30-SECOND NUTRITION

FOOD ALLERGIES
& INTOLERANCES

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Food allergy and intolerance RELATED TOPICS
Food allergy and food See also
intolerance differ are adverse reactions to foods, which are NUTS
because intolerance does dependent on the person rather than the food. page 62
not involve the immune Food allergies involve an immune response
system, whereas allergy to food and can be severe (anaphylaxis) and GRAINS & GLUTEN
is immune-mediated and sometimes fatal. Common foods causing allergy page 64
potentially life-threatening. include cows’ milk, hens’ eggs, fish, shellfish,
nuts, peanuts, wheat and soy. After consuming LABELS & PACKAGING
3-MINUTE SNACK the food, symptoms can develop rapidly or page 140
The immune system be delayed, and include vomiting, diarrhoea,
protects against harmful rashes, breathing problems, faintness and loss 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
agents but must ignore of consciousness. Coeliac disease is a specialized CHARLES ROBERT RICHET
non-harmful agents or food allergy involving an immune response to 1850–1935
substances (such as food, gluten (found in wheat, barley and rye). The Awarded the Nobel Prize in
non-harmful organisms). body’s response damages the small intestine, Medicine 1913 in recognition
When the immune system causing gastrointestinal symptoms and of his work on anaphylaxis or
recognizes foods, a malabsorption of nutrients. Food intolerances ‘anti-protection’.
tolerant response must be are disorders of digestion because of an inability
generated to avoid causing to break down or take up the food in the normal SIR PETER BRIAN MEDAWAR
unnecessary damage. Food way. They occur as a response to common foods 1950–87
allergy is not so much the and are not life-threatening. Lactose intolerance Jointly awarded the Nobel
appearance of an immune results from the reduced ability to break down Prize in Medicine in 1960 with
response to a food, but milk sugar. Commonly screened for at birth, Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet
rather the lack of either the phenylketonuria is the result of an inability for the discovery of acquired
generation or maintenance to break down the amino acid phenylalanine immunological tolerance.
of immune tolerance. (found in many dietary protein sources).
Management of adverse reactions to food 30-SECOND TEXT
100 g Foods & Disease Risk usually requires a physician/dietitian-guided Philip C Calder
reduction or avoidance of the food. & Elizabeth A Miles

Reduced intake may be
the best management
for intolerance; lifelong
avoidance is often
necessary for allergies.



8 August 1910 1933 1939–45
Born in London, UK Marries Milly Serves in the Medical
Himmelweit, a recent Corps and is posted to
1929 emigre from Berlin, with Sierra Leone where he
Gains a degree from whom he has three sons researches riboflavin
Chelsea Polytechnic (vitamin B2) deficiency
1935 in soldiers
1931 Completes a PhD
Graduates with a degree in Microbiology at 1945–54
in Physiology and the Department of Becomes Chair of
Biochemistry from Biochemistry, Cambridge Physiology at Queen
Christ’s College, Elizabeth College in
Cambridge 1934–38 London, where he
While studying for his develops the first
PhD, qualifies as a BSc and MSc degrees
medical doctor and in Nutrition
begins research at
the Dunn Nutritional 1954–71
Laboratory, Cambridge Elevated to Emeritus
Professor of Nutrition at
Queen Elizabeth College

1993
Awarded an honorary
fellowship of the Hebrew
University, Jerusalem

12 July 1995
Dies in London, just four
months after the loss of
his wife

102 g Foods & Disease Risks

JOHN YUDKIN

The fact that a 1970s’ book on By the mid-1950s, Yukin’s concerns switched
to obesity, which was at the start of its upward
sugar, entitled Pure, White and Deadly, still trajectory, and specifically the negative effects
resonates today is testament to the huge of sugar (sucrose). It was Yudkin’s view, based
impact that Professor John Yudkin had on on analysis of population diets and disease
the theory and practice of nutrition. statistics, that rising intakes of sugar and
processed foods were driving the higher rates
Born in the East End of London to Orthodox of obesity, dental decay and chronic diseases
Russian Jewish parents, Yudkin and his four seen in wealthier countries. This opinion
brothers had a difficult upbringing marked by was consolidated by his success in reducing
poverty. Education was a way out, and the patients’ weight using low carbohydrate diets.
young Yudkin quickly discovered how to use
his impressive intellect to climb the academic As expert opinion at that time blamed
ladder, first at Chelsea Polytechnic in London high intakes of dietary fat for cardiovascular
and later at Cambridge University. diseases, Yudkin often swam against the tide.
However, his popular books, This Slimming
A PhD and medical degree followed in the Business and Pure, White and Deadly, first
mid-to-late 1930s. At that time, one had to published in 1972, resonated with the public,
qualify as a medical doctor in order to become a and are still read widely today.
nutritionist, as there were no specific nutrition
courses. This was to change under Yudkin’s Although Yudkin’s research into sugar
leadership, when he took up his Chair at Queen was later criticized for failing to account for
Elizabeth College, London. confounding variables, such as smoking and
poverty, the central theme – that lower intakes
First, war intervened and took Yudkin to of carbohydrates and sugars could alleviate
Sierre Leone in West Africa, where he served the risk of obesity and chronic disease – has
in the Medical Core as a pathologist. On been vindicated in several contemporary,
seeing many soldiers with skin conditions, randomized, controlled trials. For his brave
he discovered that the cause was a deficiency stance, and for championing the embryonic
of riboflavin (vitamin B2), not infection as nutrition profession, Professor John Yudkin
previously believed. Returning from World deserves our recognition.
War II, Yudkin developed his research interests
in a number of directions, including enzymes, Carrie Ruxton
public health nutrition, diseases of affluence,
food choice and historical aspects of diet.

John Yudkin g 103

SALT &
BLOOD PRESSURE

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Once considered more valuable RELATED TOPICS
Salt intakes remain higher See also
than recommendations, than gold, salt has become a ubiquitous food COOKING, PROCESSING
but while salt reduction ingredient, much maligned by the health & PRESERVING
lowers blood pressure, establishment yet eaten daily by millions of page 134
there is a lack of evidence people across the world. Common salt (sodium LABELS & PACKAGING
that health improvements chloride) is obtained by evaporating brine, either page 140
follow for all. in pressure vessels or in salt beds – a traditional
method mostly seen in hot, dry countries. In 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHY
3-MINUTE SNACK ancient times, salt was highly valued and even LEWIS DAHL
Governments unanimously used as a form of currency. Now it is produced 1914–75
recommend wholesale salt on industrial levels, mainly in China and the US. American physician who used
reduction, as we only need Salt is used not just to flavour foods but also a rat model to discover that
around 1 gram daily for to preserve perishable goods such as meat, fish sodium-induced hypertension
health. However, clear and vegetables. This was one of the earliest was related to genetics as
evidence that everyone food safety methods and is still used widely well as salt intake, and noted
would benefit is lacking, today. Excess salt intake has been associated that hypertension was rarely
and there is a worrying with stomach cancer and raised blood pressure, seen in populations with low
trend towards higher a risk factor for heart disease and stroke. salt intake.
cholesterol and Controlled trials suggest that a fall in salt intake
triacylglycerol levels on to 5–6 grammes daily (typical intakes are around 30-SECOND TEXT
lower salt diets. More 8 grammes) significantly lowers systolic blood Carrie Ruxton
consistent effects have pressure. However, lower sodium intakes do
been seen for interventions not consistently translate into reduced mortality It takes around three
such as the Dietary or cardiovascular problems. Black, Asian and weeks for your taste
Approaches to Stop hypertensive people seem to benefit more from buds to become
Hypertension (DASH) diet, salt reduction than white normotensive people, accustomed to reduced
which combine reduced in terms of blood pressure. It may be that amounts of salt.
salt with healthy foods, some people are genetically responsive to salt
such as fish, nuts and reduction, while others are not.
plant foods.

104 g Foods & Disease Risk



SUGARS &
SUGAR SUBSTITUTES

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Sweet foods and drinks are RELATED TOPICS
Non-nutritive sweeteners See also
and bulk sugar substitutes perceived as pleasant and highly desirable CARBOHYDRATES
could be of benefit in by the majority of people. In evolutionary page 18
reducing the intake of terms, this preference was a survival benefit, OVERWEIGHT & OBESITY
sugars and the risk of as it enabled carbohydrate-rich foods, such page 86
tooth decay and energy as fruit, to be identified and consumed, REFINING
overconsumption. providing a metabolic substrate for the brain. page 136
Unfortunately, the desirability of sweet foods
3-MINUTE SNACK can lead to overconsumption of sugars (glucose, 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHY
Sugars intake should be fructose, sucrose, maltose) in food and drinks, CONSTANTIN FAHLBERG
reduced to decrease the which in turn can increase the risk of tooth 1850–1910
risk of tooth decay and decay, unintentional overconsumption of energy German–American chemist who
cavities and of passive and weight gain. While carbohydrate intake is discovered the first sweetener,
overconsumption of an essential component of the diet, there is no saccharin, after accidentally
energy. The sweetness dietary requirement for sugars, as all of the tasting on his hands a food
provided by sugars could glucose needed by the brain and other tissues preservative compound he had
be replaced by low-calorie can come from starch. Reducing the sucrose just synthesized.
sweeteners, but there are or high-fructose corn syrup content of the diet
some concerns that this is challenging if sweet foods and drinks, or 30-SECOND TEXT
might perpetuate a desire products such as cakes and biscuits (in which Ian Macdonald
for sweet foods and lead to sucrose has a functional role), are consumed,
continued excessive energy and so sugar substitutes have to be considered. The removal from the
intakes. Concerns have The replacement of sweetness can be achieved diet of unnecessary
been expressed about with non-nutritive sweeteners, and reports sugars found in sweet
the safety of sweeteners, have shown the safety of these compounds. foods clearly presents
but expert reports and Replacing the bulk function has not yet been a challenge.
research do not support achieved satisfactorily.
the concerns.

106 g Foods & Disease Risk



ALCOHOL

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Whether or not to drink alcohol, RELATED TOPICS
Drinking no more than 14 See also
units a week spread out especially for ‘health purposes’, needs careful PERSONALIZED VERSUS
over at least three days and balancing of the potential benefits with the PUBLIC HEALTH ADVICE
with meals may strike the potential harms. It appears that the difference page 46
right cancer/heart disease in health effects lies largely in the dose and
balance in men and women. patterns of drinking – how much you drink DIETARY FATS &
matters more than what you drink. Drinking HEART DISEASE
3-MINUTE SNACK alcohol in moderation (half a standard glass page 98
Selling alcohol at a of wine a day) can generally be beneficial for
minimum price or above it, long-term heart health. On the other hand, 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
also known as ‘minimum when it comes to cancer risk, generally the more RHAZES
unit alcohol pricing’, may alcohol consumed, the higher the long-term risk 864–930 ce
produce a variety of health (particularly breast cancer in women). Whether Pioneering doctor, author
and safety benefits. The it’s a sip of spirits, wine, liquor or beer, alcohol’s and philosopher from Iran;
basic idea is that minimum active ingredient is the same: ethanol. Alcohol the first to adopt the use of
unit alcohol pricing can contains other substances, such as polyphenols alcohol for medical purposes.
reduce heavy drinking and and congeners, but it’s the dose of ethanol that
the associated heart health plays the most important role in health effects. SERGE RENAUD
and cancer problems. The bulk of ethanol in the body is broken 1927–2012
This can be achieved by down in the liver by an enzyme called ‘alcohol French researcher who studied
supermarkets targeting dehydrogenase’. Excessive alcohol intake can the role of alcohol in coronary
cheap, high-strength overwhelm the liver and inflict permanent and heart disease; close connection
tipple consumed by the serious damage, notably liver cirrhosis (scarring) to the French Paradox theory.
highest-risk drinkers. and cancer. This is due in part, to a build-up
of toxic waste products such as acetaldehyde, 30-SECOND TEXT
108 g Foods & Disease Risk a contributing cause of hangover following Brian Power
alcohol consumption.
Fermentation causes
the chemical and
sensory properties
of wine to change, with
preservations of aroma
and flavour.



RED &
PROCESSED MEAT

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Red meat includes beef, lamb, RELATED TOPICS
Whilst red meat can be See also
nutritious, it should be pork and venison, and is usually a good source DIETARY FATS &
consumed in moderation; of important nutrients such as high-quality HEART DISEASE
a diet with little processed protein, iron, zinc and a number of B vitamins. page 98
meat is even more It is, however, very variable, notably in fat
important. content, which will depend on, for example, the NITRATE & NITRITE
source of the meat, the particular cut and the page 118
3-MINUTE SNACK age of the animal. Processed meat is an even
Processing of meat has a more variable commodity as it is meat that has FREE-RANGE & INTENSIVELY
long history, with evidence been transformed through a wide range of FARMED FOODS
of salting and sun-drying processes, and includes sausages, ham, bacon page 144
in Ancient Egypt and and corned beef. Most processed meat contains
preservation using snow beef or pork but can include other meats. 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
and ice by early Romans. There has been much publicity suggesting that NICOLAS APPERT
Nowadays processing is consumption of red and processed meat can 1749–1841
usually to preserve the increase the risk of coronary heart disease, French inventor of airtight
meat or change its taste type 2 diabetes and cancer of the large intestine food preservation who has
by methods including and rectum. The hard evidence is clear: the risk been described as the ‘father
salting, fermentation, of these diseases from the consumption of of canning’.
smoking or the addition processed meat is substantially greater than
of sodium nitrite. from red meat. For example, the risk of CLARENCE BIRDSEYE II
intestinal cancer from processed meat is about 1886–1956
twice of that from red meat. It is, therefore, American inventor regarded
important to maintain a low consumption of as the founder of food
processed meat. preservation by freezing,
especially fast freezing.

30-SECOND TEXT
Ian Givens

110 g Foods & Disease Risk WHO now labels
processed meats as
‘carcinogenic to humans’
and red meat as
'probably carcinogenic’.





g

POTENTIAL BIOACTIVES & HEALTH

POTENTIAL BIOACTIVES & HEALTH
GLOSSARY

alpha-linolenic acid Essential fatty acid fatty acids (FAs) The building blocks of fat
found in nuts and seeds; ; a metabolic in the body and in food. During digestion, the
precursor of long chain omega-3 fatty body breaks down fats into FAs, which can
acids, particularly eicosapentaenoic acid then be absorbed into the blood.
(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
flavonoids Common chemical compounds
Alzheimer’s disease See dementia. that are present in many plant-based foods
and drinks, such as blueberries, tea, citrus
amines Derivatives of ammonia; released fruits, wine, onions and chocolate.
by the breakdown of amino acids. Many
neurotransmitters are amines, including glucosinolates Main phytochemical found
dopamine, serotonin and histamine. Can in cruciferous crops. Epidemiological and
be found in cheese, wine and chocolate. experimental data suggests they may act
as anti-carcinogenic agents.
atherosclerosis Build-up of material,
including cholesterol, inside arteries; hypertension High blood pressure; rarely
causes narrowing of the arteries, which, has noticeable symptoms. If untreated, it
when blocked by a blood clot (thrombus), increases risk of heart attacks and strokes.
causes heart attacks and strokes. Can be decreased by reducing salt, cutting
back on alcohol, losing weight and exercising.
bifidobacteria Major type of bacteria that
make up the gut microbiome. Some are isoflavones Class of flavonoids, which are
used as probiotics. Found in foods such as produced only by members of the bean family
live-culture yoghurt. of plants (Fabaceae).

dementia Syndrome associated with isothiocyanates Produced by Brassicales
an ongoing decline of brain functioning. plants to defend against pests and diseases.
Affects memory, thinking speed, language, When these plants are eaten, an enzyme
understanding, judgement, mood and converts glucosinolate molecules in the
movement. Alzheimer’s disease is the most plant tissues into isothiocyanates, creating
common cause. distinctive aromas and flavours. May be
effective against types of cancer.

114 g Potential Bioactives & Health

lactobacilli ‘Friendly’ bacteria that live in diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular
the digestive, urinary and genital systems diseases is emerging. Flavonoids and
without causing disease; associated with isoflavones belong to this compound class.
beneficial health effects. Also found in
some fermented foods like yoghurt and polyunsaturated fats Dietary fats in which
in dietary supplements. the constituent hydrocarbon chain consists
of two or more carbon-carbon double bonds.
microbiota Billions of bacteria living in Referred to as ‘good fats’ because they can
the large intestine. The bacteria live in a help lower LDL-cholesterol.
symbiotic relationship with their human
hosts, influencing a wide range of bodily prebiotics Indigestible components of food
processes – positively and negatively. that are able to reach the large intestine,
to feed beneficial bacteria and promote its
neurodegenerative Range of conditions growth and function.
which primarily affect the neurons in the
human brain. Diseases include Parkinson’s, probiotics Micro-organisms claimed to
Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s. provide health benefits (especially gut-related)
when consumed. Added to yoghurts or taken
nitric oxide Gas naturally produced in the as supplements; ‘good’ or ‘friendly’ bacteria.
body; used to communicate between cells;
cardio-protective. rickets Children’s skeletal disorder leading to
softening of the bones; caused by a lack of
osteomalacia Rickets in adults. vitamin D or calcium.

osteoporosis Bone-weakening condition sulforaphane Isothiocyanate found in
that develops over years until a fall broccoli and rocket; may be associated with
or impact causes a bone fracture. lower risk of prostrate cancer.
Postmenopausal women are at risk.
type 1 diabetes Failure of the pancreas to
polyphenols Abundant substances found produce insulin, which results in glucose
in fruits, vegetables and nuts; evidence for remaining in the blood rather than being
their role in the prevention of degenerative taken up by cells and used as fuel for energy.

Glossary g 115

FLAVONOIDS &
ISOFLAVONES

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Flavonoids and isoflavones are RELATED TOPICS
Flavonoids and See also
isoflavones are common compounds produced by plants and fungi, GUT MICROBIOME
chemical compounds that which can act as colour pigments in flowers, a page 40
are present in many of defence against high UV light and as a chemical
the plant-based foods defence against some plant diseases. Flavonoids FRUIT & VEGETABLES
and drinks we consume are present in many of the fruits and vegetables page 54
every day. that we eat and drink, such as blueberries, green
and black tea, citrus fruits, wine, onions and POSTMENOPAUSAL WOMEN
3-MINUTE SNACK cocoa. There is some evidence to suggest that page 82
Flavonoids and consuming these compounds and their
isoflavones belong to a metabolites reduces the risk of developing 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
class of compounds called conditions such as atherosclerosis, reduces JUNJI TERAO
‘polyphenols’. This group blood pressure and improves vascular function. 1951–
also contains anthocyanins Relatively recent research has shown that World leader in the metabolic
(present in grapes and red specific compounds may reduce cognitive effects of flavonoids and
wine), catechins (found decline, which is linked with improvements isoflavones.
in cocoa) and phenolic in vascular health, increased blood flow and
acids (found in anything maintaining synaptic connections in the brain. JEREMY SPENCER
from artichokes to wine). Isoflavones are similar to flavonoids, but are 1971–
These compounds are also produced only by members of the bean family Leading researcher in the
thought to impart health of plants (Fabaceae) – soy, green beans and effects of polyphenols
benefits in humans, though peanuts. The health benefits of isoflavones on cognition.
the exact mechanisms by are not as well studied as flavonoids, but
which this happens are there are clinical indications that consumption 30-SECOND TEXT
not always apparent. Gut decreases cancer risk in postmenopausal Luke Bell
microbial populations may women and reduces some risk factors of
play an important role. cardiovascular disease.

116 g Potential Bioactives & Health Isoflavones are present
in processed foods such
as tofu and miso soup
in high concentrations.



NITRATE & NITRITE

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Nitrate was previously thought RELATED TOPICS
Vegetables rich in nitrate See also
have been shown to lower to be an inert end product of body metabolism. FRUIT & VEGETABLES
blood pressure and improve However, research over the last decade or so page 54
exercise performance via has revealed nitrate and nitrite to be important RED & PROCESSED MEAT
conversion to nitrite and molecules for production of cardio-protective page 110
the cardio-protective nitric nitric oxide. Nitrate is found naturally in
oxide in blood vessels. vegetables, particularly green leafy varieties 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
and beetroot. Studies have shown that the ROBERT F FURCHGOTT &
3-MINUTE SNACK consumption of dietary nitrate dramatically LOUIS J IGNARRO
Nitrate and nitrite are now lowers blood pressure as well as improving 1916–2009 & 1941–
considered an important physical performance. These effects are American biochemists who
alternative source of nitric mediated by the conversion of nitrate to discovered the role of nitric
oxide in humans, rather nitrite by bacteria in the mouth, followed by oxide as an important
than inert by-products conversion to nitric oxide in blood vessels. This signalling molecule in the
of metabolism. Research causes the vessels to relax and dilate, increasing cardiovascular system.
shows that daily blood flow and lowering blood pressure. In
consumption of nitrate-rich contrast, the consumption of nitrate and nitrite 30-SECOND TEXT
beetroot juice lowers blood in processed meat has been associated with an Ditte Hobbs
pressure in people with increased risk of colon cancer. Nitrate and nitrite
high blood pressure are often added to processed meat to prevent Beetroot juice has
(hypertension), suggesting microbial spoilage and to preserve its red colour. been used to increase
a promising role for dietary Yet, under the acidic environment of the performance in elite
nitrate as a cost-effective stomach, nitrite may react with compounds athletes, as well as
strategy for management called ‘amines’, found in meat to produce helping the body cope
of hypertension. nitrosamines – known carcinogens. However, with high altitudes.
vegetables have low levels of amines, and
118 g Potential Bioactives & Health contain vitamin C and polyphenolic compounds
that favour the production of nitric oxide and
reduce the formation of nitrosamines.



ISOTHIOCYANATES

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Brassicales plants produce RELATED TOPICS
Isothiocyanates are See also
important dietary isothiocyanates to defend themselves NUTRIENT–GENE
components for the against pests and diseases. They are the INTERACTIONS
reduction in risk of certain reason why cabbage smells sulfurous, why page 42
chronic diseases and are mustard is hot and why you may hate the
also responsible for the taste of Brussels sprouts at Christmas. When FRUIT & VEGETABLES
flavours of foods such these plants are eaten, an enzyme converts page 54
as mustard and cabbage. glucosinolate molecules in the plant tissues into
isothiocyanates, creating distinctive aromas 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHY
3-MINUTE SNACK and flavours. Some isothiocyanates also RICHARD MITHEN
With an ageing population, happen to be effective against types of cancer. 1960–
diseases such as cancer and Sulforaphane is an isothiocyanate found in British professor who produced
dementia are becoming broccoli and rocket, and can help prevent and the world’s first ‘super
more prevalent in society. slow the progression of prostate cancer. People broccoli’ that has increased
Eating vegetables that who eat a greater proportion of Brassica-type amounts of the isothiocyanate
contain isothiocyanates vegetables in their diets (kale, cabbage, broccoli) sulforaphane.
on a regular basis may be  are at a lower risk of developing chronic
associated with lowering diseases such as cancer, heart disease and 30-SECOND TEXT
the risk of developing some neurodegenerative conditions. Cooking by Luke Bell
cancers and forms of boiling, steaming or microwaving is very bad
neurodegeneration. for the enzyme that produces isothiocyanates,
Isothiocyanate compounds as it breaks down at temperatures above 60°C
interact with our genes and (140°F). Stir-frying helps to maintain the health
promote metabolism of benefits, and eating raw salads with watercress
cellular waste products and rocket is a good way to include them in the
in a less harmful way, diet, without the need for cooking.
which protects our DNA
from damage. Research strongly
suggests that we
120 g Potential Bioactives & Health should develop a
healthy love for
Brassica vegetables.



OMEGA-3
FATTY ACIDS

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Omega-3 fatty acids are a class RELATED TOPICS
Omega-3 fatty acids are See also
important for maintaining of polyunsaturated fats. They are rarer in most FATS
human health. The best diets than saturated, monounsaturated and page 22
source of the most omega-6 polyunsaturated fats. Omega-3 fatty
important omega-3 fatty acids come from plants and animals. The main FISH
acids (EPA and DHA) is plant omega-3 fatty acid is alpha-linolenic acid. page 56
fatty fish. This cannot be made in animals and is an
essential fatty acid. The main role of alpha- DIETARY FATS &
3-MINUTE SNACK linolenic acid is as a metabolic precursor HEART DISEASE
EPA and DHA change cell of more complex omega-3 fatty acids, page 98
membrane structure and particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and
function, regulate the docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). However, this 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
chemical signals produced metabolic conversion is relatively inefficient HANS OLAF BANG &
by cells and control the and humans need preformed EPA and DHA to JORN DYERBERG
genes that cells express. support cell function and to maintain health. Danish researchers who
Through these actions, EPA The main dietary source of EPA and DHA is travelled to Greenland in the
and DHA modify cell and seafood, especially fatty fish (salmon, tuna, 1970s and early 1980s to study
tissue behaviour and sardines, mackerel). If people do not eat fatty the diet and disease patterns
responses in a way that fish, their intake of EPA and DHA is likely to of the Inuit; demonstrated that
optimizes function, thereby be lower than recommended (around 200 to the reported cardio protection
improving health and 500 mg of EPA plus DHA per day). Getting was most likely due to dietary
reducing disease risk. The sufficient EPA and DHA is important for health. EPA and DHA.
sustainability of fish as a DHA has key roles in the structure and function
source of EPA and DHA is of the eye and brain and getting enough DHA HUGH SINCLAIR
not certain. early in life, when these organs are developing, 1910–90
is vital. EPA and DHA are important for heart British researcher amongst the
122 g Potential Bioactives & Health and cognitive health and for the control of first to claim that diseases like
inflammation. EPA and DHA are available in heart disease were influenced
supplements, often referred to as fish oils. by dietary fats.

30-SECOND TEXT
Philip C Calder

Fittingly, ‘omega’
means ‘great O’
(ō mega, mega
meaning ‘great’).



4 February 1910 1933 1942–47 1967–68
Born in Edinburgh, UK Awarded the Gotch Director of the Oxford Master of the Worshipful
Memorial Prize Nutrition Survey Society of Apothecaries
1923
Studies at Stone House 1937 1945 1968
School then Winchester Receives the Radcliffe Awarded the Chevalier Awarded an Honorary DSc
College, where he Travelling Fellowship, of the Order of Oranje- from Baldwin-Wallace
is awarded the which allows Sinclair to Nassau by the Queen of College
Headmaster’s Natural make an extensive visit to the Netherlands for work
Science Prize (1928) many of the laboratories on the survey of the 1976
and the Senior Science in the US and Canada Dutch population after Joins the expedition of
Prize (1929) engaged in nutritional the Siege of Leningrad Drs Bang and Dyerberg in
research northwest Greenland,
1946 renewing his interest in
Awarded Honorary the Inuit diet
Brigadier and,
subsequently, the US 1979
Presidential Medal of Undergoes his infamous
Freedom with Silver Palm, ‘Eskimo diet’ study
for work on the Oxford
Nutrition Survey

1951 1983–1990
Invited to give the Cutter President of the
Lecture at Harvard, McCarrison Society
USA – a prestigious
lecture founded in 1912; 22 June 1990
University Reader in Dies at the age of 80 in
Human Nutrition, Oxford, UK
Magdalen College, Oxford

1 1995
The Hugh Sinclair Unit of
1956 Human Nutrition at the
Publication of ‘Deficiency University of Reading is
of essential fatty acids founded, and Sinclair’s
and atherosclerosis, archive is held in the
etcetera’ in The Lancet Museum of English Rural
Life (MERL)

124 g Potential Bioactives & Health

HUGH MACDONALD SINCLAIR

Hugh Macdonald Sinclair was a dietary long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated
fats, found in fish oils, in reducing blood
passionate nutritionist who dedicated his life clotting and heart disease risk. This originated
to investigating diet and chronic disease, and from a trip to Greenland to study snow
enjoyed an illustrious career in terms of awards blindness, where Sinclair noticed that the Inuit
and accolades. Nevertheless, his major population did not seem to suffer from heart
contributions to the field of human nutrition disease. In 1956 Sinclair published his famous
were not fully recognized in his lifetime by his paper, entitled ‘Deficiency of essential fatty
peers. Sinclair was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, acids and atherosclerosis, etcetera’, in The
to Rosalie Sybil Jackson and Colonel Hugh Lancet, a prestigious medical journal, in which
Montgomerie Sinclair, a claimed descendent of he speculated on the links between long-chain
Woldonius, the Viking monarch of Finland and omega-3 polyunsaturated fats and heart
the St Clair cousins of William the Conqueror. disease and cancer. Unfortunately, his peers
were sceptical, and Sinclair struggled to secure
After attaining a first-class degree in Animal funding for his research to confirm these
Physiology from Oriel College Oxford and speculations. This led to his famous ‘Eskimo
Doctorate of Medicine from University College diet’ study, when, at the age of 69, he ate
London, amongst other degrees, he was elected nothing but seal meat, fish and water for
as University Demonstrator and Lecturer in 100 days, while cutting his arm frequently to
Biochemistry and as a Fellow of Magdalen measure the time it took for his blood to clot.
College Oxford. At the age of 31, the Ministry Remarkably, this diet increased his blood
of Health invited Sinclair to set up the Oxford clotting time from 3 to 50 minutes and provided
Nutrition Survey, to establish the health and an elegant demonstration of how these fats
diet of the British population during World reduce blood clots in arteries (thrombosis),
War II. Between 1942 and 1947 Sinclair and his thereby decreasing risk of a heart attack. This
team of 24 staff conducted detailed surveys, finding was confirmed by other studies, which
not only in the UK but also in Germany and form the basis for the dietary recommendation
the Netherlands. While this survey was an to increase intakes of these fats to reduce
outstanding achievement, on which the British heart disease.
Government based its rationing strategy, the
results were, sadly, never published. Julie A Lovegrove

Another landmark achievement in Sinclair’s
life was recognition of the importance of

Hugh Macdonald Sinclair g 125

VITAMIN D
& CALCIUM

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Vitamin D is a vitamin in food RELATED TOPICS
Vitamin D deficiency is See also
common in developed that becomes a hormone inside the body. BABIES, INFANTS & CHILDREN
countries as year-round Sunlight supplies most requirements except in page 76
sunlight is scarce. Vitamin northern regions during winter, when dietary
D works with calcium to sources become important, such as oily fish and PREGNANCY & LACTATION
maintain bone structure. eggs. Calcium is a mineral found in dairy foods, page 80
green vegetables, nuts and seeds. Vitamin D
3-MINUTE SNACK supports bone health by boosting calcium POSTMENOPAUSAL WOMEN
Warnings about skin cancer absorption in the gut and promoting uptake page 82
could have inadvertently by the bone matrix. Low vitamin D can lead
led to an epidemic in to rickets in children and osteomalacia and 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
vitamin D deficiency, due osteoporosis in adults. Taking calcium with ALFRED HESS
to sun avoidance or vitamin D improves bone density and lowers the 1875–1933
potentially the use of sun risk of fractures, particularly in postmenopausal American physician who
block. Rickets is on the rise, women. There are hundreds of vitamin D discovered that cod liver oil
as is osteoporosis. An ideal receptors in the body, suggesting a wider and exposure to UV light could
balance is to get 15 to 20 influence. Studies have reported associations cure rickets. He shared in the
minutes in the sun daily between low vitamin D status (blood levels) and Nobel prize money awarded to
during summer and to take a higher risk of cancer or heart disease. Other Adolf Windaus for research
a supplement in winter. research notes that children are at greater risk into rickets.
of type 1 diabetes if their mothers were low in
126 g Potential Bioactives & Health vitamin D during pregnancy. Further evidence ELMER MCCOLLUM
is needed to confirm these findings. Vitamin D 1879–1967
deficiency is common in western and northern American scientist credited
countries, affecting 15 to 40% of the with isolating vitamin D and
population. Those who are obese or have darker creating the vitamin naming
skins are more at risk. Recommendations are system with Cornelia Kennedy.
10–20 mg daily, and some countries advise daily
supplementation as natural sources are limited. 30-SECOND TEXT
Carrie Ruxton

The hard framework
for bones (cortical)
and teeth (enamel) is
composed of calcium
phosphate.



PROBIOTICS
& PREBIOTICS

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Gut health means more than RELATED TOPICS
The millions of bacteria in See also
our guts can have positive digestive health. The billions of bacteria GUT MICROBIOME
or negative effects on our ('microbiota') in the large intestine live in a page 40
health depending on how symbiotic relationship with their human hosts,
we treat them. influencing a wide range of bodily processes via OVERWEIGHT & OBESITY
their proliferation and metabolic activities. In page 86
3-MINUTE SNACK the case of potentially pathogenic bacteria, the
Studies on animals suggest impact on health can be negative. However, 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
that certain gut bacteria others such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli ELIE METCHNIKOFF
promote obesity whereas are associated with beneficial effects such as 1845–1916
others help prevent it, pathogen inhibition, rebalancing of immune Russian scientist and Nobel
possibly by boosting function, blood lipid reduction and metabolic Prize winner who was the first
satiety or limiting the changes that may assist control of weight. to report that a fermented
amount of energy we Probiotics are live bacteria which, when drink containing lactobacillus
extract from our foods. administered in adequate amounts, confer a bulgaricus helped to improve
While this sounds exciting, health benefit; prebiotic fibres are selectively life expectancy in Bulgarian
it’s a long way off from the fermented ingredients, for example inulin-type villagers.
highly complex situation fructans, galacto-oligosaccharide and lactulose,
of human eating behaviour, that change the composition and/or activity of GLENN GIBSON &
which is dominated by the microbiota to deliver benefits. Do probiotics MARCEL ROBERFROID
desire, hunger, food and prebiotics work? The literature has 1961– & 1938–
availability and societal expanded rapidly and many studies have shown British microbiologist and
cues. Therefore, a bacterial positive outcomes, particularly in relation to Belgian pharmacist who first
cure for obesity is unlikely. infection control, mineral absorption and defined prebiotic fibres in 1995
metabolic effects, some inconsistencies in and recognized their potential
results are apparent. So, it’s a cautious ‘yes’. for working synergistically
with the gut microbiota to
promote health.

30-SECOND TEXT
Carrie Ruxton

128 g Potential Bioactives & Health The large intestine is
home to billions of
different bacteria,
weighing in at 1–2 kg
(2.2–4.4 lb).





g

FOOD PROCESSING & PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

FOOD PROCESSING &
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

GLOSSARY

additives Components added intentionally gene Basic physical and functional unit of
to a food to affect its characteristic, by heredity, a specific region of DNA that codes
improving look or appeal. for RNA, which make proteins.

ascorbic acid Micronutrient, also known as genetic modification or engineering
vitamin C, that also acts as a preservative, Genetically modified (GM) organisms are
antioxidant or colour stabilizer in foods. those whose genetic material (DNA) has been
altered in a way that doesn’t occur naturally
beta-lactoglobulin Specific protein in the through reproduction. Scientists introduce
whey component in milk that can initiate a new gene from a different organism, even
an allergy in some susceptible individuals. one unrelated to the modified species. Has
seen the rise of commercialized genetically
bioavailability Extent to which nutrients modified crops and livestock.
are digested and absorbed.
iodine Essential micronutrient in the diet,
endosperm Food reserve tissue inside involved in the production of thyroid
the seeds of most flowering plants that hormone. Present naturally in soil and
surrounds the embryo and provides seawater; found in dairy products and
nutrition in the form of starch. May also seafood. Symptoms of deficiency are related
contain oils and protein. to the thyroid.

enrichment Process that can reintroduce lycopene Naturally occurring carotenoid that
nutrients to refined foods, to improve is responsible for the red/pink colours seen in
the nutritional quality. tomatoes, pink grapefruit and other foods.

ethical omnivorism Philosophy and diet
that makes it essential only to consume
foods that come from animals that are
grass fed and free range; similarly, only
wild fish caught ethically or sustainably
farmed fish can be consumed.

132 g Food Processing
& Production Systems

nitrate Occurs in vegetables, grains scurvy Severe vitamin C deficiency. Symptoms
and drinking water; produced for use as include fatigue, weakness, severe joint or leg
fertilizers in agriculture. Scientific reviews pain, bleeding gums, red or blue spots on the
have reported that organic food crops can skin, easy bruising.
contain less nitrate than conventional
crops, the consumption of which has been selenium Essential mineral that increases
associated with both good and negative immunity, defends against free radical
effects on health. damage and inflammation and maintains
a healthy metabolism. Found in Brazil nuts,
polyunsaturated fats Dietary fats in which eggs, liver, tuna, cod, sunflower seeds,
the constituent hydrocarbon chain consists poultry and certain types of meat.
of two or more carbon–carbon double
bonds. Often referred to as ‘good fats’, World Health Organization (WHO) Agency
along with monounsaturated fats, because of the United Nations tasked with building
when substituted for dietary saturated fats a better, healthier future for people all over
they can help lower LDL-cholesterol. Found the world.
in nuts, seeds and oily fish.

refined foods Processed or altered foods
that are no longer in their natural state, a
process that results in a loss of beneficial
nutrients and fibre.

saturated fat Dietary fats in which the
constituent hydrocarbon chain consists
of only single carbon–carbon bonds.
Often referred to as ‘bad fats’ because
high intakes are linked to raised LDL-
cholesterol and increased risk of heart
disease events. Commonly found in
animal-derived products.

Glossary g 133

COOKING,
PROCESSING
& PRESERVING

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Cooking, processing and RELATED TOPICS
Done properly, cooking See also
provides benefits related preserving have existed since humans began REFINING
to food preservation and to eat. Cooking makes foods softer, prolongs page 136
nutrient availability, but their life and combines foods to create ADDITIVES
done improperly, as with specific dishes. It is a form of processing and page 138
overcooking, it may preservation. The application of heat or an acid FOOD SUSTAINABILITY
destroy other nutrients serves to deactivate naturally occurring enzymes page 148
and overly process foods. that promote reactions such as browning or
ageing, and eventual spoilage. Processing 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHY
3-MINUTE SNACK transforms ingredients by physical or chemical NICOLAS APPERT
Although cooking is done means into other forms. It combines raw food 1749–1841
primarily with the use of ingredients to produce products that are easily Looking for ways to feed
heat or fire, microwaving is prepared and served. There are many methods, troops, Napoleon Bonaparte
a modern cooking process including mincing and emulsifying. Preservation offered a prize for the
that is gaining global prevents the growth of microorganisms such development of a process to
popularity. Microwaves use as yeasts, although some methods work by preserve foods. Confectioner
waves of energy that cause introducing benign bacteria or fungi to the food, and chef Appert rose to the
molecules to vibrate, build as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that challenge with canning, and
heat and cook the food. As cause rancidity. For all three processes, there are the rest is, as they say, history.
less – or no – water can be pros and cons. Advantages include: less spoilage
used when cooking items by prolonging the life of the food; increased 30-SECOND TEXT
such as vegetables, if not availability of the foodstuff and increased Judith Rodriguez
overcooked, microwave bioavailability of some nutrients; reduced
cooking can help preserve food-borne diseases; convenience; enhancing The nutrients lost
some nutrients. flavour and texture. Disadvantages include: during cooking varies
decreased levels of some nutrients (heat depending on the food
134 g Food Processing destroys vitamin C); use of additives; and the way in which
& Production Systems contamination risks; some methods have been it is cooked.
linked to carcinogens; environmental concerns.



REFINING

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Refined foods are processed or RELATED TOPICS
Refined foods are See also
highly processed grains, altered so that they are no longer in their GRAINS & GLUTEN
sugars and oils that are natural state, a process that results in a loss page 64
stripped of a majority of of beneficial nutrients and fibre. A whole grain
their nutrients. contains an endosperm, germ and bran – all SALT & BLOOD PRESSURE
nutrients remain intact. Automated milling using page 104
3-MINUTE SNACK a roller mill is used as a process to create refined
Refining grains were grains, producing a finer texture and extending SUGARS & SUGAR
initially created for two shelf life. This processing method improves the SUBSTITUTES
reasons: to enhance digestibility of nutrients embedded within the page 106
efficiency of grain grain; however, it strips the bran and germ from
processing; to reduce the grain to leave the endosperm – the nutrients 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
rancidity of grain flour are no longer intact. A refined grain is missing OLIVER EVANS
for travellers during long several B vitamins, iron and dietary fibre, and 1755–1819
migrations. This process, numerous other nutrients are reduced. The American inventor who
now semi-counterbalanced refined process occurs in foods beyond grains, developed the first automated
with enrichment, produces commonly in sugars and oils. These products flour mill, to make grain
a less nutritious grain lack nutrients and minerals as compared to their processing more efficient
product. It is advantageous wholesome counterparts. Foods that contain without the assistance of
for consumers to replace refined products (white sugar, white flour, manual labour.
refined foods with whole oils) include baked goods, confectionary and
foods, to enhance the processed foods. A process called ‘enrichment’ JOHN STEVENS
nutritional quality of the can reintroduce nutrients, to improve the 1840–1920
foods they eat. nutritional quality of refined products. Refined English inventor who
foods can be overeaten due to a poorer satiety developed the roller mill,
136 g Food Processing index and, due to their lack of nutrition density, widely used today, to extract
& Production Systems should be replaced with whole foods that a grain’s endosperm.
maximize nutritional value.
30-SECOND TEXT
Kristen Hicks-Roof

Replacing refined white
rice and pasta with
their ‘whole’ grain
counterpart will confer
many health benefits.



ADDITIVES

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Usually when discussing RELATED TOPICS
Intentional additives are See also
components added to additives we are talking about components FOOD ALLERGIES
foods for a variety of added intentionally to a food to affect its & INTOLERANCES
reasons and functions, characteristic. The purpose of intentional page 100
such as to enhance flavour additives is to improve the look or appeal of
or as a fat replacement. a food by modifying its flavour, colour, smell COOKING, PROCESSING
or texture, increasing its storage life, protecting & PRESERVING
3-MINUTE SNACK or increasing its nutrients, or improving page 134
Use of additives is performance. There are many classes of
controversial. Some believe additives, such as: preservatives, sweeteners, LABELS & PACKAGING
they should not be used at colouring agents, flavours and spices, flavour page 140
all and others believe they enhancers, fat replacers, nutrients, emulsifiers,
are appropriate to use. thickeners, stabilizers, texturizers, binders, acid 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHY
While some additives’ or alkalinity control agents, leaveners, anti- FREDERICK (OR FRIEDRICH)
functions are not caking agents, humectants, yeast nutrients, ACCUM
considered essential and, dough conditioners or straighteners, firming 1769–1838
therefore, should be agents, enzymes and gases. Some additives may German chemist who published
disallowed (such as provide more than one function; for example, Treatise on Adulteration of
colouring agents), some ascorbic acid is a nutrient that also acts as a Food, in which he denounced
additives provide functions preservative, antioxidant or colour stabilizer. the use of chemical additives
that are beneficial to The most common additives are sugar, salt, corn to food, causing considerable
a product (such as syrup, citric acid, baking soda, mustard, pepper friction with food processors
preservation, so you can and colouring agents made from vegetables. and manufacturers.
keep your bread for a week Countries have their own lists of permitted
instead of a couple of days additives and review these lists periodically. 30-SECOND TEXT
before it goes stale). Additives do not pose a risk to health. However, Judith Rodriguez
they can become an issue if someone with a
138 g Food Processing sensitivity to a particular additive consumes It has been suggested
& Production Systems them or if they are overconsumed. that some additives
may cause hyperactivity
and behavioural
problems in children.



LABELS &
PACKAGING

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Modern food packaging has its RELATED TOPICS
Nutritional information on See also
food labels is considered roots in the Napoleonic Wars (1803–15), when SALT & BLOOD PRESSURE
an important strategy for the French government offered a 12,000-franc page 104
encouraging consumers to reward for the invention of a method of
make informed and healthy providing transportable, stable and safe food to COOKING, PROCESSING
diet choices. soldiers in the field, which lead to the invention & PRESERVING
of food canning. Technological advances have page 134
3-MINUTE SNACK allowed for the majority of foodstuffs to be
Saturated fat, sugar and purchased pre-packaged. Nowadays, packaging ADDITIVES
salt-rich processed foods protects food from the point it is processed to page 138
are major contributors when it is purchased by the consumer, whilst
to the global burden of maintaining the product’s nutritional and 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
chronic diseases. It is vital sensory qualities. Packaging also provides NICOLAS APPERT
to provide consumers with product details, including a list of ingredients 1749–1841
accurate and easy-to- with allergens and additives identified, the French chef, confectioner and
understand nutritional ‘best before’ or ‘use by’ date and nutritional distiller, who was also known
food labels, in line with information. The World Health Organization as the ‘father of canning’ for
government dietary (WHO) advises that nutritional labelling of his pioneering work on airtight
recommendations. Further pre-packaged foods should be in line with food preservation.
research is needed to international standards, including the Codex
examine links between Alimentarius – a ‘food code’ that ensures ERIK WALLENBERG
nutrition knowledge, consumer protection and fair trade. Since 1915–99
food label usage and December 2016, back-of-pack labelling has Swedish engineer who was
food intake; this will aid become a mandatory requirement of pre- responsible for inventing the
the development of packaged foods, under EU legislation. The Tetra Pak tetrahedron-shaped
educational programmes WHO European Food and Nutrition Action milk package.
that promote healthier diet Plan 2015–20 calls for countries to develop
choices in less informed and implement front-of-pack labelling systems 30-SECOND TEXT
and/or educated consumer for consumer-friendly nutritional information. Oonagh Markey
groups.
Nutrient profiling
140 g Food Processing systems, such as the
& Production Systems traffic light colour-
coding system, are
increasingly popular.



ORGANIC FOODS

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE The demand for organic foods RELATED TOPICS
The classification of See also
organic food varies has increased, particularly in developed DIETARY FATS &
country to country, but countries. The motivation for choosing to buy HEART DISEASE
generally the focus is on organic food varies, but includes the beliefs that page 98
environmentally-conscious it is less environmentally damaging, contains no
farming, without the use chemical residues and is associated with better NITRATE & NITRITE
of synthetic pesticides animal welfare than conventionally produced page 118
or fertilizers. foods. Scientific reviews have reported that
organic food crops can have higher antioxidant FREE-RANGE & INTENSIVELY
3-MINUTE SNACK activity than conventional crops, which also FARMED FOODS
Before World War II, foods contain more nitrate, the consumption of page 144
from crops and animals which has been associated with both good
were all organic, but not and negative effects on health. There is also 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
labelled so. In the 1940s, evidence that organic milk and meat contain WALTER JAMES
an organic movement higher amounts of omega-3 polyunsaturated 1896–1982
began due to worries fats than conventional counterparts, but British agriculturalist who
about the increasing use whilst the percentage increase often appears created the term ‘organic
of chemical fertilizers and significant, since normal foods contain very little farming’ and is regarded as
pesticides in increasingly of these fats, the higher values in the organic the ‘father’ of modern organic
industrialized agricultural products are not likely to impact the diet as a agriculture.
practices. Largely as a whole. There is evidence that organic milk
result of environmental contains less of some important nutrients, LADY EVELYN BALFOUR
awareness, popularity notably iodine and selenium, than conventional 1898–1990
grew, and standardized milk, which could contribute to an already British organic farming pioneer
certification procedures worryingly low intake of these nutrients in some who graduated in 1918 with
followed. Today, some sections of the population. Overall, there is little a diploma in agriculture from
governments support or no evidence that long-term consumption of what is now the University
organic farming through organic foods will lower the risk of nutrition- of Reading. Founded the Soil
agricultural subsidy reform. related ill health than eating conventional foods. Association in 1946.

142 g Food Processing 30-SECOND TEXT
& Production Systems Ian Givens

Organic cows enjoy a
diet free from artificial
additives, chemicals
and GM ingredients.



FREE-RANGE &
INTENSIVELY
FARMED FOODS

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Intensification of animal RELATED TOPICS
Currently – and perhaps See also
surprisingly – there is no production began in the 1950s to increase food DIETARY FATS &
clear evidence that foods production. This involved more animals being HEART DISEASE
from free-range animals kept indoors, particularly meat poultry, hens page 98
are of superior nutritional and pigs that have diets based on cereals. There
quality than those followed some increased housing of beef cattle ORGANIC FOODS
produced more intensively. and dairy cows, and some supermarkets now page 142
demand that dairy cows have to graze outdoors
3-MINUTE SNACK for a certain period per year. There has been 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
So-called ‘ethical increased demand for foods from animals in HIPPOCRATES OF KOS
omnivorism’ is a philosophy free-range systems, likely due to perceived c.460–c.370 BCE
and a diet that makes it higher animal welfare and ethics of production. An influential Greek
essential only to consume Whether foods produced by animals in free- physician who also considered
foods that come from range systems are nutritionally superior to those food ethics, advising that,
animals that are grass fed produced from intensive systems has many ‘Food products yielded by
and free range. Similarly, similarities to the organic versus non-organic nature have to be improved
only wild fish caught foods debate. As with organic foods, beef, lamb and refined.’
ethically and sustainably and milk from outdoor grazing cattle have been
farmed fish can be shown to contain somewhat higher amounts KARL MARX
consumed. One aim is to of omega-3 polyunsaturated fats than those 1818–83
ensure that animals are from animals kept indoors. There is also similar German revolutionary socialist
managed and slaughtered evidence for free-range poultry meat, and eggs who considered the ethics of
according to ethical from free-range hens have been shown to have food production, saying that,
principles, with the hope a higher vitamin D content than those that are ‘The food products generated
that more retailers and battery farmed. However, milk from grazing by capitalism represent a basic
restaurants will give cows is likely to contain less iodine and selenium experience of estrangement
consumers the choice. than from animals fed diets to which these and alienation.’
nutrients are added.
144 g Food Processing 30-SECOND TEXT
& Production Systems Ian Givens

Overall, no evidence yet
exists that free-range
produced foods are
healthier than those
from intensive systems.



GM FOODS

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE Genetically modified (GM) RELATED TOPICS
Genetically modified See also
foods provide benefits organisms are those whose genetic material NUTRIENT–GENE
to food producers and (DNA) has been altered in a way that doesn’t INTERACTIONS
sometimes consumers, occur naturally through reproduction. Scientists page 42
but acceptability has introduce a new gene from a different organism,
remained low in many even one unrelated to the modified species. FOOD ALLERGIES
developed countries. DNA can be taken from plants, invertebrates & INTOLERANCES
or bacteria and inserted into the target species. page 102
3-MINUTE SNACK The main purpose is to enhance plant yield and
Farmers have been improve resistance to pests and diseases, but FOOD SUSTAINABILITY
genetically modifying some DNA crosses have resulted in strange page 148
plants and animals for outcomes, such as glow in the dark mice.
hundreds of years by Examples of GM food applications include corn, 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
selective breeding. GM oilseed rape, sugar beet and soya, as well as GREGOR MENDEL
took this up a level by less allergenic milk from cows that have been 1822–84
enabling a wider engineered to express lower levels of beta- Augustinian friar and scientist
genepool – even across lactoglobulin. Regulation differs depending considered to be the founder
different species – as well on the country, and even if GM foods are not of genetics, thanks to
as shortening the time grown commercially, certain crops, such as his meticulous research
to create a desired maize, soybean and sugar beet, might be in breeding different
characteristic. Depending imported. Concerns about GM organisms characteristics in pea plants.
upon your viewpoint, include the potential for them to escape
the potential of GM could and spread to wild populations, unintended HUGO DE VRIES
be positive, heralding an consequences for other species of animals or 1848–1935
era of cheap nutritious insects, loss of biodiversity, increased use of Dutch botanist who postulated
ingredients, or negative, pesticides, heightened allergenicity and safety that the inheritance of specific
raising the possibility of GM foods. WHO has stated that GM foods traits was due to hereditary
of ‘Frankenstein’ or need to be assessed on a case-by-case basis. carriers called ‘pangenes’,
unsafe foods. shortened later to ‘genes’.

146 g Food Processing 30-SECOND TEXT
& Production Systems Carrie Ruxton

WHO has stated that all
GM foods currently on
the market for human
consumption are safe.



FOOD
SUSTAINABILITY

the 30-second digest

3-SECOND BITE The term ‘sustainability’ refers to RELATED TOPICS
Food sustainability can be See also
promoted by emphasizing using a resource without depleting or damaging VEGAN & VEGETARIANISM
a diet with plant-based the resource. There are five elements considered page 66
foods, shopping local and important in sustainable agriculture, all of
using recyclable bags, which relate to food sustainability: water quality ORGANIC FOODS
while minimizing the use and supply; animal and plant biodiversity; page 142
of plastics, excessive energy production and use; plant and animal
packaging and food waste. production; labour practices (as they relate GM FOODS
to social justice and equity). Sustainability, page 146
3-MINUTE SNACK including food sustainability, is guided by the
The Great Law of the underlying philosophy that as ‘stewards’ of the 3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES
Iroquois (Native American) Earth, we have a responsibility to care for it and MASANOBU FUKUOKA
Confederacy stated that benefit from its abundant resources, but not 1913–2008
deliberations must consider deplete or destroy them in the process. This may Japanese farmer, philosopher
the impact on the seventh also guide some persons to emphasize, focus on and author of the bestselling
generation, approximately or select specific types of diets or food-related The One-Straw Revolution;
150 years into the future. behaviours, such as vegetarianism or eating only a leader in the worldwide
That has become a organic or free-trade foods. There are different sustainable agriculture
basic principle underlying types of farming and scales (sizes of farms). movement.
the concept of Whilst there is an assumption that small farms
sustainability – often promote food sustainability and large farms WENDELL BERRY
referred to as ‘Seventh (agribusiness) does not, the type of process, 1934–
Generation Sustainability’. efficiency and impact on ecology and labourers Renowned American
This philosophy is not should be the determinant of the sustainability sustainable food pioneer,
unique to the Iroquois; of the practice. There is controversy concerning author and activist.
many nations, tribes and the sustainability and impact of genetic
indigenous people around engineering. Nevertheless, focus on a plant- 30-SECOND TEXT
the world live by it. based diet is generally regarded as being more Judith Rodriguez
eco-friendly than an omnivorous diet.
148 g Food Processing Biodynamic farms
& Production Systems are managed as
self-sustaining whole
organisms, with
everything in balance.