How animal work

Forked tongue tastes and Single parent
smells the outside world
This female aphid is giving
Once the shell has been torn open, birth, without having
the snake may stay inside its egg mated first. This way
of breeding is quite
for several more hours common in insects. In
spring, when food is
plentiful, some female
aphids can produce
up to 10 young a
day. Each one is a tiny
copy, or clone, of the
mother. Male and female
aphids also mate later in the
year to produce eggs, which can
survive through the winter months.

Hungry hatchling Finally, the tiny rat snake slides out of the egg,
leaving its crumpled shell behind
Even when they are tiny, caterpillars have strong jaws.
This owl butterfly caterpillar has just chewed its way Giving birth
out of its egg and is setting off in search of food. Many
caterpillars eat their shells after hatching. The shells are Watched anxiously by its mother,
rich in protein, so they make a nutritious first meal. a young guanaco makes
its entrance into the world.
Some mammals—including
guanacos—give birth to young
that can walk and run within
a few hours. At the other
extreme, newly born pouched
mammals, or marsupials—such
as kangaroos—are tiny, hairless,
and blind. To survive, they must
continue growing inside their
mother’s pouch.

149

Amorous amphibians

As the breeding season nears its end, several male
European common frogs wait for females in the shallow
water of a pond. The frogs are dwarfed by mounds of
jelly-covered eggs, or spawn, which other females have
already laid in the water. A single female can produce up
to 4,000 eggs at a time and these are fertilized externally
by a male clinging to her back. At first, the eggs are
small, but their clear, jellylike coating absorbs water and
swells up, protecting the embryos developing inside. The
tadpoles, or frog larvae, take about a month to hatch.

150

151

Changing shape

All animals change size and shape as they grow up.

In some animals, however, the young and adults look

completely different and live in different ways. The

transformation from young to adult often happens

gradually in a process called metamorphosis—for

example, when a tadpole turns into a newt or a

frog. But for other animals, including butterflies,

metamorphosis is a single dramatic event. The

animal’s entire body breaks down into a soup,

and a new body forms in its place. Chrysalis shell
remains in place after
Complete transformation butterfly climbs out

Like all butterflies, the painted lady undergoes an amazing
transformation called complete metamorphosis. It starts its life
as a crawling caterpillar, which feeds hungrily on leaves for about
four weeks. Next, the caterpillar attaches itself to a stem and spins
a silk case called a chrysalis. Inside the chrysalis, the caterpillar’s
body is first liquefied, and then the cells reorganize themselves
in the new shape of a butterfly. Finally, the chrysalis splits open
and the adult butterfly emerges with crumpled wings.

Caterpillar hangs upside Caterpillar’s body changes
down to spin its chrysalis inside the hanging chrysalis

Right side up Wings expand and
harden as blood
Flatfish, such as this flounder, pumps through them
start life swimming in open
water with an eye on each side Adult painted lady pulls itself
of their heads, just like other fish. free of the chrysalis case
As the fish grow, their bodies
flatten out and they lie on one
side, partially buried on the
seabed. Over time, the eye that
was facing downward gradually
creeps across the fish’s head,
forming a mismatched pair on
the upper side of its body.

152

Abandoned exoskeleton Young adrift
remains hanging
from foliage Metamorphosis is very common
among sea animals and many
Change of skin invertebrates have young, or larvae,
that drift with the currents. Over
Some insects change shape gradually, the weeks or months, the larvae
each time they shed their “exoskeleton” slowly grow and change shape.
body case. Their wings develop from small They often settle on the shore or
buds, and so only the adults can fly. This seabed before becoming adults.
bush cricket is finishing its final molt. Its
old exoskeleton has split open and the adult
insect climbs out with fully formed wings,
ready to breed. This growing process is called
gradual, or incomplete, metamorphosis,
because the changes are small. Dragonflies
and cockroaches also develop in this way.

Eye not yet Barnacle larva
fully formed
This newly hatched barnacle larva has a
12-day-old embryo single eye. It swims and feeds by using
its feathery antennae.
14-day-old From water to land
tadpole Crab larva
Great crested newts lay their eggs in ponds.
leaves jelly Their newly hatched tadpoles are tiny and Halfway to adulthood, this crab larva
almost transparent, with feathery gills and no has large eyes and strong legs. It lives
trace of any legs. During the following four Egg in jellylike case and feeds on the seabed.
months, the tadpoles grow up fast and their
bodies transform. Their gills shrink and they
develop lungs and spindly legs. The fully grown
newts can breathe with their lungs as well as
through their skin, ready for life on land and
in the water. Several years then pass before
the adult newts are old enough to breed.

Spindly leg not yet
ready for walking
on land

External gills allow Male adult newt returns Sea urchin larva
breathing in water to pond to breed
Long arms, reinforced by hard mineral
28-day-old tadpole Five toes on hind leg spikes, help this sea urchin larva to drift
grows legs near the surface of the ocean.

153

Building a home

The animal world includes some amazingly gifted
builders. They make homes to protect themselves
and, even more importantly, to shelter their young.
Some animal homes could fit in a thimble, but
the largest can be taller than a house and take
generations to construct and maintain. All animals
rely on inborn behavior called instinct to help

them assemble a new
home using the right
building materials.

Stately piles

Many birds build a new nest each
spring to house their eggs and chicks,
but bald eagle pairs reuse the same one
for up to 20 years. Both partners help to
repair their old nest high up in a tree by
adding fresh supplies of sticks. After

many years of construction, a bald
eagle nest can be enormous. One
of the largest ever found measured
20 ft (6 m) from top to bottom—as
tall as a two-story house—and
weighed nearly a ton.

Beaver lodges Lodge roof covered
with sticks and
Beavers build the largest structures in the animal world, aside from sealed with mud
coral reefs. They cut down trees and branches and use stones and
mud to construct dams across rivers and streams. Some beaver Sleeping chamber
dams are more than 1,600 ft (500 m) long. These create a pond above water
that surrounds and protects their family living quarters, or
lodge, which is built from a huge pile of sticks. Underwater passage

Heavy stones Beaver packs
brace dam mud to seal dam

Nest hangs from
thin tree branch
as protection
against predators

154

Mobile home Building materials

Some animals make portable homes just for Animals build their homes with the materials they find in
themselves. This cluster of tiny sticks is a case made their local habitat and many use them in their natural form.
by a bagworm—a moth caterpillar that feeds on Some animals, however, shape or process their materials
leaves. The sticks are fastened together with silk, and first—perhaps by chewing them, or by mixing them with
they camouflage the caterpillar from insect-eating spit, or saliva. Other animals can produce building materials,
birds. Males eventually emerge from their cases to such as spider’s silk or beeswax, with their own bodies.
mate, but females often stay inside all their lives.
Leaves
Plant material
disguises silk Australian green ants make
bag containing bag-shaped nests from
bagworm folded leaves. Chains of ants
pull the leaves into position,
and then glue them together
with the sticky silk that is
produced by their grubs.

Show home Foam

Hanging upside down, a male southern masked Foam-nest frogs whip up
weaver uses his bill to stitch another blade of their own mucus to make
grass into his nest. Male birds do all the building hanging nests for their eggs
work—first, collecting strips of flexible, green grass in trees. Once the tadpoles
and then weaving and knotting them into a hollow, develop in the foam, they
hanging ball. The birds become more skilled at wriggle out of the nest and
constructing their woven nests each time they build. drop into pools and streams.
Once finished, the bird hangs beneath the nest and
flutters his wings, inviting females to mate and move in. Clay

Woven grass strips Burrow entrance Some termites build their
form domed nests from wood fibers, but
nest chamber the largest mounds are made
from particles of clay mixed
Nest made of with saliva. They tower up to
grass and fur 30 ft (9 m) high and have
deep, underground passages.
Underground maze
Grass
Many insects dig burrows, but the largest tunnels are made
by mammals. European rabbit colonies live in a warren—a The tiny harvest mouse
collects blades of grass,
network of burrows that can have many entrances and which it shreds and uses to
more than 800 ft (250 m) of tunnels. The rabbits graze in the weave a ball-shaped nest.
The nest is attached to grass
open, but they rarely stray far from the warren. At the first stems about 1 ft (30 cm)
sign of danger, they disappear to safety underground. above the ground.

Wood fibers

Common wasps use their
jaws to chew up dead wood
fibers and mix them with
saliva to form a paste. The
wasps spread out the paste
in sheets, which dry to form
the paper walls of their nest.

155

Parental care Follow the leader

Many young animals never see their parents. Instead, Once young ostriches have left their nest, they follow
they have to look after themselves. But for others, life their father, who teaches them where to feed. When
gets off to a much safer start, thanks to caring parents. different families meet, they often join together to form
These parents protect their young from predators, and a giant family, or crèche. A crèche can contain more
often lead their young to food. Some parents go even than 50 chicks supervised by a dominant male.
further, by collecting food for their offspring, or by
making it themselves. Usually it is the female that does
the caring, or both parents working as a team. But in
some animals, such as ostriches and mouthbrooding
fish, the male raises the family on his own.

Newly hatched crocodile
carried from nest to water

Gentle jaws

Despite their fearsome
teeth, female crocodiles
are remarkably gentle
parents. They bury
their eggs in riverside
nests and wait nearby
for nearly three months

until the young are ready
to hatch. As soon as the
young start to squeak, the
mother digs down to the nest
and carries the babies to water
in her jaws. Instinct prevents
her from closing her mouth,
so her young are safe.

Full back

Life is a race for young
Virginia opossums, because
their mother gives birth to more
young than she has teats. The
strongest, fastest babies find her
pouch first and fasten themselves
onto a spare teat, where they drink
her milk. Once they are around two
months old, they leave her pouch and
she carries them around on her back.

156

Eggs glued in tight Adult echidna, or Monotreme milk
spiral around spiny anteater
plant stem Monotremes have a unique way of breeding.
They lay eggs, but they raise their young in a
Guard duty pouch. The young feed on their mother’s milk,
not from teats as in other mammals, but from
In the insect world, caring glands tucked away in a groove in her pouch.
parents are rare. This plant bug is These strange animals include the platypus and
an exception. She guards her clutch of several kinds of echidna. They live only in New
eggs around the clock. Once her young Guinea and Australia.
have hatched, she stays with them until they
have shed their cases, or exoskeletons, for the first Hairy skin lining
time. After that, the young bugs are on their own. mother’s pouch

Foster parent feeds Folds of pouch held Recently hatched puggle
cuckoo, not realizing back to show egg inside pouch
that it is an impostor
Puggle laps up Milk
milk inside groove gland

Echidna egg Hatchling puggle Lapping up milk

The egg is about the size The young echidna, or The puggle stays in the
of a grape, with a large puggle, tears open the pouch for about 55 days.
yolk and a leathery shell. shell using a sharp point The puggle has no teat to
The female incubates on its snout. At this early latch onto, so it laps up the
it in her pouch for age, it is completely blind mother’s milk as it oozes
10–11 days. and has no spines. out into a groove.

Rapidly growing Mighty mouth
cuckoo is too big
to fit into nest Peering out of a rocky crevice, one of the sea’s most peculiar
parents shows off a mouthful of eggs. He is a jawfish, and
he collects the eggs when the female spawns. For more than
a week, he protects the eggs and pumps water over them to

supply them with oxygen,
keeping them healthy. He
releases them when they

are ready to hatch.

Dark eyes of developing
fish already visible
within eggs

Baby boom

Instead of raising their own young,
some animals trick others into doing all
the work for them. The common cuckoo
does this by laying eggs in the nests
of smaller birds. The young cuckoo
hatches first, and pushes all the other
eggs or hatchlings out of the nest. From
then on, it gets all the food for itself.

157

158

Gentle giants

In the forest of Rwanda’s Volcanoes National Park, a young
mountain gorilla lies in the safety of its mother’s arms.
Of all the great apes, mountain gorillas are the largest, but
they are among the world’s rarest mammals, with fewer
than 800 individuals surviving in the wild. Mountain gorillas
have a slow breeding rate—females give birth to a single
baby every three to four years. Gorillas grow up slowly as
well. This youngster will stay close to its mother until her
next baby arrives, learning vital life skills such as which
plants to eat, or how to build a nest in the trees for sleeping.

159

Instinct and learning Headlong rush

When turtles hatch, they scuttle straight toward the sea. After digging their way out of their nest in the
Newly hatched birds beg for food from their parents, even sand, young loggerhead turtles move quickly to
though they cannot see. Both are examples of animal avoid being caught by predators. The hatchlings
instinct—a kind of behavior that is inherited and that
does not have to be learned. Instinct can make simple usually emerge on the beach after dark. Their
creatures behave in amazingly complex ways but, in instincts guide them toward the lightest part of
most animals, instinct works hand in hand with learning.
Knowledge and experience make animals better at the the horizon and the sea. Unfortunately, many
things they do and equip them with the skills needed for turtles are easily lured off course by the lights
survival. Learning lets some animals develop remarkable
new abilities, including making and using tools. of beachside hotels and bars.

Feeding trigger Smart cookies

American robins are helpless Chimpanzees are our closest living
when they hatch. Instinct makes relatives. They have high intelligence
the chicks stay still and quiet
while their parents are away from and use it to make different tools.
the nest. The moment a parent Here, one chimp has made a digging
returns with a worm, however,
the young open their beaks wide stick and is using it to remove
and noisily beg for food. The termites from a hole in their nest.
parent bird’s feeding instincts are
then triggered in turn. It places The other chimp is watching
the worm into the nearest open closely—a sign that it will copy
beak, guided by the brightly the technique itself when it wants
colored lining of the nestling’s to find food. As humans, we take
mouth and throat. this kind of learning for granted,
but such behavior is much rarer

in the animal world.

Instinct at work Moving on Hiding away Feeding young

Instinctive behavior is often Common cuckoos migrate long Young roe deer spend their Female potter wasps lay their
made up of short, simple distances each year between first few weeks hidden from eggs in clay nurseries. They stock
routines. Added together, they Europe and Africa, guided by predators in long grass. Instinct each pot with caterpillars to feed
enable animals to perform instinct. Even on their first makes them keep completely the grub when it hatches. Then,
astonishing feats. However, journey, they travel alone. still, even if danger threatens. they seal up the door.
unlike learned behavior,
instinctive routines are mostly
fixed. For example, a potter
wasp always builds the same
kind of potlike nest. It does
not plan ahead while it is
working, and it never invents
a new method.

160

Fox cub bites and Learning and play
wrestles in bout
of play fighting For many young mammals, play fighting is a way of
practicing important survival skills and developing the
Tools of the trade physical fitness needed for hunting. These two-month-old

This Egyptian vulture has picked up a stone and is about to fox cubs are full of energy and spend much of their
crack open an ostrich egg. This bird’s habit of using stones to time playing roughly together near their den.
get at food is based on instinct. Many other birds are tool users During these fights, the cubs learn how to
and some are surprisingly inventive. New Caledonian crows assert themselves in their social group,
with the winner becoming the
pick up sticks in their beaks and use these tools dominant cub. The cubs also follow
to tweak insects out of logs. Some have even their parents on the hunt, learning
been seen making hooks from pieces of how to steer clear of danger and
wire—behavior that shows these birds how to make a successful kill.
are capable of planning ahead.

161

Living together Penguin parade

Some animals spend most of their lives on their own Huddled together on a rocky beach, groups of
and only get together to mate. Many species, however, are adult king penguins form a stark contrast with
social animals that reap the benefits of gathering together their fluffy brown chicks. During the breeding
in large flocks, herds, or shoals. Life in a group is usually season, as many as 100,000 adult pairs gather
safer, and it can help animals to find more food. A few in huge colonies on the islands off the coast of
species live in highly organized societies called colonies,
where members depend on each other to survive. Most Antarctica. These crowded breeding sites are
of these animals are social insects, such as ants, wasps, sheltered from the snow and ice and some
and bees, which form giant family groups. These are have been used by penguins for centuries.
often ruled by a single breeding female—the queen.
Matriarch leads
Social insects Swarm clusters herd to water
around queen bee
Termites live in enormous colonies of up to 25 million
members—the offspring of a single queen and a
breeding male, or king. In a termite nest, individual
insects work together to feed and protect the colony.
The termites are divided into different ranks called
castes, which perform different roles within the group.

Giving birth Caring for the young

With its huge sausage-shaped Once the eggs have hatched,
abdomen, a queen termite lays workers rear the young termites,
several thousand eggs a day. or nymphs, in dedicated nursery
Workers feed the queen and areas constructed deep inside
carry her eggs to the nursery. the termite nest.

Fungus farming Defending the colony Flying the nest

Some workers build underground Soldier termites protect the nest. When a beehive gets overcrowded, the queen bee
compost heaps from their own Some are armed with powerful leaves, taking a large group of workers with her.
droppings. They farm the fungus jaws that bite, while others squirt Here, a swarm of honeybees has settled on a
that grows on the compost and toxic liquids or release a gluelike branch, while scout bees inspect possible new
use it as food for the colony. substance against enemies. nesting sites for the colony. When a scout returns
after finding a good site, it dances on the surface
of the swarm, encouraging others to investigate its
find. Once the majority of scouts agree on a new
location, the entire swarm moves to its new home.

162

Queen for life 8–10 young Up to 3 5–10 soldiers act Safety in numbers
in each litter breeding males as sentries and
Naked mole rats are highly mate with queen defend colony Swirling over a coral reef, a large shoal of smallmouth
unusual mammals, because they grunts make a confusing target for most predators. The fish
live in large colonies, like social
insects, controlled by a single form a tightly packed shoal and dart together in different
breeding female known as the directions to protect themselves against attack. Shoaling
queen. The queen is the biggest
member of each colony. She fish are often the same size, age, and coloring, which
mates with up to three males reduces their chances of standing out from the crowd.
and produces all of the
colony’s young. Some of her
young take on the role of
soldiers, but most become
workers. The workers use
their large teeth to
excavate the colony’s
underground network of
tunnels and to gnaw out
food from exposed
roots and tubers.

Single queen Group memories
produces and
suckles young Elephants are legendary for having long memories—an ability that is
crucial to the survival of family groups. This herd of female African
50–200 workers dig
tunnels, find food, and elephants and their young is dominated by a large female called the
tend to queen and young matriarch, who may be more than 40 years old. She is responsible for

the well-being of the entire family. She leads
the herd to the best feeding grounds

and remembers where to find water in
times of drought. When the matriarch

dies, the next-oldest female in the
group takes her place.

163



The animal world

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Grasping, or prehensile, Animal evolution
tail anchors body while
animal attacks prey The first animals were microscopic and had very simple
bodies. Over millions of years, their descendants
Traces of the past evolved into new species, with new shapes and
ways of life. Evolution has produced an
Scientists study extinct animals by astonishing variety of animals, from
looking at fossils. These show what tiny insects to colossal dinosaurs.
prehistoric animals looked like and even Many species have become
how they behaved. Fossils form when extinct, but others are
buried remains slowly turn to stone. very much alive.

Fossil bodies Grasping feet are
an adaptation for
Hard-bodied animals tree-climbing lifestyle
make good fossils. This
fossil belongs to an Evolution Tarsiers
extinct trilobite, which
was buried by sediment in action
on the seabed.
By studying living animals and
Trace fossils fossils, scientists attempt to
chart the path that evolution
Some fossils preserve has followed. This family tree, or
marks that animals cladogram, shows how primates
have left behind. This have evolved. The black points on
three-toed footprint the baseline mark new adaptations
was left by a carnivorous that have built up by evolution
dinosaur, or theropod. over millions of years. These
adaptations are shared by all the
Fossil skeletons animals farther along the tree.

Bone often fossilizes,
although complete fossil
skeletons are a lucky find.
This one belongs to a
crested dinosaur called
Parasaurolophus.

Frozen bodies

Entire animals are
sometimes preserved
in permanently frozen
ground. This baby
mammoth was found
in Siberia.

Stuck in amber

This insect was trapped
by sticky resin oozing
from a tree. The resin
slowly turned to fossil
amber with the insect
still inside.

166

Animal species The toco toucan is the largest toucan. Unlike other toucans, it prefers The white-throated toucan is the second-largest species. It is
open habitats with scattered trees. widespread in South America’s rain forests.
Scientists have identified about
two million kinds, or species, of
animal. They are classified into
about 30 major groups, called
phyla. Toucans belong to the
chordate phylum—a group
containing all animals that
have skeletons made of bone.
All toucans have a similar body
shape and huge bills. They look
similar because they have evolved
from the same distant ancestor.
However, each species has its
own color pattern and usually
breeds only with its own kind. If
toucan species interbred, their
differences would blend away.

The channel-billed toucan differs only The choco toucan lives in forests in western South America, where it
in slight details from the white-throated is cut off from most other toucans by the high Andes mountains.

toucan. It also lives in the rain forests Animal adaptations
of South America.
Leaning forward from a branch, a panther chameleon grabs a cricket with its
telescopic tongue. Chameleons are lizards, but unlike most lizards, they have

many features well-suited to their life in trees. Features like these are called
adaptations. They develop through evolution and can affect how animals look,
their behavior, and the way their bodies work. Some adaptations have proved
to be a runaway success. These breakthroughs include skeletons made of bone,

which first evolved more than 450 million years ago, and insect wings, which
date back nearly as far. They have helped to make vertebrates and insects
two of the most successful animal groups on Earth.

Long, sucker-tipped
tongue can catch food
on neighboring twigs

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monkeys monkeys apes and to evade tongue attack
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167

Sponges Invertebrates

Living mainly in the sea, sponges are simple Invertebrates make up the vast majority of animals. They
animals with skeletons made of mineral have an extraordinary variety of shapes, although none has
crystals and protein fibers. They live by a backbone or any kind of bony skeleton. The total number
pumping water through a system of holes, or of species is unknown, but may be more than 10 million.
pores, and filtering out particles of food. The
largest kinds are more than 6½ ft (2 m) tall Flatworms
and can be more than 100 years old.
Flatworms have thin, flat bodies without blood or a heart.
In tubular sponges, water flows in Most live in water or in damp habitats on land, but some
through pores in the sides and out kinds are parasites living inside other animals.

through a vent at the top.

Turbellarians are free-living predators or scavengers up A parasitic tapeworm attaches its ribbonlike body to the
to 2 ft (60 cm) long. On land, they move by creeping. intestines of vertebrates with suckers and hooks on its head.

Jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals Roundworms

These invertebrates all have simple bodies with a ring of stinging tentacles around a Compared to other worms, roundworms all
central mouth. Jellyfish and sea anemones are usually predatory. Reef-building corals look similar. They are round in cross-section
often contain microscopic algae, which provide them with some of their food. and do not have segments. They have a
tough outer skin, or cuticle, and a tapering
head and tail. Roundworms are extremely
common in wet and damp habitats and as
parasites of animals and plants.

A parasitic roundworm’s
body moves by curling
and uncurling.

Jellyfish have a bell-shaped body trailing stinging tentacles. Sea anemones live on the seabed. They are often brightly
Some species contain algae and often rest upside down. colored with long, stinging tentacles and a suckerlike base.

Soft corals have fleshy or leathery bodies forming colonies Reef-building corals live in colonies that build hard, chalky
with spreading, plantlike shapes. skeletons. The tiny animals occupy cups within the skeleton.

168

Segmented worms These giant tube worms live only
around deep-sea volcanic vents and
Worms in the “segmented worms” group have many different shapes, grow up to 7¾ ft (2.4 m) long.
but their bodies are always divided into repeated units, or segments.
Some burrow, while others crawl or swim. Some are parasitic.

Earthworms move through soil and leaf litter by expanding Predatory ragworms can crawl and swim with their leglike
and contracting their segments in a sequence. flaps. Their heads bristle with feelers.

Fan worms live in tubes and filter food from water using Sea mice are covered with iridescent “fur.” They
a retractable crown of tentacles. burrow through the seabed in search of prey.

Echinoderms Sea squirts

Starfish and their relatives are called echinoderms, which means “spiny skin.”They are sea Adult sea squirts have bag-shaped bodies
creatures covered with spines or knobs and are usually made of five equal parts. They and live by filtering particles of food. Their
move by snaking their arms or by creeping on their spines and tiny fluid-filled feet. young look like tadpoles, with a body
stiffened by a rod, or notochord—a sign
that they are closely related to vertebrates.

Sea squirts have a leathery body with openings for sucking
in water and pumping it out. They often live in groups.

Beneath a starfish’s stiff arms are hundreds of tube feet. Starfish Brittle stars have long, highly flexible arms, which they
eat slow-moving or fixed animals, such as corals and clams. use to scavenge dead animals and waste on the seabed.

Living on the seabed, sea cucumbers have a cluster
of tentacles around the mouth that collect food.

Sea urchins are algae-eating inhabitants of rocky shores and
reefs. They are encased by a chalky covering with many spines.

169

Mollusks Chitons

With more than 90,000 species, few invertebrate A chiton’s shell is made of eight
groups are more varied than mollusks. Their hinged plates surrounded by a
most noticeable feature is often their shell. Not muscular girdle. Underneath is
all mollusks have one, but for most, it provides a suckerlike foot, which chitons
protection from attack. Mollusks typically move use to clamp themselves to
by creeping, but this group also includes fast rocks. Chitons live in the sea
swimmers, such as octopuses and squid. and feed mainly on algae. Like
snails, they scrape up their food
with a ribbonlike tongue, or
radula, armed with hundreds of
microscopic, toothlike denticles.

This chiton is attached to a rock in a tidal
pool. Its head is pointing to the left.

Gastropods

Snails and their relatives make up a group called the gastropods. Most have a
coiled shell, produced by a body layer called the mantle, and a suckerlike foot.
Gastropods are very common in the sea, but many species live on land.

Land snails’ eyes
are on a long pair of
retractable tentacles.
They breath air through
a space in their mantle
that acts like a lung.

Abalones graze algae on rocky shores. Their shells are Land slugs look like land snails without a shell, but some
iridescent on the inside, and people make jewelry from them. have a tiny internal shell called a shell plate.

To drift across oceans, bubble raft snails use a raft made from Conches are large tropical sea snails with thick, heavy Limpets graze on algae and live on rocks exposed to waves.
bubbles of mucus. Their shells are wafer-thin. shells. They move by flicking a hard-edged foot. They have strong suckers and simple conical shells.

Cowries can extend their mantle up and over their egg-shaped, Sea slugs don’t have shells. These creeping marine gastropods Sea butterflies are sea snails that live in open water. Their foot
glossy shell. Both shell and mantle may be brightly patterned. are often vividly colored, with external gills and horns. extends sideways and beats like a pair of wings.

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Bivalves

A bivalve’s shell has two parts joined

by a hinge. If danger strikes, most

bivalves close their shells, sealing

themselves inside. Bivalves

always live in water, except

seashore ones exposed at

low tide. Also known as clams,

most of them are filter-feeders,

although giant clams get some

of their food from microscopic

algae, which live in their

multicolored lips. The giant clams of coral reefs can Cockles are saltwater clams that burrow into
sediment on muddy shores, using a muscular foot.
grow up to 4 ft (1.2 m) across.

Scallops clap their shells together to swim. They Razor clams have long, slender, rectangular Mussels attach themselves permanently to rocks Oysters live in estuaries and lagoons, where they
have two rows of eyes along the shell opening. shells and can dig rapidly into sand and mud.
with tough elastic threads. stay permanently in oyster beds on the mud.

Cephalopods

Fast-moving and intelligent predators, cephalopods have arms with
suckers and can swim by squirting a jet of water, although squid and
cuttlefish also ripple their fins. Nautiluses have spiral shells, but other
cephalopods have an internal shell, or no shell at all. They live
in the sea, sometimes
at great depths.

Living in open water, squid include giant species Cuttlefish are experts at color change. They
more than 33 ft (10 m) long. Some use body shoot out two long tentacles to catch their prey.
language to communicate threat.

Octopuses’ bulbous
heads contain large
brains and beaklike
jaws. Their eight arms
are connected by webs
of skin. Some use these
webs to sail on currents
near the seabed.

Nautiluses have up to 90 short tentacles and a
shell with gas-filled chambers that keep it afloat.

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Arthropods Horseshoe crabs

All arthropods have jointed legs and an Despite their name, horseshoe
external case, or exoskeleton. They form an crabs are more closely related
enormous group of invertebrates, dominated to spiders than to crabs. These
by insects, but also including a huge variety armored arthropods have five
of other animals on land and in water. pairs of walking legs hidden by
a shield, or carapace. They eat
animals, using pincers to pluck
them from the seabed. There
are just four living species.

A horseshoe crab has a hinge between
its rounded carapace and its abdomen.

Crustaceans Arachnids

Ranging from bulky lobsters to tiny water fleas, Living mainly on land, arachnids usually
crustaceans live mainly in water. Their exoskeleton is have four pairs of legs. Most are carnivorous,
often reinforced with calcium, forming a hard crust. and many have venomous bites or stings.
Spiders make up the largest single group
of arachnids, followed by mites and ticks.

Lobsters use powerful claws to crack open Crabs scavenge the shore and seabed with their two pincers. Their
mollusks on the seabed. tails are tucked underneath their broad shells, or carapaces.

Ground-dwelling predators,
scorpions are armed with
pincers and venomous stings.

Krill form immense swarms in the open ocean. These Barnacles spend their adult lives stuck to rocks or floating objects.
shrimplike filter-feeders are a key food for baleen whales. They filter-feed with limbs protruding from their hard cases.

Land-dwelling woodlice have domed bodies and Unlike true spiders, sun-spiders lack poison, so they use
seven pairs of legs. They feed on plant remains. powerful pincers to kill and chew up their prey.

Water fleas swim by flicking branched antennae. They are tiny Orb-web spiders weave flat, spiral webs. Some species have
filter-feeders that are very common in freshwater. spines and vivid warning colors.

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Sea spiders Springtails

Sea spiders are not closely related to Closely related to insects, springtails
spiders that live on land, even though they have six legs but no wings. If disturbed,
usually have eight legs. Their heads are tiny they flick their tubular tails, which
and their bodies extremely slender, with catapults them through the air. Most
long legs that end in hooks. They are most springtails are tiny. They are extremely
common in shallow water, although some common in leaf litter, on plants, and
live on the deep seabed. on the surface of pools and ponds.

Sea spiders clamber over seaweeds, rocks, and corals, feeding Some species of springtails feed on the surface of
on animals and dead remains. plants. Some cause serious damage to crops.

Tarantulas are giant spiders that
hunt on the ground or in trees,
finding prey mainly by touch.

Centipedes A typical centipede has a
poisonous claw, used to kill its
A centipede’s body is made of many segments, each with prey, on each side of its head.
a single pair of legs. Centipedes are carnivorous. Their flat
bodies let them squeeze through crevices in search of prey.

Small and sharp-eyed, jumping spiders hunt by day, leaping House centipedes’ long, slender legs propel them at great speed. A millipede’s exoskeleton is
through the air onto their prey. They are common indoors in many parts of the world. reinforced with hard minerals,
but it may also defend itself
Mites include house dust mites, which are microscopic Millipedes by coiling up and producing
scavengers that feed on flakes of skin in household dust. vile toxic chemicals.
Unlike centipedes, millipedes have cylindrical bodies with
two pairs of legs on each segment. The total number of legs
varies from fewer than 50 to more than 700. They feed on
the decaying remains of plants.

Ticks are bloodsucking parasites. This mating pair shows a
small male on top of a female swollen with a meal of blood.

Insects Dragonflies

With more than 800,000 species identified Adult dragonflies catch insects in
so far, insects make up the biggest group of midair. Some patrol in search of
arthropods. Adult insects have six legs and food, while others dart from a
most have two pairs of wings. When insects perch. Dragonflies spend the first
grow up, they change in shape, undergoing part of their lives in freshwater, as
partial or complete metamorphosis. predatory nymphs. These have
hinged mouthparts that can shoot
forward, grabbing their prey.

Dragonflies’ transparent wings stay spread at
rest, not folded like those of most other insects.

Partial transformers Grasshoppers typically have tough, leathery forewings.
Their hind wings are large, but they usually escape
Insects in this group undergo a slight change in shape, or predators by jumping with powerful hind legs.
partial metamorphosis. Their young, known as nymphs, look
similar to their parents, although they have small wing buds
instead of working wings. Each time they molt, their wing
buds get larger. After the final molt, the nymph becomes
an adult. Nymphs and adults often live in the same
surroundings and eat the same kinds of food.

Katydids have threadlike antennae that are often Earwigs’ abdomens are tipped by curved pincers. Stick insects are camouflaged in undergrowth by Cockroaches sense vibration and flee fast from

longer than their bodies. Their hind wings fold beneath stubby forewings. their extraordinary twiglike bodies. danger, squeezing their flat bodies into crevices.

Termites often form huge colonies that build elaborate
nests. Some chew on wood, which they digest with the
help of microorganisms in the gut. Others are important
grazers in grasslands.

Praying mantises hunt insects, catching them Like many true bugs, cicadas drink plant sap with

with a swift strike of their barbed forelegs. piercing mouthparts. Adult males sing loudly.

Thorn bugs, or treehoppers, suck sap secretly, Water bugs grip prey with their forelegs while
disguised as one of the plant’s thorns. sucking it dry with their syringelike mouths.

Complete transformers Goliath beetles are Earth’s heaviest
insects, weighing up to 3½ oz (100 g).
Instead of changing slowly, insects in this group
undergo an abrupt change in shape, or complete Ladybugs are brightly colored beetles that feed
metamorphosis. Their young, or larvae, usually on aphids and other sap-sucking insects.
look nothing like their parents, with no sign of wings
and sometimes no legs. Many are called grubs or
maggots. The larvae usually live in a different habitat
from their parents and eat a different kind of food.
When a larva is mature, it enters a resting stage
called a pupa or chrysalis. Its body is dismantled,
and an adult’s body built in its place.

There are nearly 50,000 types of weevil, each Often bright or metallic, leaf beetles eat plants, Fierce diving beetles swim in freshwater using Mosquitoes suck blood with their syringelike
with dainty jaws at the end of a long snout. including crops such as potatoes.
their hind legs. The larvae are called water tigers. mouths. Like all flies, they have only two wings.

Houseflies liquefy their food by spitting onto it. Horseflies drink with their lapping mouthparts. Fleas suck blood while living aboard mammals All wasps have stings, but some live in delicate
They then suck it up with spongelike mouthparts. They are blood-feeders that slice into their prey. and birds. They are wingless, but good jumpers. group nests, which they build from chewed wood.

Bumblebees are large bees with furlike scales. Some members of honey ant nests have swollen Morpho butterflies have large, iridescent wings.
They feed on pollen and nectar from flowers. abdomens that store liquid food. Their forelegs are tiny and brush-shaped.

Hawk moths are large, Swallowtails, like most butterflies,
powerful flyers with drink nectar with their long,
narrow wings. Most curved tongues. Their
feed at flowers.
caterpillars deter predators
with a foul-smelling,
forked scent organ,
or osmeterium.

Atlas moths have the largest wingspans of all
insects, measuring up to 11 in (28 cm).

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Fish Bony fish

Fish live, breathe, and swim in fresh or saltwater. They have Most species of fish are members of the bony
inner skeletons, including skull, ribs, and backbone. Fish fish group. They have a skeleton of bone and
extract oxygen from the water using gills and swim using most are covered in overlapping scales. Bony
their tail and fins. A fish’s skin is covered in tough scales. fish come in all shapes and sizes and survive
in almost every water habitat. There are more
than 25,000 species alive today.

Jawless fish

Hagfish and lampreys are long, slimy, eel-like fish with no biting jaws. Hagfish
are not true fish, or even true vertebrates, since they lack a backbone. They do
have a skull, though, and are the closest living relatives of true fish.

Lampreys attach their round sucker mouths to aquatic Hagfish have four hearts and a slitlike mouth surrounded by Catfish have prominent touch organs, or barbels, that
animals and bite through the flesh to suck the blood. tentacles. If threatened, they release a sticky slime. resemble a cat’s whiskers. They use them to search for food.

Cartilaginous fishes Like all bottom-dwelling flatfish, the yellowtail flounder has
eyes that are both located on one side of the head.
Sharks, rays, and deep-water chimaeras have an internal skeleton
made of flexible cartilage rather than bone. Special sense organs allow
cartilaginous fish to track other animals by detecting their electrical fields.

Hammerhead sharks are named after their unusually shaped The manta ray is the largest of the rays. It can measure Clownfish live within the stinging tentacles of sea anemones,
heads. Eyes and nostrils are located on each end. 25 ft (7.5 m) across and lives in tropical seas. which are poisonous to other fish.

The gray reef shark swims in waters around coral reefs. The fins on a common skate fan out from its head, The Atlantic sailfish uses its long
It feeds on bony fish and crustaceans. giving it its distinctive shape. bill to stun and kill its prey.

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Coelacanths were thought to have died out with Lungfish can survive for months in dry The skeleton of the stellate sturgeon is part bone, The eyes of deep-ocean-dwelling hatchetfish
the dinosaurs, but were rediscovered in 1938. conditions when sealed up in mud cocoons.
part cartilage. People eat its eggs as caviar. point upward to spot prey overhead.

The blue ribbon eel buries itself in
sand or hides behind rocks, dashing

out to feed on small fish.

Sea horses mate for life. The male carries eggs The blind cave fish has no eyes, but it is able to
in his brood pouch until they hatch. navigate the dark waters in deep Mexican caves.

Atlantic herring swim in huge shoals, often The fanfin anglerfish uses a bulbous stalk over Sockeye salmon swim from ocean to river to The rosy-lipped batfish uses its fins like legs to
numbering hundreds of thousands. its head as bait to lure prey. lay eggs, or spawn. crawl around the ocean floor.

The tailbar lion fish The colorful moorish idol uses its long
uses its long, poisonous snout to reach morsels of food in crevices

spines for defense. in coral reefs.

Porcupinefish warn off potential predators by
inflating their bodies with water.

The leafy sea dragon has leaflike protrusions all Hairy frogfish sit on the ocean floor waiting to

over its body, disguising it as seaweed. suck passing prey into their cavernous mouths.

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Amphibians Frogs and toads

Earth’s 5,000 kinds of amphibian are thin-skinned animals Unlike other amphibians, adult frogs and
and need to stay moist. Most of them breed by laying eggs toads do not have tails. Their hind legs are
in freshwater. They usually start life as swimming tadpoles, often larger than the front pair, and they can
or larvae, which slowly change shape and move onto land. have webbed feet or separate toes. Experts
are not in agreement on which of these
Caecilians animals are called frogs and which are toads.
Most frogs and toads breed in water,
These wormlike amphibians live only in the although some lay their eggs in trees, leaving
tropics (near the equator). They have no legs their tadpoles to drop into pools and streams.
and many spend all their lives in the soil.

Typical caecilians have a cylindrical body divided into Amazonian horned frogs have thickset, camouflaged bodies,
rings, with a wedge-shaped snout used for burrowing. large mouths, and a prominent horn above each eye.

Salamanders and newts A male crested newt’s conspicuous Poison dart frogs are small, highly toxic rain forest
crest develops only when adults amphibians that often have conspicuous warning colors.
Most of the animals in this group are called return to water to breed.
salamanders. Some live on land, but most breed
in water. Newts are members of just one family.

The Eastern newt starts life in water as a tadpolelike larva. Mole salamander larvae have feathery gills and some can Flying frogs live in rain forests. Their large, webbed feet
It then spends 1–4 years as a bright-red juvenile, breed without transforming into land-dwelling adults. allow them to parachute from tree to tree.
before transforming again
into an aquatic adult.

The fire salamander’s colors Lungless salamanders breathe through their skin and the lining Rain frogs shelter underground during the dry season, coming
warn predators that it is toxic. of their mouths. Many live entirely on land. to the surface after rain to eat insects.

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Asian horned frogs Spadefoot toads burrow with their back legs, The crucifix toad has cross-shaped markings
live on rain forest spending dry periods underground. and is suited to burrowing in dry habitats.
floors and mimic
fallen leaves.

Tongueless frogs spend their lives in water. They
lack a tongue and some have a flat, leaflike body.

True toads, such as this cane toad, have warty The red-eyed tree frog has sticky toe-pads and Typical adult tree frogs may never return to Glass frogs have translucent skin on their bellies.
skin and a bulging poison gland behind each eye. startling forward-facing eyes. water. They often lay their eggs above ground. They lay their eggs on leaves overhanging water.

The goliath frog is the world’s largest frog. Its North American bullfrog males have an inflatable Leopard frogs have powerful back legs, and the Mantellas are small, brightly colored frogs with
body can grow to a length of 14 in (35 cm). toxic skin. They live only in Madagascar.
throat pouch and a deep, powerful call. male has two inflatable vocal sacs.

The tomato frog is a type of narrow-mouthed
frog. Its bright color warns that its skin
produces a sticky, toxic substance
when threatened.

File-eared tree frogs have jagged ridges above the The Mexican burrowing frog lives mainly
ears. They lay eggs in foam nests on branches. underground, emerging only after heavy rain.

A male Darwin’s frog carries his tadpoles in his Narrow-mouthed frogs usually specialize in

vocal sac until they emerge as froglets. eating ants and termites.

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Reptiles Lizards and snakes

With their scaly skin, reptiles thrive in places with hot, dry By far the most common reptiles, lizards and
climates, although they live in many other habitats as well. snakes are close relatives and form a single
There are about 8,000 species. Most of them breed by group. Snakes are always carnivorous, and
laying eggs, but some produce live young.
most lizards are as well, although some
Tuataras kinds eat plants or animal remains. The
majority lay eggs, but in cold regions,
Living only in New Zealand, tuataras belong many give birth to live young.
to an ancient group of reptiles. Instead of true
teeth, they have a jagged edge to their jaw. Iguanas are plant-eating, tree-dwelling
lizards. Their long claws help them to

climb, and the males of some species
attract females by displaying a
fleshy dewlap hanging
from their necks.

Both sexes of tuatara have a spiny crest. They grow very
slowly and may live for more than 100 years.

Turtles and tortoises The Indian starred tortoise’s shell becomes increasingly knobby Chameleons are slow-moving tree-dwellers with grasping feet
with age and has distinctive starlike markings. and swiveling eyes. They are capable of rapid color change.
Recognizable by their shells, or carapaces,
most animals in this group are turtles. The
tortoises form a single land-based family.

With a shell up to 4 ft (1.2 m) long, these Galápagos giant The matamata is a camouflaged river turtle that ambushes The Gila monster’s colorful patterning warns predators that
tortoises are among the largest animals in the tortoise family. prey, sucking fish into its mouth. it is one of very few venomous lizards.

Like other sea turtles, the green
turtle is streamlined, with
winglike front flippers.

The enormous leatherback turtle has a rubbery carapace up to Venomous coral snakes show bright warning colors. Some
6 ft (1.8 m) long and can weigh nearly a ton. nonvenomous snakes mimic their pattern.

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Geckos do not have eyelids, so they lick their eyes Male anoles extend their colored throat fans to Basilisks live near water and escape danger by Crocodilians
running across the surface.
The world’s biggest reptiles
belong to this group of heavily
armored predators. Expert
swimmers and divers, they often
lurk in the shallows, where they
attack animals at the water’s
edge. They breed by laying eggs.
Unusually for reptiles, they look
after their young.

clean instead of blinking. signal to rival males and potential mates.

Protective spines cover the thorny devil’s bizarre The male rainbow agama’s vivid courtship colors The Australian frilled lizard has a peculiar neck Caimans bury themselves in mud during droughts.
They live in Central and South American rivers.
body. It eats ants in the Australian desert. contrast with camouflaged females. frill used to startle potential predators.

Skinks have short legs and smooth, shiny scales. Wall lizards often blend in with rocks and The slowworm is a legless lizard with a Compared to crocodiles, alligators have a broad,
rounded snout. They live for around 50 years.
Some reveal bright blue tongues if threatened. plants. They are agile, fast-moving insect-eaters. snakelike body. It gives birth to live young.

The largest monitor lizards grow to a length of Boas and pythons lack venom, but they kill by Green and extremely slender, vine snakes are The largest crocodiles are the biggest living
10 ft (3 m) and pack a venomous bite. squeezing with their heavy, muscular bodies. well hidden up in the trees, where they live. reptiles, with a length of up to 20 ft (6 m).

Cobras open their hooded
necks during threat displays.
They are highly venomous.

Sea kraits are venomous fish-eaters with tails Vipers’ long, hinged fangs swing forward and Gharials’ extremely slender snouts move quickly
like paddles. They return to land to lay eggs. deliver venom when attacking prey. though the water to snap up fish.

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Birds New birds

Unlike reptiles, birds are warm-blooded. They have All birds other than ratites, waterfowl, and
wings and feathers, although not all of them can fly. Most fowl belong to a huge group that scientists
birds take care of their young until they are ready to leave call Neoaves, or “new birds,” because they
the nest. There are about 10,000 species of bird. appear recently in the fossil record. All of
these birds have powerful wing muscles
Ratites and most are completely at home in the air.
The largest flyers include albatrosses, storks,
With weak wing muscles and flat breast and pelicans, but the most varied are small
bones, ratites cannot fly. They escape songbirds, or passerines. These make up
danger by running away. about one-third of all bird species.

The ostrich is Earth’s Albatrosses soar on outstretched, narrow wings. One tracked
largest bird and the bird traveled 3,700 miles (6,000 km) in 12 days.
fastest runner. It stands
up to 9 ft (2.7 m) tall. Gulls live in large,
noisy groups along coasts and
Kiwis are the smallest ratites. Their plumage is hairlike, inland waterways and some
their bills are long, and their sense of smell is very strong. scavenge on human garbage.

Fowl and waterfowl

Fowl are chickenlike birds with strong legs and feet. They fly well over short distances,
although they spend most of their lives on the ground. Waterfowl usually have
webbed feet. They are good swimmers and feed in water or on land.

Male ducks, such as this mandarin, are often brightly A swan can fly at more than 30 mph (50 kph), but to get its All hummingbirds weigh less than 1 oz (24 g) and some
colored, which helps them to attract a mate. heavy body airborne involves running and flapping. beat their wings up to 200 times a second during courtship.

The male peafowl, or peacock, Male grouse have
will erect his fan of extravagant showy courtship
tail feathers to attract peahens rituals. In this
during courtship.
dance, the females
prefer the males

that rest the least.

Birds of paradise live in tropical forests. Males have
spectacular plumage and elaborate courtship displays.

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Penguins cannot fly but they swim gracefully. Grebes eat fish and have paddle-shaped toes. Flamingos have long legs and necks and bent
On ice they waddle or slide on their stomachs. They often carry their young on their backs. beaks that they use upside down to filter food.

Waders, such as this avocet, feed on
shorelines and in wetlands. Most
have long legs and many have long
bills, which they use to probe into
mud for worms and clams.

With long legs, herons hunt by stealth in the Some pelicans fish by dive-bombing, scooping up Bald eagles have a hind talon on each foot that
shallows, using their beaks to stab their prey.
fish with their pouched beaks. pierces fish as the bird grabs them from the water.

Auks, which include puffins, live on the coast Pigeons have plump bodies and eat seeds and Macaws have As nocturnal hunters, owls hide by day,
and dive for fish, using their wings to swim. fruit. Some have large crests. long tails and camouflaged by their mottled plumage.
colorful plumage.
Woodpeckers have chisel-like They are the largest
beaks. They hammer holes in flying parrots.
trees to reach insect grubs.

Swifts hardly ever land, except when nesting. Toucans live in the tropics and eat fruit with Kingfishers return to a favorite perch after a
They eat insects and even sleep in midair. enormous and often brightly colored beaks. catch, striking the fish before swallowing it.

Icterids use their sharply pointed beaks to force Wood warblers eat insects with their short, The largest songbirds are crows, which are often
open gaps to get at hidden food. pointed beaks and typically nest in woodlands. adaptable and intelligent but have harsh calls.

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Monotremes Mammals

The only egg-laying mammals, monotremes Mammals are hairy, warm-blooded animals that feed their
include the platypus, which feeds in water, young on milk. Except for monotremes, all give birth to live
and spiny anteaters, or echidnas, which live offspring. Marsupials are tiny when they are born, but other
on land. Unlike other mammals, female mammals often emerge well developed. There are about
monotremes lack nipples. They ooze milk 5,400 species. They live on land and in water.
onto their skin, and their young lap it up.

Aardvark Sea cows

This African mammal has no close relatives Unlike seals, sea cows feed entirely on
and is classified on its own. It eats termites plants. These large, aquatic mammals
and ants, breaking into their nests with its include the dugong, which lives along
powerful front claws. With keen senses of shallow tropical coasts, and manatees,
hearing and smell but poor eyesight, it which also venture into rivers. All have
hides during the day in deep burrows. barrel-shaped bodies and a lobed or
paddle-shaped tail.

Echidnas eat insects using their long snouts and sticky The aardvark’s protruding snout contains a long, sticky A manatees’ flippers swing forward to hold plants when
tongues. They have powerful legs with huge claws that tongue that can reach deep into insect nests. feeding. Its mouth has a grasping, or prehensile, upper lip.
they use for digging and tearing open logs.

Marsupials

Most marsupials raise their young inside
a pouch. Nipples inside the pouch
provide the young with milk. Kangaroos
and koalas usually give birth to a single
offspring. Opossums can give birth to
several dozen, although not all survive.

American opossums will eat almost anything, including Elephants Anteaters and relatives
poisonous snakes. They often live in trees and are agile
climbers with scaly, grasping tails and sharp claws. Instantly recognizable by their long trunks, Anteaters, armadillos, and sloths form a
elephants are the biggest land animals. single group of related mammals. They look
Young koalas eat their mothers’ They have pillarlike legs, enormous ears, different, but they share telltale features,
feces, or pap, which gives them the and long incisor teeth, or tusks. Elephants such as unusual joints in their backbones.
use their tusks to break open tree trunks Anteaters and armadillos eat small animals,
bacteria they will need to digest and to dig for water and salt. but sloths live in trees and feed on leaves.
eucalyptus leaves, their
main food source.

The African savanna elephant is the largest elephant species. Tamanduas are tree-climbing anteaters with grasping tails.
Some males weigh more than 7½ tons (7 metric tons). They have long tongues but no teeth.

Primates

Most primates have grasping hands and feet
and forward-facing eyes. The group includes
monkeys, apes, lemurs, bushbabies, and tarsiers.

Bushbabies, also known as galagos, have excellent night vision
and hearing. They can also jump up to 6½ ft (2 m) vertically.

Living in forest treetops, marmosets use their long teeth to chew Chimpanzees belong to a family of primates
holes in tree trunks and branches to feed on the gum inside. called the great apes, which also includes
gorillas, orangutans, and humans. They are
intelligent, highly social apes that feed on
the ground and in trees.

Rodents and rabbits Pangolins

Rodents make up more than two-fifths of the world’s A pangolin is covered with protective,
mammal species. Like rabbits and hares, they gnaw their overlapping scales. Pangolins feed on
food with their large incisor teeth, which grow nonstop. ants and termites and do not have teeth.

A tree pangolin’s grasping tail anchors the animal
when climbing and feeding in trees.

Squirrels use their keen sense of smell to locate nuts they buried Hares and rabbits are related to rodents. To get more nutrients
previously. Many have bushy tails that they use for balance. from their food, they digest it twice—by eating their own dung.

Many mice and rats breed at a rapid rate, producing up to The capybara is the world’s largest rodent, weighing up to
12 young every six weeks or so. 145 lb (65 kg). It escapes predators by swimming.

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Moles, hedgehogs, and shrews Bats

These mammals all have sharp teeth, small eyes, and a keen With wings made of skin, bats are the only flying
sense of smell. Most feed on insects and earthworms, mammals. Small kinds usually feed on insects, while
although hedgehogs are omnivorous. large ones feed mainly at flowers and on fruit.

Moles have short, velvety fur and live in Hedgehogs forage at night. If attacked, they Fruit bats have large eyes and most roost in Vampire bats have good eyesight and sharp
tunnels they dig with shovel-like front paws. roll into a ball to use their spines as protection. trees. Their wings span up to 6 ft (1.8 m). teeth and feed on mammal and bird blood.

Carnivores Brown bears are the largest land predators. Those that eat mainly
meat grow to twice the weight of those that eat mainly plants.
Closely related to one another, many meat-eating
mammals form a group called the carnivores. These
include the world’s biggest land predators. Carnivores’
teeth are the right shapes for gripping and slicing
meat. Most are fast and agile, with forward-facing
eyes, claws, and a keen sense of hearing and smell.
Some carnivores eat nothing but meat, but others
have mixed diets. The giant panda feeds almost
entirely on one plant—bamboo.

The tiger is the largest member of the
cat family. Once widespread in Asia,

it is now critically endangered.

Many mongooses live in burrows that were dug by other animals. Badgers often live in social groups in large, underground burrows,
They often mark their new territory, and their young, with scent. or setts, and come out at night to find food.

Many members of the dog family, such as wolves, are Harp seals are born on ice. Many spend their lives cruising the
pack-forming predators that use speed and endurance to catch prey. chilly waters of the Arctic Ocean feeding on fish and crustaceans.

186

Horses and relatives

Tapirs, horses, and rhinos are hoofed mammals,
or ungulates, with an uneven number of toes.
Tapirs and rhinos are usually solitary, but horses
and their relatives live mainly in herds, relying
on speed and endurance to escape danger.

Tapirs use their prehensile
trunks to pluck fruit
from branches.

Zebras belong to the horse family. Their stripes may encourage Rhino horns can grow up to 5 ft (1.5 m) long. Females use theirs
them to form social bonds and groom one another. to protect their young, while males use them to battle attackers.

Antelopes, deer, and relatives Whales

Most hoofed mammals, or ungulates, belong to this group, which includes many Ranging in size from porpoises to blue whales—
types of wild sheep, goats, and cattle. These mammals have an even number of Earth’s largest animals—whales breathe through
toes and many have long, slender legs. The majority live entirely on plant food. blowholes and swim with flippers and tail flukes.

The giraffe is the world’s tallest animal and can reach leaves Male deer use their bony antlers when fighting over females. Baleen whales have mouths that are full of fibrous baleen plates,
which work like sieves to filter their food from the water.
up to 16 ft (5 m) above the ground. They grow new ones every year.

A camel can travel up to 100 miles (160 km) across the
desert using the water it produces from the fat in its hump.

Gerenuks, a type of antelope, often stand up on their hind legs Toothed whales include dolphins, porpoises, and sperm whales.
to reach leaves on tall bushes that other species cannot reach. Many use echolocation to find their prey.

187

Index baleen plates 82, 83, 187 boxfish 107 chimpanzees 59, 95, 131, copepods 65
bamboo 75 brains 54–55, 112, 116, 121, 160, 185 coral snakes 180
A barn owls 41 corals 9, 101, 120, 168
barnacles 153, 172 123 chitin 12, 21, 26, 40 cormorants 22
aardvarks 184 barbs and barbules 23 breathing 50–51 chitons 10 countercurrents 57
abalones 170 basilisks 181 breeding see mating chromatophores 101 courtship 116, 140–45
adaptations 166, 167 batrachotoxin 105 bristles 21, 34, 46, 83 chrysalises 152, 175 cowering 130
adders 141 bats 17, 76–77, 98, 99, 126 brittle stars 87, 169 cicadas 63, 117, 174 cowries 170
agamas 181 browsing 74–75 circulation 50–51 coyotes 130
air pressure 127 flight 40, 41 bubble netting 94 clams 47, 171 crabs 13, 14–15, 35, 65, 101,
air sacs 51 hearing 118 building 154–55 claws 34, 109, 131
alarm calls 109 hibernation 67 bullfrogs 179 cleanliness 58–59 131, 153, 172
albatrosses 138, 182 beaks 17, 79, 135 bumblebees 21, 57, 175 click sounds 118, 119, 134 cranes 59
algae 59 bears 21, 80, 186 burrowing 46–47, 155, 178 clients 58, 59 craniums 17
alligators 109, 181 beavers 154 burrowing frogs 179 climate crèches 57, 156
amber 166 bee-eaters 142–43 burying beetles 87 creeping 30–31, 170
ambushes 95, 96 beehives 139, 162 bushbabies 35, 59, 185 extreme 66–67 crickets 81, 116, 135, 153,
American robins 160 bees 77, 137, 139, 162 butterflies 27, 63, 64, 65, and migration 64, 65
amino acids 120 beeswax 155 climbing 34–35 174
amphibians 18, 178–79 beetles 12, 40, 41, 76, 87, 120, 144, 175 clones 149 crocodiles 17, 26, 27, 65,
ampullae 127 137, 175 metamorphosis 152 clownfish 145, 176
anal glands 136 berries 70 cnidocytes 105 113, 156, 181
anglerfish 177 bioluminescent barbels 96 C cobras 105, 181 crocodilians 181
anoles 181 birds 182–83 cockles 171 crops (agricultural) 81
anteaters 122, 157, 184 breathing 51 caecilians 178 cockroaches 55, 80, 153, crops (birds) 79
antelopes 107, 187 calls and songs 134–35 caimans 181 174 crows 81, 161, 183
antennae 116, 121 camouflage 130 calcium carbonate 9, 13 cocks-of-the-rock 141 crustaceans 13, 14–15, 172
antifreeze 67 digestion 79 calls 134–35 coconut crabs 35 cuckoos 157, 160
antlers 106, 107 display and mating camels 187 cocoons 19 cuticles 13, 26
ant lions 96, 97 camouflage 20–21, 100–03, coelacanths 177 cuttlefish 11, 55, 113, 171
ants 71, 94, 130, 139, 155, 140–41, 145 cold-blooded animals 56,
egg laying and hatching 130, 174, 177, 180 57 D
162 cane toads 104, 179 colobus monkeys 95
apes 59, 95, 131, 158–59, 148 canine teeth 70 colonies 9, 162–63, 168 dams, beavers’ 154
feathers 22–23 cannibalism 81, 144, 145 color damselflies 13
160, 167 flight 39, 40–41 cantering 33 camouflage and mimicry dancing 139, 145
aphids 71, 148 hearing 116 capybaras 185 danger
arachnids 172–73 hunting and feeding 63, carapaces 13 100–01
archerfish 97 carbon dioxide 50–51 feathers 23 reactions to 34, 55,
Arctic foxes 100, 121 70, 76, 81, 91, 92–93, 99 carnassial teeth 70 scales 27 108–09
Arctic terns 64 migration 64, 126 carnivores 70, 71, 186 seasonal changes 100
armadillos 106–07 nests 154–55 skin 18, 53 sensing 120
armor 12, 106–07 preening 59 see also hunters vision 112 daphnia 42
arms 30, 109 temperature control carotenoids 25 warnings 52, 100, 105, decorator crabs 101
army ants 94 cartilage 17, 176, 177 deer 20, 51, 107, 160, 187
arthropods 12, 112, 172–73 56–57 cartilaginous fish 176 130, 178, 179, 180 defense
birds of paradise 23, 182 cases 10–11 color-detecting cells 114
see also insects birds of prey 63, 183 caterpillars 21, 30, 101, 137, communication 130–145 body armor 106–07
atlas moths 121, 175 birth 148–49 camouflage and mimicry
auks 183 bison 74 149, 155 between different
avocets 183 bivalves 10, 171 metamorphosis 152 species 139 100–03
axolotls 50 black mambas 91 colonies 162
axons 54, 55 blood 50–51, 105 catfish 123, 176 calls and songs 134–35 emergency escapes
blood-feeders 98–99 cats, domestic 136 courtship and mating
B blubber 21, 56 cave fish 177 108–09
blue marlin 91, 176 cave swiftlets 119 140–45 powerful smells 137
backbones 16, 176 blue whales 82–83 cellulose 74 sight 101, 130–31 stings and venom
backswimmers 123 boas 126, 181 centipedes 12, 32, 86, 173 smell 120–21, 130,
bacteria 87 body clocks 62–63 cephalopods 171 104–05, 177
badgers 186 body language 130, 171 chameleons 101, 113, 136–37 dendrite 54
bagworms 155 body temperature 56, 66 sound 116, 117, 130, denticles 26
bait 96, 97 bone marrow 87 166–67, 180 dentine 26
bait balls 95 bones 16–17 cheetahs 32–33, 91, 132–33 134–35 dermis 19, 26
bony fish 176–77 chemicals squeaks, whistles, and detritivores 87
bony skeletons 16–17, 167, detritus 86, 87
self-defense 105, 137 clicks 118, 119 diffusion 50
176 sensing 120–21, 136–37 touch 130, 138–39 digestive system 74–75, 79,
book lungs 50 skin 19 compass, magnetic 127
boring 46–47 chaetae 46 compost gardens 71, 162 87
bowerbirds 140 chickens 59 compound eyes 112 dinosaurs 166
chicks 148 conches 170 direction, sense of 64, 126,
cone snails 105
contour feathers 23 127
cooling system 56, 117 disease, spread of 81, 98

188

disguises 100–01 extinction 166 flatfish 152, 176 glucose 51 hornbills 113
display 23, 131, 140, 141, extremes, survival in 66–67 flatworms 168 gobies 139 horned frogs 178, 179
eyelashes 113 fleas 35, 98, 175 golden moles 47 hornets 78, 100
181, 182, 183 eyesight 112–15 flehmen 137 goliath frogs 179 horns 106, 107, 187
distraction 109 flight feathers 22, 23 goose barnacles 31 horse flies 175
diurnal animals 63 F flippers 16 gorillas 158–59 horses 187
diving 42–43, 45, 93 floats 11 grass 70, 74 horseshoe crabs 172
diving beetles 175 facial expressions 131 flocks 162 grasshoppers 13, 70, 135, host animals 58–59, 85,
dogfish 43 family groups 162, 163 flounders 152, 176
dolphins 19, 94, 119, 187 fangs 104, 105 flowering plants 76–77 137, 174 98–99
Doppler shift 118 fanworms 169 flushes 101 gravity 116, 122 house flies 175
dormancy 66–67 fat 21, 56, 57 flying 40–41, 182 gray whales 64 hovering 40
dormice 66 fathers 156 flying dragons 39 grazing 74–75, 173, 174 howler monkeys 135
dorsal fins 43 feathers 22–23 flying fish 38 great white sharks 90 humans 80, 81, 167
down feathers 23, 57 flying frogs 39, 178 grebes 145, 183 hummingbirds 40, 76, 182
dragonfish 96 flight 40 flying squirrels 38 green turtles 127, 180 humpback whales 94, 135
dragonflies 42, 91, 112, 153, preening 59 foam-nest frogs 155 grooming 58–59, 130, 139 hunters 90–97, 104–05
feeding follicles 20, 122–23 ground-finches 99
174 blood 98–99, 175, 186 food see feeding groups, living in 138, 139, blood-feeders 98–99
driver ants 130 colonies 162, 163 forked tongues 120 camouflage 100–01
droppings 87, 136 energy from food 70–71 fossils 166 162–63 cooperative 94–95
drought 67 filter-feeders 82–83 fowl 182 grouse 59, 182 defending prey 132
ducks 130, 182 flower-feeders 76–77 foxes 54, 81, 100, 117, 121, growth and development echolocation 116,
dung beetles 87 food chain 70
dust baths 59, 60 food storage 72, 78–79, 161 152–53 118–19
freezing temperatures 67 grunions 62 eyesight 112–13
E 160 frequency 118, 119 guanacos 149 learning skills 161
fruit and seeds 78–79 frogfish 177 guard hairs 20, 21, 122–23 solitary 90–93
eagles 23, 183 grazing and browsing frogs 55, 66, 67, 70, 113, gulls 182 stings and venom
ears 116–19
earthworms 9, 46, 50, 55, 74–75 178–79 H 104–05
hunting 90–97, 104–05 breathing and circulation taste and smell 120–21
86, 87, 169 instinct 160 50, 51 hagfish 176 touch and motion
earwigs 174 migration 64 jumping 34–35, 39 hair 20–21, 122-23
echidnas 157, 184 omnivores 80–81 mating and young 134, hammerhead sharks 176 122–23
echinoderms 11, 169 rhythms 63 141, 150–51, 155 harbor seals 16–17 traps and tricks 96–97
echolocation 116, 118–19 scavengers and recyclers skin 18, 104, 105 harems 140 hyenas 86, 87
ectothermic animals 56 hares 63, 185 hygiene 58–59
eels 42, 64, 176–77 86–87 fruit flies 116 harriers 70 hyoid bones 135
egg teeth 148 of young 156, 160 fruit-eaters 70, 78–79 harvest mice 155
eggs 148–49 feet 30, 120 fungi 71, 87, 162 hatchetfish 177 I
fennec foxes 117 fur 20–21, 58, 59 hawk moths 77, 116, 131,
fertilization 144–45 fertilization 144–45 fusilier fish 43 icefish 67
hatching 62, 148–49, fiddler crabs 131 175 iguanas 27, 75, 180
fieldfares 70 G healing 19 incisor teeth 70, 99, 185
156, 157, 160 fighting 106, 140, 141, 161 hearing 91, 116–19 infrared radiation 126
laying 62, 145, 156, 157 filter-feeders 82–83 gaits 33 heart 50 infrasound 117
raiding 81 fingers 17 galloping 33 heat-sensitive pits 126 injuries 19
electrical pulses 54 fins 43 ganglia 55 hedgehogs 106, 186 ink 108
electroreception 126, 127, fireflies 131 gannets 134 hemoglobin 51 inner ear 122
130, 176 fish 176–77 garbage 80, 81 herds 162, 163 insects 174–75
elephant seals 42, 56 breathing 50 garter snakes 62, 70 hermit crabs 14–15
elephants 60–61, 116, 117, electroreception 127 gastropods 170 herons 97, 183 blood-feeders 98–99
138–39, 163, 184 feeding 82 geckos 34, 102–03, 113, 181 herrings 177 bristles 21
elytra 12, 40, 41 hearing 119 geese 22, 64, 74 hibernation 62, 66–67 camouflage and mimicry
embryos 148 parasites 99 gemsbok 107 hinges, shells 10
emperor penguins 44–45, parenting 156, 157 gharials 181 hip joints 16 100–01
57 scales 26 giant clams 171 hippopotamuses 19 colonies 162
enamel 26 shoals 123, 162, 163 gibbons 167 hissing 134 complete transformers
epidermis 19, 26 swimming 42–43 gifts 142 hitchhikers 85, 98
escape techniques 34, 55, temperature control gills 50, 53 holes 97 175
108–09 giraffes 59, 187 homes 154–55 flower-feeders 76, 77
evaporation 56 56–57 gizzards 79 honey ants 175 hearing 116–17
evolution 166–67 fishing glands 18, 19 honeybees 77, 137, 139, metamorphosis 152–53
exoskeletons 12–13, 101, glass frogs 50, 51, 179 movement 33, 40–41
153, 172 cooperative 94–95 gliding 38–39 162 parenting 157
extended families 139 using bait 97 hooks 34 partial transformers 174
external fertilization 145 flamingos 24–25, 40, 82, hormones 62, 100 scent signals 137
183 sounds 135
instinct 54, 64, 160–61
insulation 20, 21, 56, 57

189

internal fertilization 144 lobsters 109, 172 microorganisms 74, 82, 86, nudibranchs 53, 170 playing dead 108
invertebrates 168–75 lodges, beavers’ 154 166, 174 nuts 79 plovers 109
looper caterpillars 30 nymphs 162, 174 plumage 22–23, 130
exoskeletons 12–13 lovebirds 130 migration 64–65, 160 poison 18, 19, 104–05
shells and cases 10–11 luciferin 96 milk 157 O poison dart frogs 104, 105,
soft bodies 8–9 lungfish 177 millipedes 32, 173
irises 113 lungs 50–51 mimicry 100–01, 179 ocelli 112 141, 178
isopods 99 lures 96, 97 mites 173 octopuses 42, 108, 171 polar bears 21
lynxes 64 molar teeth 70 ommatidia 112 pollination 76, 77
JK mole crickets 47 omnivores 80–81 polyps 9
M mole rats 46–47, 163 opossums 108, 156, 184 pondskaters 33
jackrabbits 117 moles 47, 124–25, 186 orangutans 78 population cycles 63
Jacobson’s organ 120, 137 macaws 22, 79, 183 mollusks 10–11, 42, 50, orb-web spiders 13, 144, porcupinefish 106, 177
jaguars 91 mackerel 82 pores 8
jawfish 157 magnetic sense 126, 127 170–71 172 Portuguese man-of-war
jawless fish 176 magnetite crystals 127 molting 12, 13, 20, 23, 101, osmeterium 137
jaws 17 mammals 184–87 ostriches 156, 182 105
jays 23 153 otters 21, 123, 136 possums 77
jellyfish 8–9, 54, 105, 168 birth 148, 149 Monarch butterflies 64, 65 overheating 56 potter wasps 160
jet propulsion 42 breathing 51 mongooses 186 owls 63, 91, 116, 183 pouches 149, 156, 157, 184
joints 17 communication 130–39 monitor lizards 181 oxpeckers 59 praying mantises 90, 101,
jumping 34–35 eyesight 113 monkeys 34, 95, 131, 135, oxygen 18, 50–51
jumping spiders 112, 173 feeding 70, 74–75, 145, 174
kangaroos 34, 35, 56, 140, 167 PQ predators see hunters
78–81, 87, 94–95, 99 monotremes 157, 184 preen gland 22, 59
149 hearing 116–19 Mormon crickets 81 packs, hunting in 94, 186 prehensile (grasping) tails
katydids 153, 174 hibernation 66 mosquitoes 98, 175 painted lady butterflies 152
keratin 17, 19, 22, 26, 83 learning and play 161 mothers 156 pandas 75 34, 166, 184, 185
kingfishers 92–93, 183 living in groups 162–63 moths 21, 63, 77, 100, 101, pangolins 26, 185 pressure-sensing 123
kiwis 182 mating 140–41 panting 56 prey
koalas 184 molting 20 116, 121, 131, 175 papillae 121
krill 82, 172 movement 32–33, 38–39 mouthbrooding fish 156, parachutes 38, 39 camouflage 100–03
parental care 156–59 paralyzing 105 emergency escapes 34,
L taste and smell 120–21 157 parasites 58, 59, 98, 99, 168
temperature control mouthparts parents 156–59 55, 108–09
lacewings 116 self-defense 104–07
ladybugs 40, 41, 175 56–57 piercing and stabbing single 149 prickles 106
lairs 96 touch 122–25 98, 71, 123, 174 parotoid glands 19 primates 185
lampreys 176 manakins, club-winged 135 parrotfish 19 processionary moth
larvae 42, 153, 175 manatees 184 spongelike 175 parrots 17, 22, 79 caterpillars 137
lateral lines 123 mantis shrimps 114–15 syringelike 174, 175 peacock worms 83 pronghorns 32
latrines 136 marmosets 185 movement 30–47 peacocks 182 puggles 157
leaf beetles 76, 175 marsupials 149, 184 mucus 18, 19, 30, 87, 155 pectoral fins 43 pulses 118
leaf insects 101 matamatas 180 mud baths 59 pelicans 94, 183 pupils 113
leaf-tailed geckos 102–03 mating 140–145 mudskippers 35 penguins 44–45, 56–57, pythons 126, 181
leafcutter ants 71 attracting a mate 140–41 muscles queens 137, 162, 163
learning 160–61 battles with rivals 106, contractions 54 162, 183
leeches 99 temperature control 56, peregrine falcons 91 R
legs 17, 32–33 140 pheromones 120, 121, 130,
leks 140 and migration 65 57 rabbits 70, 117, 155, 185
lemurs 36–37, 136 readiness for 62, 136–37 waves 9, 30, 46 136, 137 racoons 81
leopard frogs 70, 179 scent signals 120, 121, musk oxen 20 phonic lips 119 raft spiders 33
leopards 21 mussels 171 photosynthesis 70 ragworms 169
lice 34, 98 136, 137 myelin 54 phyla 167 rain frogs 178
life skills 156, 159, 160–61 season 62, 140 pigeons 79, 183 raptors 63, 183
limbs, loss of 109 sites 141, 162 N pigments 21, 23, 25, 101 rats 81, 185
limpets 11, 170 sound signals 134, 135 pistol shrimps 139 rat snakes 120, 148–49
lion fish 130, 177 visual signals 130, 131 naked mole rats 46–47, 163 pitch 116 ratites 182
lions 19, 70 matriarchs 163 nautiluses 10, 42, 171 planning ahead 161 rats 81, 185
liquification 152, 175 meat-eaters see carnivores; navigation 126, 127 plant bugs 157 rattlesnakes 104, 105
little bustards 140 hunters nectar 71, 76, 77, 139 plant-dwellers 101 rays 17, 42, 43, 127, 148,
liver 43, 56 meerkats 109, 139 nerve cells 54, 55 plant-eaters 70–71, 74–79,
lizards 26, 27, 32, 39, 56, melanin 21, 108 nerve signals 54, 116 176
melons (of dolphins) 119 nervous system 54–55, 62 113 razor clams 47, 171
106, 108–09, 180–81 memories 163 nests 154–55, 162, 175 plates 11, 12, 26–27, 106–07 recyclers 86–87
metamorphosis 152–53, neurons 54 platypuses 126, 157 red-eyed tree frogs 34–35,
174, 175 newts 153, 178 play 161
mice 66, 155, 185 nictitating membranes 113 113, 179
night vision 113 reflex actions 55
nocturnal animals 63 regeneration 109
remoras 84–85
eyesight 113
hearing 118

190

reptiles 180–81 shells 10–11, 16, 106–07, speed 32, 43, 91 tamanduas 184 vertebrates 176–87
movement 31, 32, 39 149, 170–71, 180 sperm 144, 145 tapetum lucidum 113 bony skeletons 16–17
scales 26–27 sperm whales 119 tapirs 187 nervous system 55
senses 120, 126 shipworms 46 spermaceti 119 tarantulas 173 skin 18–19
temperature control shivering 57, 67 spicules 8 tardigrades 67
56–57 shoals 123, 162, 163 spider crabs 13 tarsiers 113, 166184 vibration 116, 123, 130
young 148–49, 156 shrews 118 spider monkeys 34 taste 120–21 vipers 90, 181
shrikes 72–73 spider-hunting wasps taste buds 120, 121 vision 112–15
retinas 113 sidewinding 31 teeth 17, 70, 99, 104, 105, vocal sacs 134
rhinoceroses 106, 187 sieving 82–83 104–05 vultures 19, 86, 87, 161
rhythms 62–63 sifakas 36–37 spiders 13, 21, 33, 100, 112, 148
rib cage 16 signals temporal glands 138 W
rituals 144, 172–73 tenrecs 118
calls and songs 134–35 breathing 50 tentacles 83, 125, 171 waders 63, 183
combat 140, 141 interpreting 112, 116, traps 96 walking 32, 33
courtship 142–45 stinging 8, 9, 105, 168 wall lizards 181
rodents 185 121, 123 spikes 106 termites 127, 162 walruses 123
roundworms 168 nerve 54, 116 spinal cord 55 territories warrens 155
ruminants 74 sight 101, 130–31 spine (backbone) 16 warthogs 59
running 32 smell 130, 136–37 spines 11, 31, 106 marking 59, 136 wasps 104–05, 155, 160,
sound 130, 134–35 spiny anteaters 157, 184 mating 141, 162
S touch 130, 138–39 spiracles 13 tests 11 162, 175
warnings 100, 130, 134, sponges 8, 168 thermals 39 waste products 50
sailfin lizards 108–09 spraint 136 Thomson’s gazelles 136–37 water
sailfish 43 135 springtails 86, 87, 173 thorn bugs 101, 174
salamanders 19, 32, 178 silk 155 squid 11, 42, 55, 171 thorns 106 oxygen from 50
saliva 56, 122, 155 skeletons 16–17, 166, 167, squirrels 38, 185 thorny devils 106, 181 walking on 33, 109
salmon 65, 80, 177 stag beetles 12 thumbs 41 water bugs 174
salps 82 176 stalk-eyed flies 141 ticks 98, 99, 173 water fleas 172
sap 71, 174 skin 18–19 stalking 91 tides 62, 63 water spiders 50
scales 26–27, 107, 176 star-nosed moles 124–25 tigers 58, 186 waterfowl 182
scallops 10, 171 breathing through 50 starfish 11, 30, 109, 169 toads 104, 178–79 waterproofing 22, 58
scar tissue 19 poisonous 104, 105 statocysts 122 toes 17, 34 weavers 154–55
scavengers 86–87 shedding 26 stick insects 174 tongueless frogs 179 weevils 78, 175
scent 120–21, 136–37 on wings 41 sticky toes 34, 179, 181 tongues 120–21, 122, 167 whale sharks 82, 85
scent glands 136 skinks 181 stinging cells 105 tools 78, 160, 161 whales 42, 64, 65, 82–83,
scorpions 9, 172 skulls 17, 176 stings 104–05 tortoises 16, 27, 106–07, 94, 119, 187
scutes 16, 27 sliding 30–31 stomachs 74 180 songs 134, 135
sea anemones 9, 168 slime 30, 145 toucans 167, 183 whiskers 123
sea butterflies 50, 170 sloths 59, 74–75 acids 87 touch 122–25, 138–39 wild boar 20–21, 81
sea cows 184 slowworms 181 stridulation 135 towns 80, 81 wild dogs 94
sea cucumbers 169 slugs 145, 170 sturgeon 177 tracheae 13 wildebeest 64–65, 94
sea fans 9 smell 76, 81, 120–21, suckers 9, 30, 99 trail pheromones 137 wings 17, 40–41, 135, 167,
sea mice 169 136–37 sun spiders 172 trapdoor spiders 96 174–75, 182
sea otters 20 snails 10, 30–31, 50, 105, sunscreen 19, 60 traps 96–97 wolves 17, 130, 186
sea slugs 52–53, 170 170 surgeonfish 58 tree frogs 34–35, 55, 134, woodlice 172
sea snails 105, 170 snakes 16, 26–27, 57, 62, 70, swallows 64 141, 179 woodpeckers 34, 41, 79,
sea spiders 173 71, 141, 180–81 swallowtail butterflies 175 tricks 96–97, 131, 157 135, 183
sea squirts 82, 169 hunting 90, 91, 97 swallowtail caterpillars 137 trotting 33 workers 162, 163
sea urchins 11, 31, 106, 153, movement 31 swans 182 trunks 138 worms 9, 46, 168, 169
senses 120, 126 swarms 94, 162 tuataras 180
169 venom 104, 105 sweating 56 tube feet 30, 169 XYZ
sea horses 42, 177 young 148–49 swifts 41, 127, 183 tuna 57
seals 16–17, 42, 56, 90, 123, snouts 81 swim bladders 43, 119 tunneling 46–47, 155 yolk sacs 148
snow leopards 35 swimming 42–43, 123 turtles 58, 126, 127, 160, young
186 snowshoe hares 63 swiveling eyes 113, 114 180
seasons 78, 100 soaring 39 swordfish 57 tympanal organs 116 camouflage 20
seat patches 18 social activities 59, 138–39, synapses 54 caring for 156–59, 162–63
sebaceous glands 122 162–63 syrinx 134 UV changing shape 152–53
seed-eaters 78–79 soil 87 identifying 136, 137
segmented worms 169 microlife 86, 87 T ultrasound 116 instinct and learning
segments 9, 12, 46, 55 solar energy 70 urine 59
senses 54, 112–27 soldiers 162, 163 tachinid flies 116 vampire bats 98, 99 160–61
sentries 109 song 134–35 tadpoles 150, 152, 153 venom 71, 90, 104–05, 172, protection of 109
shape, changing 152–53 sound pulses 118 tail fins 43 starting life 148–49
sharks 17, 26, 43, 90, 148, sound waves 116, 119 tails 33, 34, 109, 166, 184, 180, 181 zebras 33, 136–37, 140–41,
spadefoot toads 179 vertebrae 16 187
176 spawn 150 185
species 167
spectacles 27

191

Acknowledgments Richard Packwood (cr). Still Pictures: Vincent salmon); Joel Sartore / National Geographic
Jean-Christoph / Biosphoto (br). 146 Alamy (tc/sturgeon); Paul Nicklen / National
Dorling Kindersley would like to thank: Photoshot: Roy Walker (br). Still Pictures: Natural History Museum, London (ca). FLPA: Images: cbimages (fclb). Corbis: Lightscapes Geographic (cl); Visuals Unlimited (tc/lungfish)
Matilda Gollon for editing the jacket, Lili Hecker / Sauer (cra). 48 Corbis: Michael & Malcolm Schuyl (tr). Getty Images: James Photography Inc. (crb). Getty Images: Frank (cr) (cra); Luc Novovitch (bl); Jeff Rotman (ca)
Bryant for editorial assistance, Caitlin Doyle for Patricia Fogden (fbl); John Giustina (bc); Hager (cl). 100–101 Getty Images: Visuals Lukasseck (clb). naturepl.com: David Fleetham (bc); Peter Scoones (tl). 178 Corbis: Jan-Peter
proofreading, and Helen Peters for the index. George McCarthy (fbr). naturepl.com: David Unlimited. 101 Corbis: Tom Brakefield (crb); (cb). 146–147 Louis-Marie Préau. 147 Getty Kasper / epa (cb); Michael & Patricia Fogden
Tipling (bl). NHPA / Photoshot: John Shaw Ralph A. Clevenger (cr); Michael & Patricia Images: Stephen Frink (fcrb). 148 Getty (cla); Visuals Unlimited (bc). Getty Images:
Picture credits (br). 48–49 Andras Meszaros. 50 Alamy Fogden (cra). naturepl.com: Ingo Arndt (br). Images: National Geographic (cl); Oxford Don Farrall (cr); George Grall / National
The publisher would like to thank the Images: blickwinkel (bc). Igor Siwanowicz: (cl). 102–103 Thomas Marent. 104 Corbis: Michael Scientific / Photolibrary (bl) (bc) (br). 149 Geographic (clb); Michael Fogden /
following for their kind permission to 50–51 Corbis: Kimimasa Mayama / Reuters. 51 & Patricia Fogden (cl). 104–105 Getty Images: naturepl.com: Meul / ARCO (tr). NHPA / Photolibrary (crb). NHPA / Photoshot:
reproduce their photographs: FLPA: Thomas Marent / Minden Pictures (crb). Visuals Unlimited (t). naturepl.com: Hans Photoshot: Laurie Campbell (bc). 150–151 Anthony Bannister (br); Chris Mattison (cra).
Getty Images: Jonathon Gale (tl). Science Christoph Kappel (b). 105 Alamy Images: Michel Loup. 152 Thomas Marent: (cl) (c). 179 Corbis: Michael & Patricia Fogden (cra) (bl)
(Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-center; f-far; Photo Library: Revy. ISM (br). 52–53 FLPA: Brent Ward (cl). FLPA: Norbert Wu / Minden Photolibrary: Paul Kay (bl). 152–153 Thomas (ca/left); Frans Lanting (cla); moodboard (ca/
l-left; r-right; t-top) Norbert Wu / Minden Pictures. 54 Corbis: Pictures (tr). naturepl.com: Barry Mansell (br). Marent. 153 Getty Images: Visuals Unlimited right); Natural Selection David Spier (c/right);
Frans Lanting (tr). Getty Images: Doug 106 Corbis: Theo Allofs (cl). Dorling (cra) (br). National Geographic Stock: Piotr David A. Northcott (clb); Kevin Schafer (tl) (cb)
1 Alamy Images: Steve Bloom Images (bc). Hamilton (cl). 55 Alamy Images: Maximilian Kindersley: Jerry Young (cb). Getty Images: Nasrecki / Minden Pictures (tc). Photolibrary: (cr); Paul Sutherland / National Geographic (c).
Corbis: John Pitcher / Design Pics (bl). FLPA: Weinzierl (br). Corbis: DLILLC (t); Stuart James Warwick (cr). 106–107 Alamy Images: OSF (cr). 154 naturepl.com: Rolf Nussbaumer Getty Images: Stanley Breeden / National
Chris Newbert / Minden Pictures (br). Getty Westmorland (clb). 56 Ardea: Jean Paul blickwinkel. 107 Getty Images: Nigel Dennis / (cl). 154–155 FLPA: Jurgen & Christine Sohns. Geographic (tr); Rodger Jackman /
Images: Thomas Shahan / Flickr (bl). Ferrero (bl). naturepl.com: Roberto Bubas (cl). Gallo Images (cr); Visuals Unlimited (cl). 155 Alamy Images: Andrew Darrington (ca); Photolibrary (tc). NHPA / Photoshot: Daniel
Photolibrary: Alaskastock. 2–3 Ardea: Chris 56–57 naturepl.com: David Tipling. naturepl.com: Mark Payne-Gill (tl) (ftr) (tc) (tr). Alison Thompson (tr). Corbis: Michael & Heuclin (cl); Chris Mattison (bc). 180 Corbis:
Brunskill. 3 Getty Images: Eastcott Momatiuk 57 NHPA / Photoshot: A. N. T. Photo Library 108 Corbis: Joe McDonald (bc). Getty Images: Patricia Fogden (cra); Wolfgang Kaehler (cr). Ron Austing; FLPA (cb); Michael & Patricia
(bc); Visuals Unlimited (br); Max Gibbs / (tl). 58 NHPA / Photoshot: Andy Rouse (tr). Don Farrall (cl). 108–109 NHPA / Photoshot: Getty Images: Oxford Scientific / Photolibrary Fogden (br); Frans Lanting (cr); Gerald Nowak /
Photolibrary (fbl). naturepl.com: Charlie Splashdowndirect.com: Andre Seale (b). 59 Stephen Dalton. 109 Corbis: Dr John D. (crb). 156 Getty Images: Frank Lukasseck (br); Westend61 (bl); Stuart Westmorland (clb).
Hamilton-James (bl). Splashdowndirect.com: Corbis: John Giustina (cl). FLPA: Silvestris Cunningham / Visuals Unlimited (crb). FLPA: Art Wolfe (tr). naturepl.com: Anup Shah (cl). Getty Images: Tim Flach (crb); Frans Lemmens
Andre Seale (fbr). 4 Corbis: Stephen Frink (cla). Fotoservice (ftl). Getty Images: Daryl Balfour Chris Schenk / FN / Minden Pictures (tr); 157 Alamy Images: cbimages (tl). Ardea: D. (bc). 181 Corbis: Theo Allofs (cla); Jonathan
Andras Meszaros: (clb). naturepl.com: Neil (crb); Daniel Cox / Photolibrary (bc); Stan Visuals Unlimited (br). Getty Images: Mattias Parer & E. Parer-Cook (ca). Dorling Kindersley: Blair (crb); Chris Mattison; FLPA (cb/boa);
Lucas (cl). NHPA / Photoshot: Kevin Schafer Osolinski / Photolibrary (tc). NHPA / Klum / National Geographic (tl). Joey Jerry Young (tc). naturepl.com: David Michael & Patricia Fogden (tc) (bc/viper); Gallo
(bl). 4–5 Getty Images: Daisy Gilardini. 5 Photoshot: Stephen Dalton (tl). Science Photo Ciaramitaro / GoodMorningGloucester.com: Fleetham (br); David Kjaer (bl). Professor Images (tl); David A. Northcott (cb/snake);
Corbis: DLILLC (cla). Getty Images: Digital Library: Steve Gschmeissner (bl). 60–61 (bc). 110 Corbis: Joe McDonald (fclb); DLILLC Stewart Nicol: (cra). 158–159 Getty Images: Clive Druett; Papilio (c/right). Getty Images:
Vision (bl); Pal Hermansen (tl). Louis-Marie Corbis: Martin Harvey. 62 Photolibrary: (clb). FLPA: Hiroya Minakuchi / Minden Michael Poliza / National Geographic. 160 Theo Allofs (clb); Flickr (ca/agama); Belinda
Préau: (clb). Science Photo Library: Byron Howard Hall (tr). 62–63 Ardea: Francois Pictures (cb). naturepl.com: Nick Garbutt (crb); Alamy Images: blickwinkel (bl). Corbis: Wright / National Geographic (cl); Visuals
Jorjorian (cl). 6 Corbis: Richard Cummins (crb); Gohier. 63 Alamy Images: AfriPics.com (cla); Dave Watts (fcrb). 110–111 Corbis: DLILLC. Michael Hagedorn (bc); Lightscapes Unlimited (tr); Nancy Nehring (cr); Michael
George Steinmetz (fcrb). FLPA: Derek Imagestate (ca); Johner Images (tr). Corbis: Joe 112 Corbis: Joe McDonald (bl); Fritz Photography Inc. (c); Lynda Richardson (cra). Fogden / Photolibrary (br); Doug Plummer (ca/
Middleton (cb). Getty Images: Stuart McDonald (br). Getty Images: Joe McDonald Rauschenbach (tc). 113 Corbis: Martin Harvey NHPA / Photoshot: Anthony Bannister (br). frilled); James R. D. Scott (bc). Rob Houston:
Westmorland (clb). Scubazoo.com: Jason Isley (c). 64–65 naturepl.com: Anup Shah. 65 (br); Frans Lanting (cr); Joe McDonald (fbr). 160–161 Getty Images: Manoj Shah. 161 (c/left). 182 Alamy Images: blickwinkel (br).
(fclb). 6–7 Corbis: Stephen Frink. 8 Corbis: naturepl.com: Jurgen Freund (tr). NHPA / Getty Images: Beverly Joubert / National Getty Images: Alain Christof / Photolibrary (tl). Corbis: Ralf Hirschberger / dpa (clb);
Clouds Hill Imaging Ltd. (clb). NHPA / Photoshot: John Shaw (tl). 66 Corbis: George Geographic (tl); Michael Poliza (fbl); David 162 Alamy Images: Mira (c/bees). Daisy Momatiuk-Eastcott (cra) (cr). Getty Images:
Photoshot: Burt Jones & Maurine Shimlock McCarthy. imagequestmarine.com: Peter Trood (cl). Christian Ziegler: (bl). 114–115 Gilardini: (tr); Mark Moffett / Minden Pictures altrendo nature (bc); Robin Bush / Photolibrary
(bl). 8–9 Scubazoo.com: Jason Isley. 9 Corbis: Batson (tr). 67 Ardea: D. Parer & E. Parer-Cook FLPA: Chris Newbert / Minden Pictures. 116 (bl); Piotr Nasrecki / Minden Pictures (c/ (cla); Ronald Wittek (cb); Tim Zurowski (crb).
Norbert Wu / Science Faction (tr). FLPA: Piotr (crb). FLPA: Imagebroker (tr). Science Photo Dorling Kindersley: Frank Greenaway, termites). National Geographic Stock: 183 Corbis: Steve Allen / Brand X (ca/eagle);
Naskrecki / Minden Pictures (bc). 10 Getty Library: Power and Syred (clb) (bl). Wikipedia, courtesy of the Natural History Museum, Mitsuhiko Imamori / Minden Pictures (cl) (bc). Christian Hager / dpa (cr); Patrick Pleul / dpa
Images: Mike Kemp (tr); Stuart Westmorland The Free Encyclopedia: (tl). 68 Corbis: Visuals London (tr) (br/cricket); Colin Keates, courtesy 162–163 Corbis: Bob Krist (br). 163 Getty (crb); Frans Lanting (c/pigeon) (cb); Joe
(bl). Science Photo Library: David Hall (br). Unlimited (fbr); Frans Lanting (bl); Erich of the Natural History Museum, London (br). Images: Stephen Frink (tr). 164 Corbis: Ralf McDonald (tr). Dorling Kindersley: Steve &
10–11 Photolibrary: Paul Kay. 11 Alamy Kuchling / Westend61 (fbl). Getty Images: NHPA / Photoshot: Stephen Dalton (bc). Hirschberger / dpa (crb); Koen Van Weel / epa Dave Maslowski / Maslowski Photo (clb). Getty
Images: Gregory Davies (tl). FLPA: Chris Visuals Unlimited (bc). Stephen J. Simpson & Science Photo Library: Power and Syred (cl). (fcrb); Visuals Unlimited (cb); Boston Museum Images: Glenn Bartley (bc); Guy Edwardes (cl);
Newbert / Minden Pictures (br). 12–13 FLPA: Gregory A. Sword: (br). 68–69 NHPA / 117 Corbis: Frans Lemmens (br); Joe of Science / Visuals Unlimited (fclb). Getty Martin Harvey (c/macaw); Don Johnston (br);
Derek Middleton. 13 Ardea: Becca Saunders Photoshot: Kevin Schafer. 70 Corbis: David McDonald (tc); DLILLC (cl). 118 Alamy Images: Images: George Grall / National Geographic Mike Powles / Photolibrary (tc); Purestock (bl);
(bl). Corbis: Visuals Unlimited (cr) (crb); Aubrey (bc/grasshopper); W. Perry Conway Danita Delimont (clb). 118–119 Frank (clb). 164–165 Getty Images: Digital Vision. Rich Thompson (ca/pelicans); Tohoku Colour
Herbert Kehrer (br). NHPA / Photoshot: James (fbr); Cornstock (fbl); Joe McDonald (br); Skip Greenaway. 119 FLPA: Hiroya Minakuchi / 166 Alamy Images: Martin Shields (clb/sabre Agency; Carl D. Walsh (cla). 184 Corbis: Markus
Carmichael Jr. (tc). 14–15 FLPA: Chris Newbert Moody – Rainbow / Science Faction (bc/frog). Minden Pictures (cra) (bc). NHPA / Photoshot: tooth). Corbis: Frans Lanting (br); Sergei Botzek (br); Ronald Wittek / dpa (clb); Nigel J.
/ Minden Pictures. 16 FLPA: Norbert Wu / Dorling Kindersley: Colin Keates, courtesy of A. N. T. Photo Library (tc). 120 Corbis: Jack Cherkashin / Reuters (clb/mammoth). Dorling Dennis / Gallo Images (c). Dorling Kindersley:
Minden Pictures (cla). 17 Science Photo the Natural History Museum, London (c). Goldfarb / Design Pics (tr). Getty Images: Jeff Kindersley: Ed Homonylo, courtesy of Jerry Young (tl). Getty Images: Ben Cranke (bl);
Library: D. Roberts (br). 18 FLPA: Piotr 70–71 Corbis: Erich Kuchling / Westend61. 71 Rotman (bl). 121 Getty Images: NatPhotos Dinosaur State Park, Connecticut (cl). 166–167 Karen Desjardin (bc); Paul Sutherland /
Naskrecki / Minden Pictures. 18–19 Corbis: Miles Kenzo Kooren: (bl). naturepl.com: Kim (cr). Ch’ien C. Lee: (tl). Science Photo Library: NHPA / Photoshot: Stephen Dalton. 167 National Geographic (cr). 185 Corbis: Frans
Ralph A. Clevenger (t). 19 Corbis: Peter Taylor (br). Science Photo Library: Volker Prof. L. M. Beidler (bl). 122 Alamy Images: Corbis: Jean-Pierre Degas / Hemis (cra) (bc/ Lanting (bc); DLILLC (tr); Naturfoto Honal (bl);
Johnson (c); David A. Northcott (cra); Paul Steger (tr). 72–73 NHPA / Photoshot: Dave John Warburton-Lee Photography (c). FLPA: gorilla); Frans Lanting (ca) (fbl). Getty Images: George Steinmetz (br). Dorling Kindersley:
Souders (bl). Getty Images: David Doubilet / Watts. 74 Corbis: Radius Images (tl). Getty Jurgen & Christine Sohns (bl). 122–123 Ira Block / National Geographic (bl); Kevin Sean Hunter (cb). Getty Images: Joel Sartore /
National Geographic (br). NHPA / Photoshot: Images: Tim Graham Photo Library (crb). 75 naturepl.com: Jose B. Ruiz. 123 FLPA: R. Schafer (tr); Manoj Shah (bc/gibbon). 168 National Geographic (cla); Bob Stefko (clb);
Martin Harvey (cr). 20 Getty Images: Joseph Corbis: Frans Lanting (br); Kevin Schafer (l); Dirscherl (cra). naturepl.com: Nick Garbutt Corbis: Brandon D. Cole (cb); Michael & Federico Veronesi (tl). 186 Corbis: Erwin &
Vans Os (cl). Science Photo Library: British Keren Su (bc). FLPA: Tui De Roy / Minden (br). 124–125 FLPA: Dembinsky Photo Ass. Patricia Fogden (ca); Visuals Unlimited (br); Peggy Bauer (cra); Niall Benvie (tc/hedgehog);
Antarctic Survey (c). 20–21 FLPA: John Eveson. Pictures (tr). 76 Corbis: Visuals Unlimited (cl). 126 naturepl.com: Michael D. Kern (bl); Dave Marty Snyderman (tl); Boston Museum of W. Perry Conway (crb); DLILLC (bl). Dorling
21 Getty Images: Doug Allan (cla); Eastcott FLPA: Shem Compion (bl). Getty Images: Watts (tc). 127 Getty Images: Jeff Hunter (br). Science / Visuals Unlimited (cra). Getty Kindersley: Jerry Young (tr). Getty Images:
Momatiuk (cb). Science Photo Library: Power Visuals Unlimited (cr). 77 naturepl.com: Dave NHPA / Photoshot: Martin Harvey (bl). Images: Nick Norman / National Geographic Ben Cranke (tc/bat); Berndt Fischer /
and Syred (cr); T-Service (br). 22 FLPA: Erica Watts (tl). NHPA / Photoshot: Photo Stephan Rolfes: (cla). Science Photo Library: (bc). NHPA / Photoshot: Ross & Diane Photolibrary (clb); Keren Su (br). 187 Corbis:
Olsen (bl). 22–23 Getty Images: Daniel Beltra. Researchers (l). 78 Alamy Images: dbimages Catherine Pouedras / Eurelios (ca). 128 Alamy Armstrong (bl). 169 Corbis: Ed Murray / Star John Pitcher / Design Pics (tc); Koen Van Weel /
23 naturepl.com: Phil Savoie (clb); Dave Watts (l). naturepl.com: Nature Production (cr). Images: Phil Degginger (fbl); blickwinkel (bl). Ledger (tl); Robert Pickford (cla); Jeffrey L. epa (cl); John Giustina (bl); Specialist Stock
(tl). Science Photo Library: Power and Syred 78–79 Photolibrary: Otto Hahn. 79 FLPA: S & Getty Images: Nicole Duplaix / National Rotman (cb) (bl) (br). Getty Images: Georgette (cr); Stuart Westmorland (br). Dorling
(cb). 24–25 Corbis: Richard Cummins. 26 D & K Maslowski (tl); Pete Oxford / Minden Geographic (br). naturepl.com: Georgette Douwma (clb); Visuals Unlimited (tc). Kindersley: Stephen Oliver (c). Getty
Corbis: Ralph Clevenger (bl); Randy Faris (cl); Pictures (br). 80 Alamy Images: Steve Bloom Douwma (fbr); Anup Shah (bc). 128–129 Photolibrary: Paul Kay (ca). SeaPics.com: Susan Images: Andy Rouse (tr)
George Steinmetz (tc). Science Photo Library: Images (l). 81 Alamy Images: Bob Gibbons (cl). Science Photo Library: Byron Jorjorian. 130 Dabritz (tr). 170 Corbis: Brandon D. Cole (cla);
Eye of Science (cb). 27 Corbis: Tim Davies (tr). naturepl.com: Michael Durham (cr); Laurent Alamy Images: Premaphotos (crb). Corbis: B. Borrell Casals; FLPA (crb); Jeffrey L. Rotman Jacket images: Front: Corbis: Tim Davis t;
naturepl.com: Edwin Giesbers (b); Andy Sands Geslin (crb). Stephen J. Simpson & Gregory A. Tom Brakefield (cra); George McCarthy (clb); (bl). Getty Images: AFP (br); Gary Bell (bc); DLILLC fbr; Norbert Wu / Science Faction bc;
(tl). Science Photo Library: Eye of Science (ca). Sword: (b). 82 FLPA: Richard Herrmann / Joe McDonald (cr). NHPA / Photoshot: Anna Stephen Frink (cb); George Grall / National Jim Zuckerman fbl; Getty Images: Ralph
28–29 naturepl.com: Neil Lucas. 30 Minden Pictures (crb). Getty Images: Wim van Henly (cl). 130–131 Alamy Images: David Geographic (tr); Visuals Unlimited (cra). 171 Orlowski br; Steve & Ann Toon bl. Back: Corbis:
Photolibrary: Karen Gowlett-Holmes (cl) (c). den Heever (bc). Photolibrary: Tobias Fleetham. 131 Alamy Images: Phil Degginger Alamy Images: Sabena Jane Blackbird (cla). Theo Allofs ftr; Terry W. Eggers tr; Arthur Morris
30–31 NHPA / Photoshot: Stephen Dalton. 31 Bernhard (cl). 82–83 naturepl.com: Doc White. (cr); Keith M Law (cla) (ca). Getty Images: Getty Images: Philippe Bourseiller (crb); Justin tl; Stuart Westmorland tc; Getty Images:
Corbis: Stephen Frink (c); Stuart Westmorland 83 Corbis: Visuals Unlimited (bc). 84–85 Manoj Shah (tc). 132–133 Corbis: Paul Lewis (cb); George Grall / National Geographic Georgette Douwma ftl; naturepl.com: Staffan
(bc). 32 Dorling Kindersley: Jan Van Der Voot Alexander Safonov. 86 Science Photo Souders. 134 Alamy Images: blickwinkel (cl). (ca); Norbert Rosing / National Geographic (tr); Widstrand b. Spine: Corbis: Ralph A. Clevenger
(cl). NHPA / Photoshot: Stephen Kraseman Library: Eye of Science (cl). 86–87 Corbis: naturepl.com: Rolf Nussbaumer (bl). 134–135 Visuals Unlimited (br). NHPA / Photoshot: cb; DLILLC tc; Jim Zuckerman bc; Getty
(cr). 33 Alamy Images: blickwinkel (tl). Corbis: Peter Johnson (b); James Hager / Robert Getty Images: Visuals Unlimited. 135 Alamy Daniel Heuclin (cra). 172 Corbis: Michael & Images: Ralph Orlowski ca; Steve & Ann Toon c
W. Wisniewski (b). 34 Getty Images: Tim Flach Harding World Imagery (t). 87 Corbis: Gallo Images: Juniors Bildarchiv (cra); Rolf Patricia Fogden (crb); Frans Lanting (ca);
(c). naturepl.com: Ingo Arndt (fcr); Jorma Images (cl). naturepl.com: Elaine Whiteford Nussbaumer (clb). Corbis: Herbert Zettl (br). Robert Pickett (bl). Getty Images: Mangiwau All other images © Dorling Kindersley
Luhta (cr); Nature Production (bl). (br). 88 Corbis: David A. Northcott (fcl). FLPA: Getty Images: Visuals Unlimited (tc). 136 (br); Visuals Unlimited (cb); David Tipling (clb). For further information see:
Photolibrary: Satoshi Kuribayashi / Nature Martin B Withers (cl). imagequestmarine.com: naturepl.com: Solvin Zankl (bc). shahimages. 173 Corbis: David Aubrey (br); Ashley Cooper www.dkimages.com
Production (br). 34–35 FLPA: Scott Linstead / (cr). naturepl.com: Rod Williams (c). NHPA / com: Anup Shah (cl). 136–137 Alamy Images: (bl); Michael & Patricia Fogden (c); Robert
Minden Pictures. 35 FLPA: Ariadne Van Photoshot: Stephen Dalton (fcr). 88–89 Getty Imagestate (t). naturepl.com: Anup Shah (b). Pickett (tr); Bob Sacha (clb); Bill Vane (tc). Getty
Zandbergen (clb). 36–37 shahimages.com: Images: Pal Hermansen. 90 Corbis: David A. 137 Alamy Images: Lena Ason (cr). Corbis: Images: Thomas Shahan (cl). 174 Corbis:
Anup Shah. 40 Alamy Images: WaterFrame Northcott (tl); Keren Su (cr). 91 Alamy Images: Jonathan Blair (tc); B. Borrell Casals; FLPA (tr). Michael & Patricia Fogden (bc); Anthony
(bc). Corbis: DLILLC (cl); Paul Souders (tr). Malcolm Schuyl (cl). National Geographic FLPA: Ingo Arndt / Minden Pictures (br); Bannister / Gallo Images (cr); Visuals Unlimited
naturepl.com: Kim Taylor (c). 40–41 naturepl. Stock: Gerry Ellis / Minden Pictures (r). 92–93 Sunset (c). 138 Corbis: Frans Lanting (tr). (bl); Frans Lanting (c/stick insect); Naturfoto
com: Kim Taylor; Kim Taylor (t). NHPA / naturepl.com: Charlie Hamilton-James; 138–139 Corbis: Arthur Morris (b). 139 Corbis: Honal (tr); David A. Northcott (br); Ken Wilson;
Photoshot: Stephen Dalton (b). 41 naturepl. Mitsuaki Iwago / Minden Pictures (cr). 94 Norbert Wu / Science Faction (br). Getty Papilio (c/earwig); Mannie Garcia / Reuters
com: Kim Taylor (t). Photolibrary: Satoshi FLPA: Mark Moffett / Minden Pictures (tr); Images: Nicole Duplaix / National Geographic (crb); Peet Simard (cl). Getty Images: Medford
Kuribayashi / Nature Production (cl). 42 Alamy Martin B Withers (cl). naturepl.com: Bruce (tr). naturepl.com: Premaphotos (cla). 140 Taylor / National Geographic (cb). 175 Corbis:
Images: Scenics & Science (ca). Corbis: Gary Davidson (b). 95 Alexander Safonov: (t). 96 FLPA: Matthias Breiter / Minden Pictures (clb). David Aubrey (br); Visuals Unlimited (c/flea);
Bell (cl). Getty Images: Stephen Frink (br); naturepl.com: David Shale (t). NHPA / Louis-Marie Preau: (tc). 140–141 Tony Heald. George D. Lepp (cl); Robert Marien (cb/
Visuals Unlimited (tr); Max Gibbs / Photolibrary Photoshot: A. N. T. Photo Library (bl). 97 141 Alamy Images: All Canada Photos (tl). butterfly); Micro Discovery (cra); Fritz
(cr). NHPA / Photoshot: Taketomo Shiratori National Geographic Stock: Robert Sisson (tl). FLPA: Mark Moffett / Minden Pictures (br); Rauschenbach (c/horsefly); Elisabeth Sauer
(bl). 43 Corbis: Stuart Westmorland / Science naturepl.com: Rod Williams (cl). NHPA / Sunset (tc). naturepl.com: George McCarthy (ca/water beetle); Kevin Schafer (tr); Penny
Faction (c). Dorling Kindersley: Richard Davies Photoshot: Stephen Dalton (c). 99 FLPA: Nigel (cr). NHPA / Photoshot: George Bernard (crb). Tweedie (cb/ants); Michele Westmorland (bc).
of Oxford Scientific Films (bl) (bc) (br). 44–45 Cattlin (c); imagebroker (cr); Tui De Roy / 142–143 Andras Meszaros. 144 Corbis: Mark Getty Images: George Grall / National
FLPA: Norbert Wu / Minden Pictures. 46 Minden Pictures (br). imagequestmarine.com: A Johnson (tl). 144–145 Corbis: Juergen Geographic (ca/beetle); Christina Bollen /
Photolibrary: OSF (br). Still Pictures: F. Hecker Roger Steene (cl). 100 Corbis: Steven Effner. 145 Getty Images: Oxford Scientific / Photolibrary (clb); Robert Oelman /
(tr). 46–47 Corbis: Frans Lanting. 47 Corbis: Kazlowski / Science Faction (c). Dorling Photolibrary (tl) (tc). naturepl.com: Georgette Photolibrary (cla); David R. Tyner (cr). 176
Michael & Patricia Fogden (tl). NHPA / Kindersley: Frank Greenaway, courtesy of the Douwma (cl). Photolibrary: Eliott Neep (tr); Corbis: Amos Nachoum (clb). Getty Images:
Georgette Douwma (crb); Stephen Frink (bl);
192 Jens Kuhfs (br); Darlyne A Murawski / National
Geographic (cla); Visuals Unlimited (ca); Jeff
Rotman (cr); Michele Westmorland (cb). 177
Getty Images: Peter David (c/anglerfish);
Steven Hunt (cb) (br); Michael Melford (c/