers, which defines increased opening of scientific contents,
science as “the enterprise whereby tools and processes into the scientific
humankind, acting individually or in small or enterprise by building on the essential
large groups, makes an organized attempt, principles of academic freedom, research
by means of the objective study of observed integrity and scientific excellence. ³⁵
phenomena and its validation through
sharing of findings and data and through It defines ‘Open Science’ as “an inclusive
peer review, to discover and master the
chain of casualties, relations or interactions; construct that combines various movements
brings together in a coordinated form
and practices aiming to make multilingual

scientific knowledge openly available,

accessible and reusable for everyone, to

increase scientific collaborations and

sharing of information for the benefits of

science and society, and to open the

processes of scientific knowledge creation,

evaluation and communication to societal

actors beyond the traditional scientific

community. It comprises all scientific

disciplines and aspects of scholarly

practices, including basic and applied

sciences, natural and social sciences and

the humanities, and it builds on the following

key pillars: open scientific knowledge, open

science infrastructures, science

communication, open engagement of

societal actors and open dialogue with other

knowledge systems.”³⁶

34 UNESCO Recommendation (n 24) 7.
35 ibid.
36 ibid.

23 UNESCO Recommendation

1. Open Scientific Knowledge academic institution, scholarly

society, government agency or any

According to the UNESCO Recommendation, other well-established not-for-profit

open scientific knowledge refers to “open organisation devoted to common

access to scientific publications, research good, it is important to ensure that

data, metadata, open educational resources, they provide open access,

software, and source code and hardware unrestricted distribution,

that are available in the public domain or interoperability, and long-term digital

under copyright and licensed under an open preservation and archiving.³⁸ To avoid

licence that allows access, re-use, ambiguities in interpretation, the

repurpose, adaptation and distribution UNESCO Recommendation expressly

under specific conditions, provided to all clarifies that a pay-walled method of

actors immediately or as quickly as possible publication, i.e., where immediate

regardless of location, nationality, race, age, access to scientific publications is

gender, income, socio-economic granted only in exchange for payment,

circumstances, career stage, discipline, is not aligned with the

language, religion, disability, ethnicity or Recommendation.³⁹ To address the

migratory status or any other grounds, and malpractice of some publishers in

free of charge. It also refers to the possibility using restrictive copyright licensing

of opening research methodologies and agreements to prevent open access

evaluation processes.”³⁷ Five key elements efforts by researchers, the UNESCO

comprising Open Scientific Knowledge have Recommendation also categorically

been discussed herein. mentions that any transfer or licensing

of copyrights to third parties should

a. Open Access not restrict the public’s right to

immediate open access to a scientific

The open access mandate under the publication.⁴⁰

UNESCO Recommendation is applicable

to different kinds of scientific b. Open Research Data

publications including peer reviewed

books, journal articles, reports, and Open research data, as envisaged in

conference papers. However, it the UNESCO Recommendation,

provides sufficient flexibility to meet includes both raw and processed

the open access requirement. digital and analogue data, and the

Publishers may either provide access accompanying metadata.⁴¹ It

through their open access publishing envisages data sharing in a timely,

platforms, or the works may be made curated and reusable manner, and the

available through an open access UNESCO Recommendation specifically

repository immediately upon mentions FAIR (Findable, Accessible,

publication. While it is specifically Interoperable, and Reusable) principles

mentioned that the repository could in the context of good data

be supported and maintained by an governance and stewardship.⁴²

37 ibid 9.
38 ibid.
39 ibid.
40 ibid.
41 ibid.
42 ibid 10.

UNESCO Recommendation 24

c. Open Educational Resources grants others the right to use, access,
modify, expand, study, create
With regard to open educational derivative works and share the
resources (OER), it is important to software and its source code, design
observe that the UNESCO or blueprint.”⁴⁶ In the specific context
Recommendation covers teaching, of open science, the UNESCO
learning and research materials in a Recommendation notes that where
digital as well as physical medium. It open source code is a component of
has adopted the definition of OER the research process, access to open
provided in the 2019 UNESCO data and open specifications of the
Recommendation on OER, and it environment required to compile and
specifically uses the words “any run the programme are also generally
medium – digital or otherwise”, required for enabling reuse and
allowing such a broad ambit.⁴³ The key replication.
requirement is that those materials
must reside in the public domain or e. Open Hardware
must have been released under an
open licence that permits payment- Last, but not the least, open hardware
free access, use, adaptation and
redistribution by others with no or also finds specific mention as part of
limited restrictions.⁴⁴ This is relevant
even in the offline context. For open scientific knowledge. The
example, an open license with no
restrictions on reproduction of the Recommendation notes that open
materials would facilitate easier
distribution of materials in print form in hardware “includes design
areas with limited or no internet.
specifications of a physical object
d. Open Source Software
which are licensed in such a way that
Open Scientific Knowledge, as
envisaged under the UNESCO said object can be studied, modified,
Recommendation also covers open
source software.⁴⁵ The UNESCO created and distributed by anyone,
Recommendation requires that
software and source code be “made providing as many people as possible
publicly available, in a timely and user-
friendly manner, in human- and with the ability to construct, remix and
machine-readable and modifiable
format, under an open license that share their knowledge of hardware

design and function.”⁴⁷ The

Recommendation also makes the

pertinent observation that in the case

of both open source software and

open hardware, a community-driven

process for contribution, attribution

and governance is required to enable

reuse, improve sustainability and

reduce unnecessary duplication of

effort. ⁴⁸

43 UNESCO Recommendation on Open Educational Resources (25 November 2019) Section 1 <https://en.unesco.org/
themes/building-knowledge-societies/oer/recommendation> accessed 16 March 2022 “Open Educational Resources
(OER) are learning, teaching and research materials in any format and medium that reside in the public domain or are
under copyright that have been released under an open licence, that permit no-cost access, re-use, re-purpose,
adaptation and redistribution by others.”
44 UNESCO Recommendation (n 24) 10.
45 ibid 10.
46 ibid.
47 ibid.
48 ibid.

25 UNESCO Recommendation

The UNESCO Recommendation specifically well as physical structures.⁵⁴ Scientific
points out that access to scientific
knowledge should be as open as possible instruments and equipment, knowledge
and access restrictions need to be
proportionate and justified.⁴⁹ The only resources such as collections, journals, open
grounds provided for restriction of access
are protection of human rights, national access publication platforms, and
security, confidentiality, right to privacy and
respect for humans, legal process, public repositories are also mentioned as examples
order, protection of intellectual property
rights or personal information, sacred and of open scientific infrastructures.⁵⁵ The term
secret indigenous knowledge, and rare,
threatened or endangered species.⁵⁰ Even also specifically includes open
for data or code that cannot be openly
shared, the UNESCO Recommendation computational and data manipulation
suggests that it be made available amongst
specific users based on criteria defined by infrastructures that can enable collaborative
the concerned local, national or regional
authorities.⁵¹ It is also important to add that and multidisciplinary data analyses.⁵⁶ The
the UNESCO Recommendation takes into
account the need for viewing justifications UNESCO Recommendation provides many
for restricting access in a dynamic manner
and specifically suggests that some data more examples and also points out that the
which might initially have been under
restricted access may have to be made open infrastructures are often a result of
later, and vice versa.⁵²
community-building efforts, which are

crucial for long-term sustainability.⁵⁷ The

UNESCO Recommendation also suggests

that these infrastructures must be not-for-

profit and must guarantee permanent and

unrestricted access to the maximum

possible extent to fulfil the objectives of

open science.⁵⁸

2. Open Science Infrastructure 3. Communication and
Engagement with Societal
The second key pillar of open science, as Actors

envisaged by the UNESCO Recommendation, This pillar primarily aims at making science
more inclusive and less elitist by enabling
is Open Science Infrastructure, which extended collaborations between scientists
and other societal actors outside the formal
generally refers to shared infrastructure scientific community. New forms of
collaboration such as crowd-funding,
that can cater to the needs of diverse crowd-sourcing, and scientific volunteering
provide many opportunities in this regard.
communities.⁵³ Under the UNESCO The possibilities for enhanced dialogue
between scientists and other societal actors
Recommendation, Open Scientific may in turn give all stakeholders a greater
voice in developing research to better cater
Infrastructures specifically include virtual as

49 ibid 11.
50 ibid.
51 ibid.
52 ibid 12.
53 ibid.
54 ibid.
55 ibid.
56 ibid..
57 ibid.
58 ibid.

UNESCO Recommendation 26

to their concerns, needs and aspirations.⁵⁹ Indigenous Data Governance while dealing
The UNESCO Recommendation points out with the knowledge and data shared by the
that curation, standardisation and indigenous communities.⁶⁴ The CARE
preservation methods are necessary to (Collective Benefit, Authority to Control,
ensure effective reuse of the outputs Responsibility and Ethics) data principles
produced in this regard and maximum are particularly significant to this.⁶⁵
benefit to all, including scientists.⁶⁰
While the UNESCO Recommendation
4. Dialogue with Knowledge recognises that the public sector has a
Systems leading role to play in the implementation of
open science, it also points out that open
The fourth and the final pillar of open science principles should guide research
science is dialogue with other knowledge funded by the private sector as well. For
systems.⁶¹ In tune with the 2001 UNESCO example, many of the clinical trials on
Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, COVID19-related vaccines were funded by
this pillar recognises the diversity and private pharmaceutical companies. But
richness of different knowledge systems there is an imminent need to share such data
and epistemologies.⁶² It promotes inclusion due to the wider public health implications.
of knowledge from traditionally marginalised The UNESCO Recommendation also
scholars.⁶³ It also advocates for inter- underlines the fact that operationalisation
relationships between diverse systems of of open science demands participation from
knowledge, such as indigenous knowledge, multiple actors and diverse stakeholders in
whilst adhering to international human rights research and innovation systems and
norms and standards. Respect for provides a long list of potential
knowledge sovereignty and ensuring fair participants.⁶⁷
and equitable sharing of benefits arising
from any utilisation of such knowledge are The UNESCO Recommendation identifies four
integral elements in this regard. The UNESCO
Recommendation specifically highlights the core values of open science, arising from the
need for adhering to the 2007 United
Nations Declaration on the Rights of diverse implications (including
Indigenous Peoples and Principles for
epistemological, legal and technical

implications) of opening up science to the

society and extending the principles of

openness to all stages of research. These

59 ibid 14.
60 ibid.
61 ibid 15.
62 ibid.
63 ibid.
64 ibid.
65 ibid.
66 ibid 16.
67 ibid. The list specifically includes researchers, scientists and scholars, leaders at research institutions, educators,
academia, members of professional societies, students and young researcher organisations, information specialists,
librarians, users and the public at large, including communities, indigenous knowledge holders and civil society
organisations, computer scientists, software developers, coders, creatives, innovators, engineers, citizen scientists, legal
scholars, legislators, magistrates and civil servants, publishers, editors and members of professional societies, technical
staff, research funders and philanthropists, policymakers, learned societies, practitioners from professional fields,
representatives of the science, technology and innovation-related private sector.

27 UNESCO Recommendation

core values are quality and integrity⁶⁸; flexibility⁷⁶ and sustainability.⁷⁷ These
collective benefit⁶⁹; equity and fairness⁷⁰ guiding principles are carefully nested in the
and diversity and inclusiveness⁷¹. The UNESCO Recommendation to achieve and
UNESCO Recommendation also identifies six sustain the objectives and core values of
guiding principles which provide a open science.
framework for enabling conditions and
practices within which the identified core The UNESCO Recommendation has also
values are upheld, and the ideals of open identified seven areas wherein concurrent
science would be materialised. These are action is required from the side of the
transparency, scrutiny, critique and member states to achieve the objectives of
reproducibility⁷²; equality of opportunity⁷³; the Recommendation.⁷⁸ The member states
responsibility, respect and accountability⁷⁴; may implement these by taking into
collaboration, participation and inclusion⁷⁵;

68 ibid 17: “[O]pen science should respect academic freedom and human rights and support high-quality research by
bringing together multiple sources of knowledge and making research methods and outputs widely available for rigorous
review and scrutiny, and transparent evaluation processes.”
69 ibid 17: “[A]s a global public good, open science should belong to humanity in common and benefit humanity as a
whole. To this end, scientific knowledge should be openly available and its benefits universally shared. The practice of
science should be inclusive, sustainable and equitable, also in opportunities for scientific education and capacity
development.”
70 ibid 17: “[O]pen science should play a significant role in ensuring equity among researchers from developed and
developing countries, enabling fair and reciprocal sharing of scientific inputs and outputs and equal access to scientific
knowledge to both producers and consumers of knowledge regardless of location, nationality, race, age, gender,
income, socio-economic circumstances, career stage, discipline, language, religion, disability, ethnicity or migratory
status, or any other grounds.”
71 ibid 17: “[O]pen science should embrace a diversity of knowledge, practises, workflows, languages, research outputs
and research topics that support the needs and epistemic pluralism of the scientific community as a whole, diverse
research communities and scholars, as well as the wider public and knowledge holders beyond the traditional scientific
community, including indigenous peoples and local communities, and social actors from different countries and regions,
as appropriate.”
72 ibid 18: “[I]ncreased openness should be promoted in all stages of the scientific endeavour, with the view to
reinforcing the strength and rigour of scientific results, enhancing the societal impact of science and increasing the
capacity of society as a whole to solve complex interconnected problems. Increased openness leads to increased
transparency and trust in scientific information and reinforces the fundamental feature of science as a distinct form of
knowledge based on evidence and tested against reality, logic and the scrutiny of scientific peers.”
73 ibid 18: “[A]ll scientists and other open science actors and stakeholders, regardless of location, nationality, race, age,
gender, income, socio-economic circumstances, career stage, discipline, language, religion, disability, ethnicity or
migratory status, or any other grounds, have an equal opportunity to access, and contribute to and benefit from open
science.”
74 ibid 18: “[W]ith greater openness comes greater responsibility for all open science actors, which, together with public
accountability, sensitivity to conflicts of interest, vigilance as to possible social and ecological consequences of research
activities, intellectual integrity and respect for ethical principles and implications pertaining to research, should form the
basis for good governance of open science.”
75 ibid 18: “[C]ollaborations at all levels of the scientific process, beyond the boundaries of geography, language,
generations and resources, should become the norm, and collaboration between disciplines should be promoted,
together with the full and effective participation of societal actors and inclusion of knowledge from marginalised
communities in solving problems of social importance.”
76 ibid 19: “[D]ue to the diversity of science systems, actors and capacities across the world, as well as the evolving
nature of supporting information and communication technologies, there is no one-size-fits-all way of practising open
science. Different pathways of transition to and practice of open science need to be encouraged while upholding the
above-mentioned core values and maximising adherence to the other principles hereby presented.”
77 ibid 18: “[T]o be as efficient and impactful as possible, open science should build on long-term practises, services,
infrastructures and funding models that ensure the equal participation of scientific producers from less privileged
institutions and countries. Open science infrastructures should be organised and financed upon an essentially not-for-
profit and long-term vision, which enhance open science practises and guarantee permanent and unrestricted access to
all, to the largest extent possible.”

UNESCO Recommendation 28

consideration international law as well as research process;⁸⁴ and
their respective local political, administrative
and legal frameworks. These seven areas of (vii) promotion and reinforcement of
action are international cooperation among all open
science actors with a view of reducing
(i) promotion of a common understanding of technological and knowledge-related
open science and its benefits, whilst gaps.⁸⁵
respecting diversity of approaches to
achieve the same;⁷⁹ It needs to be re-emphasised that the
specific recommendations in the seven
(ii) taking measures for the evolution of an areas of concurrent action identified in the
enabling policy environment for open UNESCO Recommendation are to be
science at the institutional, national, implemented in accordance with the local
regional and international levels through a political, administrative and legal
transparent and participatory dialogue frameworks. This assures considerable
process that takes into consideration the flexibility for the member states of UNESCO
diverse concerns of the stakeholders;⁸⁰ to implement the specific recommendations.
If all the member states are implementing
(iii) promoting strategic investments the recommendations in a holistic manner,
(including financial and human resources) in they may radically change the manner in
open science infrastructures and services which the global scientific community
with a focus on long-term maintenance of engages in, and with, science.
such technical and digital infrastructure;⁸¹

(iv) investment in capacity building and
human capital in order to promote targeted
research and skill-development in areas of
advancement of scientific practice in a
manner that adapts such practises to the
changes and challenges of the
contemporary world;⁸²

(v) fostering a culture of open science and
aligning incentives for open science,
including a re-examination of the research
and career evaluation and award systems;⁸³

(vi) promoting innovative approaches for
open science at all stages of the scientific

78 ibid 20-21.
79 ibid.
80 ibid 21-22.
81 ibid 23-25.
82 ibid 26-27.
83 ibid 27-29.
84 ibid 30-31.
85 ibid 32-33.

29 Open Science and Digital Inclusion

Open Science South. Thanks to the internet, individuals
and Digital Inclusion have the opportunity to access far greater
knowledge resources today. The internet
Most discussions on open science tend to has also helped break many financial, social
overlook the role of digital inclusion in and institutional constraints to participating
fostering open science. This is hardly in the knowledge creation process in the
surprising, as the discourse on open science Global South. At low marginal costs, the
has been dominated by scholars and internet facilitates a decentralised, open,
institutions from the Global North, where collaborative and non-proprietary culture
access to good digital infrastructure is a built on resource sharing and collaboration.⁹¹
given. However, one cannot overlook the fact
that substantial digital gaps exist between One must also view the need for more
and within countries and regions across the discussions on digital inclusion in light of the
globe.⁸⁶ This has enormous implications for fact that the Global South still faces severe
open science, as digital technologies are limitations with respect to physical
central to its evolution. infrastructure. Offline or physical access to
information is often limited and accessible
At least three of the four core pillars of open only to certain privileged sections in society.
science discussed earlier (access to Access to the internet helps reduce
scientific knowledge; open science educational and administrative costs and
infrastructure; and science communication improve the opportunities for quality
and open engagement between scientists education and research. The Covid19
and other societal actors) require pandemic has further exacerbated the
substantial global efforts towards digital challenge of access to physical resources in
inclusion.⁸⁷ In a world where digital the Global South. With restrictions on
processes dominate the creation, movement and the absence of good public
dissemination and communication of transport facilities, internet connectivity
information and knowledge, free and open remains the only way to ensure continued
digital access to science as a global public access to science and education for a
good must be made a priority.⁸⁸ The UNESCO substantial segment of the population of
Recommendation has highlighted the the Global South.
challenge of digital gaps in the preamble of
the document itself.⁸⁹ One of the key aims of The issue of digital inclusion is also relevant
the Recommendation is to narrow the in the context of the current dominance of
digital, technological and knowledge divides the Global North in the knowledge creation
between and within nations.⁹⁰ and dissemination process. The UNESCO
report on Open Science in the 21st century
The internet has a particularly important role has highlighted that the United States,
in facilitating open science in the Global Canada, Europe, China, Australia, and Japan
account for the majority of global
knowledge on the internet. To the detriment

86 ibid 2.
87 ibid.
88 supra (n 22).
89 UNESCO Recommendation (n 24) 2.
90 ibid 2, 6.
91 Centre for Innovation, Intellectual Property and Competition, ‘Open Science India Report’ (2018) 41 <http://
anyflip.com/srkpg/wxpv/> accessed 16 March 2022

Open Science and Digital Inclusion 30

of the South, the historically eminent Assembly.⁹³ However there is often a gap
journals of the Global North, which are between what scientists are doing and what
mostly in commercial hands, also tend to society needs and this needs to be
monopolise science dissemination globally. addressed through inclusive, collaborative,
For the Global South to participate in the and interdisciplinary approaches.⁹⁴ As is
international web of information, innovation, evident in the context of challenges like the
and exchange, it is critical that it be able to Covid19 pandemic, open science can play a
negotiate a low-cost point of entry into the pivotal role in bridging this gap between
knowledge dissemination system.⁹² The science and society in an inclusive and
internet provides an opportunity in this equitable manner.⁹⁵ A careful look at the
regard. But factors like inadequate Sustainable Development Framework
infrastructure, lack of affordable internet agreements entered by India, Sri Lanka,
access, socio-cultural barriers to access, Bangladesh and Nepal can clearly illustrate
lack of capital, and absence of an effective that open science and digital inclusion are
data governance regime continue to remain integral pathways for achieving many of the
challenges for the Global South. For open SDG-related commitments.
science to become the default norm in
science, more discussions are required to INDIA: For example, the Government of India
address challenges relating to digital and the United Nations have designed the
inclusion and the current report is a step in Government of India - United Nations
this direction, by highlighting such Sustainable Development Framework
challenges to open science in four countries (UNSDF) for the period 2018-2022 wherein 7
in the Global South. key national priorities (aligned with the
global 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Open Science and Development) and the strategies for their
Digital Inclusion as implementation have been identified.⁹⁶ The
Pathways for UNSDF lays down certain common strategies
Achieving SDGs in order to achieve the outcomes identified
under its framework and open science and
Science can play a pivotal role in tackling digital inclusion can immensely help in this
some of the biggest challenges the world is regard. For instance, the UNSDF recognises
facing today and help in achieving the the need for better evidence-based
sustainable development goals (‘SDG’) as decision-making through reliable and
envisaged by the United Nations General comparable data. Open data, an integral
element of the open science movement, is
thereby having a very important role in the
developmental agenda. Similarly, open
access, another integral element of the open
science movement, ensures greater access

92 supra (n 22).
93 The Power of Data to Advance the SDGs: Mapping research for the Sustainable Development Goals (Elsevier, 2020)
<https://www.elsevier.com/connect/sdg-report> accessed 16 March 2022
94 ibid.
95 Wu Zhaohui, ‘Why the world needs to embrace open science’ (World Economic Forum, 2021)<https://
www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/10/why-open-science-is-the-cornerstone-of-sustainable-development/> accessed 16
March 2022
96 Government of India and the United Nations: Sustainable Development Framework 2018-2022 (2018)<https://
digitallibrary.in.one.un.org/PdfViewer.aspx?FileName=2298_1.pdf&amp;Resourcekey=2SWHFU2XcUY> accessed 16
March 2022

31 Open Science and Digital Inclusion

to knowledge and thereby also enhances the solutions for a sustainable future. ⁹⁸
quality of scientific research. Open sharing of
genome-sequencing data and open access to SRI LANKA: Similarly, in the context of Sri
scientific publications during the last two
years have certainly demonstrated the Lanka, the United Nations Sustainable
imminent need for openness for more effective
responses in the fight against challenges like Development Framework (UNSDF) 2018-2022
the COVID19 pandemic. ⁹⁷
signed between the United Nations and the
The UNSDF further emphasises the importance
of inclusivity and wider access and Government of Sri Lanka shows that the UN
dissemination of knowledge. Open science
promotes inclusivity by opening up science to and its 13 agencies have undertaken to
communities previously excluded from the
knowledge creation and dissemination provide support and assistance for the
process. It also improves development,
monitoring and evaluation of existing attainment of the 2030 Sustainable
government initiatives, and helps address key
challenges faced by the country in a targeted Development Goals (SDGs) in Sri Lanka.⁹⁹ The
manner. The UNSDF also identifies development
of better digital service delivery solutions and framework has identified four strategic
exchange of global innovations as strategies to
increase urbanisation. These efforts can also areas of focus in this regard - (1) improving
be bolstered through adoption of open
software as well as open hardware. data, knowledge management and

Access to quality learning for all levels of evidence-based policy; (2) strengthening
education, recognized as Priority III, can
significantly benefit from open educational innovative public institutions and
resources and open access policies. Open
educational resources not only enhance engagement towards a lasting peace; (3)
access to quality learning for all but also affect
other priority areas, like alleviation of poverty human security and socio-economic
and increasing opportunities for productive
employment, through skill development and resilience and (4) enhancing resilience to
capacity-building. Apart from enabling open
and affordable technologies and innovations, climate change and disasters and
open science can help in enhancing critical
climate change research and developing strengthening environmental
reliable and accessible disaster management
management.¹⁰⁰ As illustrated earlier in the

context of India, Open Science can make

immense contributions towards improved

data, knowledge management and

evidence-based policy under UNSDF and

thereby help in the realisation of the

associated SDGs. More specifically, open

access can ensure achievement of SDGs

such as resilient infrastructure, sustainable

industrialisation and fostering of innovation,

quality education, reduced inequalities and

improved partnership. Adoption of open data

approach in sharing and management of

government data can lead to evidence-

based policy-making which will prove to be

more effective in attaining SDGs such as

good health and well-being, no poverty, zero

hunger, reduced inequalities, decent work

and economic growth and strong

97 See Ian Le Guillou, ‘Covid-19: How unprecedented data sharing has led to faster-than-ever outbreak research’
(Horizon:European Commission, 2020) <https://ec.europa.eu/research-and-innovation/en/horizon-magazine/
covid-19-how-unprecedented-data-sharing-has-led-faster-ever-outbreak-research> accessed 16 March 2022
98 Sulayman K Sowe, Givindan Parayil and Atsushi Sunami (eds), Free and Open Source Software and Technology for
Sustainable Development (UNU Press 2012)
99 Sri Lanka Government and the United Nations, ‘United Nations Sustainable Development Framework 2018-2022 Sri
Lanka’ (2018) <https://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/en/2017/united-nations-sustainable-development-
framework-2018-2022-unsdf-6602> accessed 16 March 2022
100 ibid 27.

Open Science and Digital Inclusion 32

institutions. Open educational resources will regard to relative vulnerability to climate
lead to better knowledge management and change, earthquake, and flood hazards
thereby contribute towards SDGs like quality respectively.¹⁰² UNSDF envisions SDGs 11th
education and industry, innovation and and 13th with the optimum use of science
infrastructure. Open source software, open and technology to enhance knowledge
hardware and open science infrastructure management in DRR and CCA.
can also speed up the efficient achievement
of SDG goals such as industry, innovation BANGLADESH: The Bangladesh Government
and infrastructure, reduced inequalities,
strong institutions and better partnership and the United Nations have recently signed
between countries.
the United Nations Sustainable Development
NEPAL: In the context of Nepal, the UNSDF
2018-2022 sets out priorities in four areas Cooperation Framework (UNSDCF)
with 21 resident and non-resident agencies
in Nepal: 1) sustainable and inclusive 2022-2026 to achieve the 2030 Sustainable
economic growth; 2) social development; 3)
resilience, disaster risk reduction (DRR), and Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
climate change adaptation (CCA); and 4)
governance, rule of law and human rights and the country’s Strategic Vision 2041.¹⁰³
that are directly and indirectly linked with
SDGs.¹⁰¹ Openness is the key to achieving The framework recognises five strategic
priorities aligned also with the agenda of
transforming Nepal into a middle-income priority areas: (1) Inclusive and Sustainable
country by 2030. The UN agencies directly
support some of the key survey/studies Economic Development; (2) Equitable Human
programs such as annual household survey,
Nepal living standard survey, labor force Development and Well Being; (3) Sustainable,
survey, national demographic health survey
and multiple indicator cluster survey, and Healthy and Resilient Environment; (4)
indirectly support census and other surveys
by the Central Bureau of Statistics. The open Transformative, Participatory and Inclusive
sharing of information not only cross-cuts
to various SDGs that are used by various Governance; and (5) Gender Equality and
research organisations, governmental and
non-governmental agencies, but would also Eliminating Gender-Based Violence.¹⁰⁴ Human
facilitate in achieving priorities of UNSDF
mobilising UN agencies for inclusive social development, health, environment, and
development by identifying the appropriate
knowledge to reform the governance education are areas that require
system. For instance, Nepal ranks 4th, 11th,
and 30th – among 200 countries – with considerable attention for meeting the SDGs

of Bangladesh. Though the country has

achieved impressive economic growth and

poverty reduction over the last couple of

years, creative policies are required to rein in

the growing inequality in access to quality

education, good healthcare, food security

and employment. Different elements of the

open science movement, including open

access, open data, and open infrastructure,

can help in providing the best possible

scientific insights and policymaking, and

fuelling the progress towards achieving the

UNSDCF related commitments. Open Science

can also help in better addressing challenges

that require collaborative and

multidisciplinary solutions.

101 2018-2022 United Nations Development Assistance Framework for Nepal's (2018) <https://www.npc.gov.np/
images/category/UNDAF_2018-2022_with_signature_page.pdf> accessed 16 March 2022
102 Beda Nidhi Khanal, ‘Nepal: A brief country profile on Disaster Risk Reduction and Management’ (ADRC Asia,
January 2020) <https://www.adrc.asia/countryreport/NPL/2019/Nepal_CR2019B.pdf > accessed 16 March 2022
103 United Nations Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework (UNSDCF) 2022-2026 <https://
bangladesh.un.org/en/159767-united-nations-sustainable-development-cooperation-framework-unsdcf-2022-2026>
accessed 16 March 2022
104 ibid.

33 Open Science and Digital Inclusion

Overview of the
Chapters

This introduction chapter is followed by
Chapter 2 which analyses Covid19-related
data sharing as a case study to examine how
these four countries are engaging in open
science practises within and among them. It
also discusses which approaches can
contribute to more science-based crisis
management in these countries. Chapter 3
looks at the diverse challenges to open
science in these four countries, in the
backdrop of the open science framework
developed in the UNESCO Recommendation.
A detailed analysis of digital inclusion in
these four countries forms an integral part
of the analysis in this chapter. Chapter 4
looks at some of the potential measures that
can be taken at the national and community
levels to address the challenges identified in
Chapters 2 and 3. Details regarding the
methodology adopted in this research can
be accessed in Appendix 1.

02Chapter
Open Science
And The Covid19
Pandemic

The Covid19 crisis has taught us many Role of Data Sharing in
lessons, including a very fundamental Saving Lives During a
lesson in public health; a crisis anywhere is Pandemic
a crisis for everyone. Viruses have no state
or national boundaries and the speed with Access to data is intricately connected to
which different variants of the SARS-CoV-2 saving human lives, as data helps in taking
virus spread from one location to others key public health intervention decisions. For
across the globe reaffirms the need for a example, granular data on the spread of
comprehensive global strategy.¹⁰⁵ One of viruses in a village/ town/district/state/
the essential steps in this regard is faster country/region can be very helpful in tracing
adoption of open science practises at the the course of the pandemic and taking
national, regional and global levels. This important decisions on the kind of measures
chapter looks at the question of how the that might be required to control
four countries studied as part of this infections.¹⁰⁶ It is also important in
research approached one of the integral predicting what kind of public health
elements of open science - open sharing of resources would be required for handling the
data. Our aim is to use this as a case study to pandemic in a particular area and what
analyse how open science practices are areas/resources require priority allocations.
adopted at the national and regional levels For example, during the second Covid19
in South Asia. wave in India, many hospitals in Delhi faced
severe shortages of medical oxygen. While
some of the hospitals in Delhi could predict
and better manage the supply requirements
with the help of experts who analysed and
predicted requirements using the available
data, greater availability of granular data
could have saved many lives.

Similarly, rapid sequencing as well as sharing
of the sequencing data can play a major role
in not just identification of new variants of
the virus, but also in how the world responds
to new variants of the virus.¹⁰⁷ The
considerable difference in how the world
could respond to Delta and Omicron variants
is a case in point in this regard.¹⁰⁸ Indicators
like unusual outbreaks, reinfections and
breakthrough infections in vaccinated

105 For the current list of Variants of Concern (VoC) and Variants of Interest (VoI), with the details of their earlier
documented samples, see <https://www.who.int/en/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants/> accessed 16 March
2022
106 Gautam I. Menon, ‘India’s COVID-19 data and the public interest’ The Hindu (7 July 2021) <https://
www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/indias-covid-19-data-and-the-public-interest/article35195768.ece> accessed
16 March 2022
107 Chris Kay and Dhwani Pandya, ‘How Errors, Inaction Sent a Deadly Covid Variant Around the World’ Bloomberg (29
December 2021) <https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-12-29/how-delta-variant-spread-in-india-deadly-
errors-inaction-covid-crisis> accessed 16 March 2022
108 ibid.

people should prompt rapid and targeted Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic 36

sequencing.¹⁰⁹ Structured genomic It's like a building block of how
science progresses. The lower
sequencing data surveillance systems can blocks (of science) have to be
accessible to all for them to climb
also help in understanding the efficacy of the ladder, so you cannot take the
steps away from the ladder
vaccines against different variants.¹¹⁰ because then the tower will
collapse.”
Data on the effectiveness as well as on the
potential adverse effects of current - PROF. BHRAMAR MUKHERJEE¹¹¹
vaccines should also play a major role in
many key decisions, like what kind of
vaccines should be approved, which
population groups should get vaccinated on
priority, what kind of vaccines should be
administered to different groups, what the
gap should be between different doses,
whether there should be booster doses, and
even whether the approval given for a
vaccine needs to be revisited. It is also
important to know whether and to what
extent breakthrough infections are
happening with different variants of the
virus. While there is increasing consensus on
the general effectiveness of vaccinations
against Covid19-related hospitalisations,
open and transparent sharing of data is very
important to increase public trust in
vaccinations as well as in other key public
health interventions.

Most importantly, open, transparent and
integrated data systems that make the best
use of genomics, informatics and public
health are important for making informed
investments in public health for a better
future.

109 Anurag Agarwal, ‘India’s COVID crisis flags need to forecast variants’ Nature (1 June 2021) <https://
www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-01427-8> accessed 16 March 2022
110 <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/why-we-still-dont-know-how-many-and-who-exactly-died-of-
covid-in-india/> accessed 16 March 2022
111 Interview with Prof. Bhramar Mukherjee, John D. Kalbfleisch Collegiate Professor and Chair, Department of
Biostatistics; Professor, Department of Epidemiology, Professor, Global Public Health, University of Michigan (UM) School
of Public Health; Research Professor and Core Faculty Member, Michigan Institute of Data Science (MIDAS), University of
Michigan, USA (1 December 2021)

37 Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic The MoHFW website doesn’t provide either
granular and historical data or information
Covid19-Related crucial to insightful analyses, like age-group
Data Sharing in India, and gender of confirmed cases and
Nepal, Bangladesh deaths.¹¹³ One can access only the
and Sri Lanka aggregated data for the previous day.
Further, the format in which data is
This section provides an overview of the presented on the website is not conducive
major steps taken by the four countries to reuse and scientific research. As different
studied as part of this research (India, Nepal, studies have already pointed out, there is
Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka) to disseminate also considerable deficiency in the Covid19-
Covid19-related data among researchers and related death reporting.¹¹⁴ Some studies
the general public. It also discusses some of indicate that the Covid19-related deaths in
the major limitations observed in the current India could be 6-7 times higher than the
data sharing approaches in these four reported official statistics, thereby posing
countries. questions on the efficacy of data provided.¹¹⁵

India The data related to the number of vaccines
administered in the country suffers from
The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare similar limitations. While the MoHFW website
(MoHFW) in India shares Covid19-related data provides data on the number of vaccinations
at the national level.¹¹² The data shared by administered in the country on the previous
MoHFW includes active cases, recoveries, day, it does not give access to the historical
and deaths. State-wise data is provided and data on vaccination in easily usable formats.
can be accessed without specific login It also doesn't provide details on the type of
credentials. The website also provides vaccine (Covishield or Covaxin) administered
district-wise Covid19 positivity rates and or any data relating to the effectiveness or
state-wise vaccination data, including the adverse effects reported on the vaccines.
number of 1st and 2nd doses administered Though anecdotal evidence from different
across the country. Though the MoHFW sources can confirm that vaccination
website is updated regularly, certain considerably reduces the chances of
aspects of the website considerably limit infection as well as hospitalisation, sharing
the use of the website for researchers and of official statistics in this regard could have
policymakers. helped to increase confidence around
vaccines and reduce vaccine hesitancy. It is
also observed that the MoHFW website does

112 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India <https://www.mohfw.gov.in/> accessed 16 March
2022
113 The district level test positivity provided is limited to the previous week. For example, see <https://www.mohfw.gov.in/
pdf/COVID19DistrictWisePositivityAnalysis19March2022.xlsx> accessed 19 March 2022
114 Lauren V. Zimmermann and others, ‘Estimating COVID-19- Related Mortality in India: An Epidemiological
Challenge With Insufficient Data’ (July 2021) American Journal of Public Health’<https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/
10.2105/AJPH.2021.306419> accessed 16 March 2022; <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/why-we-
still-dont-know-how-many-and-who-exactly-died-of-covid-in-india/> accessed 16 March 2022; Bhramar Mukherjee,
'Why we still don’t know how many, and who exactly died of Covid in India’ Times of India (29 May 2021) <https://
www.thehindu.com/opinion/Readers-Editor/the-uncertainties-over-covid-19-numbers/article32368897.ece>accessed
16 March 2022
115 Prabhat Jha and others, ‘COVID mortality in India: National survey data and health facility deaths’ (January 2022)
375(6581) Science 667-671 <https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm5154> accessed 16 March 2022

Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic 38

not indicate the licence under which data is available sequencing data is not present in
shared. Lastly, the website lacks a privacy easily reusable formats. As this data is not
policy. linked with other integral data, like
demographic profile and vaccination status,
India also uses a contact tracing app named it considerably curtails the potential scope
‘Aarogya Setu’.¹¹⁶ Apart from providing of use of the genome sequence data in the
information on first or second degree midst of a pandemic.
contact with a Covid19 positive person, it
shares diverse data on Covid19 status in the The sequencing data has been
country, including active cases and deaths, much more open than anything
and information on vaccination. Data on the else. But it is not linked to clinical
app is regularly updated. Yet, many of the information. So the only thing you
challenges discussed in the context of the can track is actual sequences
MoHFW website hold true in the case of themselves. By looking at the
Aarogya Setu too, since the data sources sequencing data you have no clue
appear to be the same. ¹¹⁷ on who reached hospital, who
died, etc. Even the people doing
The genome sequencing data in India is the sequencing don't have that
information.”
provided by the Indian SARS-CoV-2
- DR GAGANDEEP KANG¹²¹
Genomics Consortium (INSACOG).¹¹⁸
Different states in India also play a major role
Researchers working in the area have in dissemination of Covid19-related data. The
data shared by different states include
pointed out certain major limitations with numbers on active cases, recoveries, and
deaths at the state and district levels. There
respect to genome-sequencing data sharing is no uniform approach in reporting, however,

in India. First, there is an insufficient amount

of genome sequencing carried out in India,

which leads to delayed identification of new

variants.¹¹⁹ Some of the statistics show that

the percentage of cases sequenced in India

is as low as 0.3%.¹²⁰ Secondly, even the

116 <https://www.aarogyasetu.gov.in/> accessed 16 March 2022
117 There is much nuanced conversation surrounding the MoHFW and the Aarogya Setu app. Parts of the same,
surrounding mandatory use, can be accessed here : Gautam Bhatia, ‘The Mandatory Imposition of the Aarogya Setu
App Has No Legal or Constitutional Basis’ The Wire (4 May 2020) <https://thewire.in/law/the-mandatory-imposition-of-
the-aarogya-setu-app-has-no-legal-or-constitutional-basis> accessed 16 March 2022
118 This consortium is a joint initiative of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Department of Biotechnology,
Council for Scientific & Industrial Research and Indian Council of Medical Research. Currently there are 38 labs in this
consortium. See <https://dbtindia.gov.in/insacog> accessed 16 March 2022
119 According to news reports dated 23 January 2022, INSACOG has so far sequenced a total of 1,50,710
samples.See Teena Thacker, ‘Omicron strain in community transmission stage in India, dominant in multiple metros:
INSACOG’ Economic Times (23 January 2022) <https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/omicron-in-
community-transmission-stage-in-india-dominant-in-multiple-metros-insacog/articleshow/89071936.cms> accessed 16
March 2022 See also Parimal Kumar, ‘Blow To India's Covid Genome Sequencing Efforts, 5 Labs Shut: Sources’ NDTV
(20 January 2022) <https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/coronavirus-genome-sequencing-delays-due-to-lack-of-funds-
for-reagents-say-sources-2719196> accessed 16 March 2022
120 Chris Kay and Dhwani Pandya, ‘How errors, inaction sent a deadly covid variant around the world’ Bloomberg (29
December 2021) <https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-12-29/how-delta-variant-spread-in-india-deadly-
errors-inaction-covid-crisis> accessed 16 March 2022; Bhramar Mukherjee, 'Why we still don’t know how many, and
who exactly died of Covid in India’ Times of India (29 May 2021) <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/
why-we-still-dont-know-how-many-and-who-exactly-died-of-covid-in-india/> accessed 16 March 2022
121 Interview with Prof. Gagandeep Kang, FRS, Professor of Microbiology at Wellcome Trust Research Laboratory,
Division of Gastrointestinal Sciences at the Christian Medical College (CMC), Vellore, India (2 November 2021)

39 Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic

making meaningful comparisons difficult, if infographics (see to Figure 2.1 and 2.2),
not impossible. While some states such as others, such as Uttar Pradesh¹²⁴ do not
Kerala¹²² and Maharashtra¹²³ provide provide direct access to such data (Figure
substantial access to data, including 2.3). ¹²⁵

Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2
122 <https://dashboard.kerala.gov.in/covid/index.php> accessed 20 January 2022
123 <https://www.covid19maharashtragov.in/mh-covid/dashboard> accessed 20 January 2022
124 <https://rahat.up.nic.in/covid19dashboard.aspx> accessed 20 January 2022
125 The common keyword used for identifying the relevant Covid19 information portal at the state level is ‘State name’
+ Covid19 Dashboard.

Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic 40

Figure 2.3

Some states like Kerala provide historical Another challenge is that the data on the
data in a calendar format and also provide MoHFW website is not always in sync with
the option to download district-level data the data made available through state
for the current date in different formats.¹²⁶ websites. For example, if we look at the data
However, Kerala also doesn’t allow the on active cases in the state of Maharashtra,
download of historical data in different a discrepancy as high as 30% could be
formats.¹²⁷ Even the states that provide observed in the active cases displayed by
access to data do not clearly mention the state government and the central
licence conditions on their websites, government for some dates.¹²⁸ In the case of
thereby causing further uncertainties for Karnataka, there was a discrepancy of over
downstream research and researchers. 50% between the active cases displayed on

Table 2.1 Data as on 20th December 2021 on the MoFHW and respective state websites

State Name Data Collected from Active Cases Recoveries Deaths
Maharashtra Centre 10772 6498015 141353
7093 6498015 141353
Karnataka State Govt. 7103 2957256 2957256
West Bengal Centre 2334 412266
7474 1600340 8512
State Govt. 7474 1600340 19676
Centre 19676

State Govt.

126 <https://dashboard.kerala.gov.in/covid/daily.php> accessed 16 March 2022
127 ibid.
128 See <https://www.mohfw.gov.in/> accessed 20 December 2021; <https://www.covid19maharashtragov.in/mh-
covid/dashboard> accessed 20 December 2021

41 Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic We have done well in some ways

some dates.¹²⁹ This kind of difference but not in others. Indian scientists
between the data collected/shared by the
centre and the states is surprising as well as researching COVID-19 took to
undesirable, as it indicates a lack of
coordination between states and the centre publishing their preprints for
on data collection and curation. This can
clearly lead to a trust deficit in official global viewing on the major
statistics.
archival sites (e.g. medarxiv) early
During the pandemic, India also witnessed
the emergence of volunteer-led curated on leading to widespread scrutiny
data platforms. www.covid19india.org, which
was a volunteer collective, has played a and acceptance of their work.
major role in data dissemination during the
pandemic.¹³⁰ However, they had to stop their However, the lack of availability of
operations on 31st October 2021, after
almost 18 months of being active.¹³¹ trustworthy and comprehensive
Recently, another volunteer-led initiative,
www.covid19bharat.org, has started data data from government sources
curation and sharing. The volunteers of
www.covid19india.org have allowed the such as the ICMR, not to mention
volunteers of www.covid19bharat.org to fork
their website and pipeline code.¹³² Though other agencies, has been a major
there are no formal connections between
the two volunteer groups, this open sharing feature of how badly India has
has ensured continued access to data and
better data analysis opportunities for handled public data availability
researchers and the public.
during the pandemic period. It is

telling, for me, that the most

trusted source of COVID-19

numbers, for many months and

even now, have been

crowdsourced volunteer-

supported databases, not a

government website.”

- PROF. GAUTAM MENON¹³³

129 <https://covid19.karnataka.gov.in/covid-dashboard/dashboard.html>accessed 20 December 2021; <https://
www.mohfw.gov.in/>accessed 20 December 2021
130 <https://www.covid19india.org/about> accessed 16 March 2022
131 For detailed information on why the volunteers decided to stop curation, see Covid19india, ‘When the curtains come
down’ (7 August 2021)<https://blog.covid19india.org/2021/08/07/end/> accessed 16 March 2022
132 <https://covid19bharat.org/about> accessed 16 March 2022
133 Interview with Prof. Gautam Menon, Professor of Physics and Biology; Director of the Centre for Climate Change and
Sustainability (3CS), Ashoka University, India (25 November 2021)

Nepal Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic 42

Covid19-related data in Nepal is primarily The website also provides users the option
collected and published by various organs of to download a status report of the last 24
the Ministry of Health and Population hours. This report contains infographics
(MOHP). Granular data (including gender, providing diverse information such as the
district, and province-wise data) on number of tests conducted, cases reported,
confirmed cases, number of tests deaths, and vaccinations in the last 24 hours
conducted, recoveries, deaths, vaccination and provides granular data using variables
progress, and the number of patients in ICU like gender and age-group.¹³⁵ To ensure that
and ventilators is made available through the the relevant Covid19 information is
Covid19 dashboard.¹³⁴ The extensive use of accessible to the general public, the
infographics, particularly the possibilities of government has also made arrangements to
viewing data by age group/gender/province, conduct everyday media briefings by the
makes data more accessible for the general MOHP spokespersons across TV, radio, and
public (see Figure 2.4). social media platforms such as Facebook.
The ministry has also launched the Hamro
Swasthya app to create awareness and
share data.

Figure 2.4

134 <https://covid19.mohp.gov.np/> accessed 20 January 2022
135 For example, see <https://covid19.mohp.gov.np/covid/englishSituationReport/
61e80647654e9_SitRep710_COVID-19_19-01-2022_EN.pdf> accessed 20 January 2022

43 Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic

Figure 2.5

However, two major limitations can be databases are not accessible to the public.
observed with the Covid19 dashboard. First,
the dashboard does not provide any option Nepal has also taken initiatives to
to download historical data in easily reusable strengthen the capacity of the public
formats. This considerably limits the laboratories in Nepal for genome
potential uses of granular data, which are sequencing. For instance, in January 2020,
collected and shared by the government. the first samples had to be sent from Nepal
Second, the website categorically mentions to the WHO laboratory in Hong Kong.¹³⁶ By
the copyright ownership of MOHP, and the July 2021, the National Public Health
licence conditions for the use of data are Laboratory (NPHL) started performing whole
not specified on the website. Though the genome-sequence tests and they have
scientific community and the general public shared the data and samples with WHO
use the contents of the website under the collaborating centres for quality control.¹³⁷
notion that it is a fully open access portal, However, interviews with researchers
more clarity on licence conditions would working in the area suggest that it is very
give greater certainty to all stakeholders and difficult to access the data collected by
this would facilitate more reuse of the NPHL or to collaborate with NHPL for
shared data. The COVID-19 Crisis research or publications.
Management Coordination Centre (CCMC)
has also been collecting data through the
Abroad Returnee Management System
(ARMS) and COVID19 District Information
Management System (DIMS). However, these

136 ‘Nepal confirms the first case of deadly coronavirus’, The Economic Times (24 January 2020) <https://
economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/nepal-confirms-first-case-of-deadly-coronavirus/
articleshow/73590302.cms?from=mdr> accessed 16 March 2022
137 Arjun Poudel, ‘Government lab starts performing whole-genome sequencing tests’ The Kathmandu Post (11 July
2021) <https://kathmandupost.com/health/2021/07/11/government-lab-starts-performing-whole-genome-sequencing-
tests> accessed 16 March 2022

Bangladesh Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic 44

In Bangladesh, the Ministry of Health and age-group, and location. The extensive use
Family Welfare (MOH&FW) collaborates with of infographics is certainly useful for
multiple institutions to collect and ensuring that more members of the public
disseminate data on Covid19 in Bangladesh. can better understand the trajectory of the
Granular data on confirmed cases, samples infection. Similar to Nepal, to ensure that
tested, recoveries, deaths, vaccination communication reaches the maximum
progress, patients in ICUs and ventilators are number of people, MOH&FW also releases
provided through the Covid19 dashboard, relevant information daily through TV, radio
which was developed with the technical and social media platforms. Bangladesh also
support of UNICEF.¹³⁸ With the help of releases a daily status report (in Bengali and
infographics, the dashboard allows users to English) through the dashboard (Figure
view data on different variables like gender, 2.6).¹³⁹ Bangladesh also uses an app named
Surokkha for Covid19-related information
dissemination.¹⁴⁰

Figure 2.6

138 <http://dashboard.dghs.gov.bd/webportal/pages/covid19.php> accessed 20 January 2022. See also UNICEF,
Response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh : Dashboard <https://dashboard.unicefbangladesh.org/>
accessed 16 March 2022; UNICEF, ‘Insights and feedback on Coronavirus Risk Communication and Community
Engagement in Bangladesh: A case study, in Undertaking rapid assessments in the COVID-19 context: Learning from
UNICEF South Asia’ (2021) <https://www.unicef.org/rosa/media/15791/file/
Insights%20and%20feedback%20on%20Coronavirus%20Risk%20Communication%20and%20Community%20Engagem
ent%20in%20Bangladesh.pdf> accessed 16 March 2022
139 <http://dashboard.dghs.gov.bd/webportal/pages/covid19.php> accessed 16 March 2022
140 <https://surokkha.gov.bd/> accessed 16 March 2022; ‘Covid registration app ‘Surokka’ to be public on 4 Feb’
The Business Standard (31 January 2021) <https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/health/covid-registration-software-be-
available-mobile-app-4-feb-dghs-dg-194482> accessed 16 March 2022

45 Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic

However, similar to India and Nepal, one can Though the Bangladesh government also
also see certain significant limitations with collects data through the Abroad Returnee
regard to the current Covid19-related data Management System (ARMS) and COVID-19
sharing approaches in Bangladesh. The most District Information Management System,
important one is that the dashboard does this data is not made accessible to
not allow for the download of raw data in researchers in an open access mode.
easily reusable formats. No options are Similarly, the Institute of Epidemiology
made available for downloading historical Disease Control And Research (IEDCR) has
data on the dimensions currently provided been performing genome sequencing since
on the portal either. The lack of clarity on July 13, 2020, and has shared the data and
licence conditions is another major samples with UNICEF for technical
challenge. The Covid19 dashboard indicates assistance. However, interviews with
that copyright on the web portal is owned researchers in Bangladesh indicate that
by MIS, Directorate General of Health there are major hurdles towards accessing
Services (DGHS). The licence conditions for genome sequencing data from IEDCR.
access and use of the data are also not
provided on the portal.

Sri Lanka Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic 46

Data on the Covid19 situation in Sri Lanka is as English.¹⁴³ These reports provide
collected and published by different sources segregated data on nationality, gender, age,
on a regular basis. The primary source of and on the hospitals wherein the suspected
Covid19-related data is the website of the patients were reported.¹⁴⁴
Ministry of Health (MoH).¹⁴¹ The data on the
dashboard includes the number of The daily report on the progress of Covid19
confirmed cases, vaccination statistics, vaccination provides data on the number of
Covid19-related deaths, and recoveries. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd doses (only for Pfizer
Epidemiology Unit of the MoH also publishes vaccine) administered.¹⁴⁵ The Epidemiology
a daily situation report wherein important Unit also publishes monthly epidemiological
data, such as the number of confirmed cases summary reports which provide important
and vaccinations in the last 24 hours, is granular information such as Covid19-related
shared (Figure 2.7).¹⁴² The daily situation deaths among different age groups and sex,
reports are made available in Sinhala as well and people with comorbidities (Figure 2.8).¹⁴⁶
As the data is presented through
infographics, even people with limited
statistical skills can easily understand it.¹⁴⁷

Figure 2.7

141 <http://www.health.gov.lk/moh_final/english/public/elfinder/files/library/Statistics.html> accessed 16 March 2022
142 For example, see <https://www.epid.gov.lk/web/images/pdf/corona_virus_report/sitrep-sl-en-20-01_10_22.pdf>
accessed 20 January 2022
143 Epidemiology Unit, Ministry of Health Sri Lanka <http://www.epid.gov.lk/web/
index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=225&lang=en&Itemid=0> accessed 20 January 2022
144 ibid.
145 <http://www.epid.gov.lk/web/images/pdf/corona_vaccination/covid_vaccination_2021-12_18.pdf> accessed 20
January 2022
146 For example, see <https://www.epid.gov.lk/web/images/pdf/corona_monthly_summery/esummery-november.pdf>
accessed 20 January 2022
147 <http://www.epid.gov.lk/web/images/pdf/corona_monthly_summery/esummery-octomber.pdf> accessed 20
January 2022

47 Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic

Figure 2.8

The dashboard of the Health Promotion and world overview. ¹⁵²
Bureau provides data on total and active
cases.¹⁴⁸ It also provides comparative data The University of Jayewardenepura provides
on recovery rates and fatality rates.¹⁴⁹ The extensive information on genome
Operation Freedom website allows users to sequencing in Sri Lanka.¹⁵³ The researchers
schedule their vaccination, apart from at the university have been actively involved
providing data on the number of active in research on diverse dimensions of the
cases, new cases, deaths and recoveries.¹⁵⁰ Covid19 situation in Sri Lanka, including
The website of the Presidential Secretariat, variants and vaccinations. The university
Sri Lanka, also has a Covid19 dashboard and website publishes details on the research of
vaccination dashboard.¹⁵¹ These also provide the Department of Immunology at the
extensive infographics on the total and daily university. The shared information includes
cases, daily cases (local v. “imported”), statistics and findings on the genome
discharged cases, deaths, patient dynamics sequencing of the virus in Sri Lanka,¹⁵⁴

148 <https://www.hpb.health.gov.lk/en> accessed 16 March 2022
149 ibid.
150 <https://covid19.gov.lk/> accessed 16 March 2022
151 <https://www.presidentsoffice.gov.lk/index.php/covid-19-dashboard/> accessed 16 March 2022; <https://
www.presidentsoffice.gov.lk/index.php/vaccination-dashboard/> accessed 16 March 2022
152 <https://www.presidentsoffice.gov.lk/index.php/covid-19-dashboard/> accessed 16 March 2022
153 For example, see University of Sri Jayawardenepura, ‘160 New Omicron Cases Recorded From Sri Lanka – Latest
SARS-CoV-2 Variant Report by Department of Immunology and Molecular Medicine’ (15 January 2022) <https://
www.sjp.ac.lk/news/160-new-omicron-cases-recorded-from-sri-lanka-latest-sars-cov-2-variant-report-by-department-of-
immunology-and-molecular-medicine/> accessed 16 March 2022
154 Whole genomic sequencing of the SARS-CoV-2 variants in Sri Lanka (3 December 2021) <https://www.sjp.ac.lk/wp-
content/uploads/2021/12/Sequencing-report-03.12.2021.pdf>accessed 16 March 2022; University of Sri
Jayawardenepura, ‘USJ Department of Immunology found Omicron variant from a Nigerian Passenger’ (3 December
2021) <https://www.sjp.ac.lk/news/usj-department-of-immunology-found-omicron-variant-from-a-nigerian-
passenger/> accessed 16 March 2022

Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic 48

frequency of variants in the country,¹⁵⁵ While Sri Lanka has been taking many
variants and their sub-lineages in the proactive steps in sharing Covid19-related
country,¹⁵⁶ immune responses following the data, some of the major challenges we
doses of vaccines,¹⁵⁷ and antibody and T cell observed in the context of India, Nepal and
responses to Sinopharm vaccines.¹⁵⁸ The Bangladesh holds true in the context of Sri
data is generally accessible to everyone, Lanka as well. For example, though extensive
though the university website specifically granular information is provided by Sri Lanka
mentions that it reserves all copyright- through different sources, most of it is in the
related rights on the website. However, it can form of infographics or tables inside PDF
also be noticed that prominent scholars in documents. If such granular, historical data
the university, like Gathsaurie Neelika is made available through more reusable
Malavige, make their scholarly works and formats, far more research and insight could
data available through preprint archives with be derived from such data. Similarly, like the
open licences.¹⁵⁹ other countries we analysed, most of the
data sources in Sri Lanka do not mention the
licensing conditions for data on the
websites. This brings in considerable
uncertainties for researchers on the kind of
(re)uses permitted of the shared data.

155 University of Sri Jayawardenepura, Report on frequency of different variants in Sri Lanka (9 September 2021)
<https://www.sjp.ac.lk/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Variant-PCR-report-09.09.2021.pdf> accessed 16 March 2022
156 For example, see University of Sri Jayawardenepura, ‘The delta variant in Sri Lanka assigned a new sub-lineage’
<https://www.sjp.ac.lk/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/The-delta-variant-in-Sri-Lanka-assigned-a-new-sub-lineage-
AY.28.pdf> accessed 16 March 2022
157 University of Sri Jayawardenepura, ‘Single dose of Sputnik V is highly effective but second dose is beneficial says USJ
researchers’ (18 August 2021) <https://www.sjp.ac.lk/news/single-dose-of-sputnik-v-is-highly-immunogenic-but-second-
dose-is-beneficial-says-usj-researchers/> accessed 16 March 2022; Chandrima Jeewandara and others, ‘Immune
responses following the first dose of the Sputnik V (Gam-COVID-Vac)’ (Research Square, 2021) <https://
assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-787293/v1/1e1751b2-567c-40cd-9011-00a1ba4ecac6.pdf?c=1631887993>
accessed 16 March 2022
158 <https://www.sjp.ac.lk/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Antibody-resonses-declined-but-T-cell-resistance-
remained-12-weeks-after-Sinopharm-second-doze-USJ-research.pdf> accessed 16 March 2022; <https://
www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.07.15.21260621v1.full.pdf> accessed 16 March 2022
159 For example, see Chandima Jeewandara and others, ‘Antibody and T cell responses to Sinopharm/BBIBP-CorV in
naïve and previously infected individuals in Sri Lanka’ (MedRxiv 2021) <https://www.medrxiv.org/content/
10.1101/2021.07.15.21260621v1> accessed 16 March 2022

49 Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka in this
direction.
Common Challenges
and Opportunities The first step required is the need for more
data sharing between these countries. A
The previous sections discussed the diverse pandemic like Covid19 has no geographical
channels through which India, Nepal, boundaries and there needs to be more
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka have been sharing active data sharing and knowledge sharing
Covid19-related data. As one could notice between these countries to address the
from the discussions, all the four countries pandemic. Data from each of these
have been disseminating data on different countries can provide many valuable
aspects, including total active cases, new insights for researchers and policymakers in
cases, tests conducted, deaths and the other countries. Unfortunately, our
vaccination progress, with the help of discussions with prominent researchers
different tools, including infographics. While working in the area indicate that such an
the discussions in the previous sections open sharing approach is currently missing
have tried to point out some of the country- in the region, in spite of the fact that the
specific limitations seen with regard to data region is going through one of the biggest
sharing, it can also be noticed that many of crises seen in a century.
the limitations/challenges in these four
countries have common characteristics. The second and equally important step is
improving the data sharing approaches
Scholars like Prof. Bhramar Mukherjee have within these countries. What kind of data is
pointed out how data denial, data opacity shared, and how this data is shared, are
and data paucity have caused considerable extremely important in facilitating optimal
hardships in good data modelling, and uses of data in a country and beyond. Open
thereby also considerable difficulties in and transparent data sharing needs to
reliable predictions on the trajectory of a become the norm rather than the exception,
pandemic like Covid19.¹⁶⁰ Rejection of to increase public trust in science and
projections and policy-making based on science-based policy decisions during and
data in furtherance of political interests is after the pandemic. But when one looks at
an example of data denial. Lack of the current data sharing practices in these
transparency on the total number of deaths countries, a couple of common challenges
due to Covid19 is an example of data opacity. are immediately noticed.
Lack of availability of granular data, like
infections in different age groups, genders, Providing more granular and historical data in
and reinfections among vaccinated, are accessible and easily reusable formats
examples of data paucity. To evolve the best needs to become a priority in all the four
possible responses towards not just the countries. As is evident from the discussion
current Covid19 pandemic, but also future in the previous section, though some of the
epidemics/pandemics, it is very important to countries are now providing some granular
address all these three issues collectively statistics like infections in different age
and comprehensively. This section indicates groups and genders, the data is often limited
some of the steps that can be taken by India, to the previous 24 hours and the potential

160 Bhramar Mukherjee, ‘Our public health system needs a dose of data transparency’ The Times of India (1 January
2022) <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/our-public-health-system-needs-a-dose-of-data-
transparency/> accessed 16 March 2022

Open Science and the Covid19 Pandemic 50

uses are further curtailed by the restrictive example, the researchers still do not have
formats (like PDF) through which they are much information on breakthrough
shared. If we are to make use of the full infections among the vaccinated
potential of data, researchers need to be populations in different states in India.¹⁶⁴
able to filter and view data on multiple Same is the case with regard to information
parameters such as daily, weekly or monthly on infections among different age-groups
statistics, geographical region, age group, and genders for different variants of the
gender, and existence of comorbidities.¹⁶¹ virus. This is primarily because of the lack of
coordination between agencies collecting
Releasing daily statistics on PDF appears to data on infections and those collecting data
be a predominant practice in all the four on genome sequencing. Technology allows
countries studied. This PDF culture enormous possibilities for cross-linking
considerably limits the research potential on datasets, without compromising the privacy
data and needs to change.¹⁶² This issue was rights of the concerned individuals. The four
also recently highlighted by Dr Soumya countries studied as part of this study can
Swaminathan in the context of a discussion do a lot more in this regard and many other
on pre-prints: “As the Chief Scientist of WHO countries are already providing access to
I welcome the huge increase in the use of such inter-linked data.
pre-prints by researchers to rapidly share
the emerging evidence from the many Though it is evident that all the four
studies on Covid-19. However, these are countries have initiated genome
published as .pdf documents and I recognise sequencing, the researchers and the public
that the information they contain could be outside the concerned research institutions
more rapidly searched and linkages made are often unable to access data on variants
between the results and data they contain if of concern (VOC), variants under
they were converted to the standard investigation (VUI) and any other variants. To
publishing language XML.”¹⁶³ The FAIR facilitate more research, it is important to
(Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and allow open access to such data and the
Reusable) principles in data sharing, public should be able to view data on diverse
highlighted in the UNESCO Recommendation, parameters such as weeks and days,
need to be strictly practised in public health antigenic mutations, T Cell epitope
data sharing in all the four countries. mutations, VOCs/VUIs + Antigenicity,
mutation counts, mutations by week, spike
Lack of interlinked datasets is another major profiles, drug resistance, and geographical
limitation observed during the study. For distribution of variants.¹⁶⁵ It is also important

161 One of the countries that provides such data access options is the UK. For example, see <https://
coronavirus.data.gov.uk/> accessed 16 March 2022
162 For example, see the Covid19-related official media bulletins from a few states in India : <https://
nhm.punjab.gov.in/advertisements/Media_Bulletin/Media%20Bulletin%20COVID-19%2031-01-2022.pdf> accessed
31 January 2022 ; <https://covid19.karnataka.gov.in/storage/pdf-files/EMB-FEB22//
04-02-2022%20HMB%20English.pdf> accessed 4 February 2022 ; <http://nhmharyana.gov.in/WriteReadData/
userfiles/file/CoronaVirus/Daily%20Bulletin%20of%20COVID%2019%20as%20on%2004-02-2022.pdf> accessed 4
February 2022 <https://covid19.telangana.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Media-Bulletin-03-02-2022.pdf>
accessed 3 February 2022
163 Statement dated 4 May 2020, cited at <https://europepmc.org/Preprints> accessed 16 March 2022
164 Tara Parker-Pope, ‘Can the vaccinated develop long Covid after a breakthrough infection?’ The Indian Express (17
August 2021) <https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/vaccination-breakthrough-infection-covid-long-
explained-7457431/> accessed 16 March 2022
165 The website of the COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium is a good model in this regard. See <https://
sars2.cvr.gla.ac.uk/cog-uk/> accessed 16 March 2022


Click to View FlipBook Version