SUPERSTRUCTURE

10 ROOF
4

Functional Requirements

• Strength and stability
• Resistance to weather
• Durability and freedom from

maintenance
• Fire safety
• Resistance to the passage of

heat
• Resistance to the passage of

sound

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

Functional Requirements
10
5

Strength and stability

Depend on the characteristics of the materials
from which it is constructed and the way in which
the materials are formed.

Resistance to weather

A roof excludes rain through the material.

A roof structure will be subject to movements due
to variations in loading by wind pressure.

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10 Functional Requirements
6

 Fire safety

Building Regulations: required the safe
escape of occupants- adequate means
of escape, and limitation fire spread.

 Resistance to the passage of sound

A solid concrete roof will more effectively
reduce airborne sound than a similar
timber roof.

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10 Functional Requirements
7

 Durability and freedom from
maintenance

 The durability depends on the ability of
the roof covering to exclude rain and
temperature fluctuations.

 Penetration of water into the roof
structure may cause or decay of timber,
corrosion of steel or disintegration of
concrete.

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10 Functional Requirements
8

• Resistance to the passage of heat

➢ The material of roof structures and roof coverings are generally
poor insulators against the transfer of heat.

➢ So it is usually necessary to use some material which is a good
insulator e.g ligthweight board, mat or loose fill to provide
insulation against excessive of heat.

➢ For pitch roof: the most economical method is to lay or fix some
insulating material between or across the ceiling joist – depends on
flat roof type.

➢ For flat roof : insulating ,material may be applied to the underside
or top of flat roof

➢ Materials : wood wool slabs or insulation board

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Factors Influencing The Choice Of Roof Type

109

1.Size of the building

Pitched roof suitable for small size building
(residential & school)

Flat roof with pitch less than 10° suitable for
large building ( shopping complexes & school)

2.Shaped of the building

Pitched roof suitable for rectangular building
Flat roof suitable for complicated shape

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110 Cont.

3. Aesthetic value

 Pitched roof considered to have higher aesthetic
value compared to flat roof. (National
Library/National Museum)

4. Economics

 Both capital and maintenance costs should be
considered in selecting a roof type.

 Some coverings such as zinc will not last the life of the
building and replacement costs must be included in
the calculations.

. BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

111 Cont.

5.Other considerations

Ease with which services can be
accommodated in roof space; lighting, duration
of construction, weatherproofing;
maintenance.

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T121ype of roof Flat
roof
Pitched
roof

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113 ❑ Pitched Roofs

 The majority of pitched roofs are constructed as
symmetrical pitch roofs with equal slopes pitched to
a central ridge.

 Pitched roof is roof with pitch exceeding 10 degree.

 The cost of constructing a pitched roof is greater
than a flat roof.

 Usually pitched roof is suitable for small size building
such as residences.

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11 Pitch roof
4

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11 Pitch roof
5

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Types Of Roof
11
7

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Pitched Roofs
11

 8 used to describe the parts of a pitched

Term

roof;

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11
9

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12 Advantages of Pitched Roof
8

Triangular space inside the

roof above the ceiling joists will

to some extent :

➢provide insulation

➢provide a convenient space

for locating water storage

cistern, storage space.

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❑ Concrete flat roof

130

Roof less than 10 degree pitch is categorised as flat roof.

Flat roof suitable for large building ( shopping complexes &
school)

Flat roof are constructed in the same way as upper concrete
floors.

Damp proof membrane is placed at the top to prevent water
from seeping into the roof

Concrete flat roofs are designed to provide support access for
maintenanBcUILeDINoG rTECfHoNrOLuOGsYe as a terrace.

13 Concrete flat roof
1

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Cross section of Concrete flat roof

13
2

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Advantages and Disadvantages Concrete Flat Roof

136 Disadvantages
 Difficult to maintain – recoat & sealed
Advantages
 Close supervision during construction to
They are very easy to put up avoid dampness and high cost of
construction.
Play area for children
 Improperly design and constructed can
Resting area cause water stagnant on the surface
causing deterioration of the covering
Area for placing water storage and require high maintenance cost.
cistern, air conditioner unit.
 They have limited capacity for
Area for drying goods insulation.

Suitable for parking area.  They have little or no space to
accommodate services.
It is the most economical to

build.

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

13Example of flat roof that has been modified
7and become a courtyard on the roof

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13 Ponding on flat roof
8

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STAIRS

14 Introduction
0

 A means of providing access from
one floor to another.
 A stair is a set of steps formed or
constructed to make it possible to pass
to another level.
 It should be constructed to provide
ready, easy, comfortable, and safe
access up and down with steps that
are easy to climb.

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14 Essential requirements of
3
a stair

1. Location : easy access, well lighted,
ventilated, approaches convenient
and spacious.

2. Headroom : minimum 2 m measured
vertically from the pitch line. (for
people moving goods and furniture)

3. Change of direction : must be
provided with a landing and well-
lighted.

4. The pitch (slope) of a stair case in
domestic building shall not exceed 42°.

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144 Cont.of a stair

5. Each riser in a flight of a stairs must be of
the same height. Maximum height is 190
mm.

6. Each tread in a flight of stairs must be of
the same length. Minimum length is 230
mm.

7. The total number of step depends on the
height of the vertical rise of each flight. In
residential building, the number of steps
must not exceed 16. If > 16, must
provided with landing.

8. Stair case must be provided with
handrails / balustrade for safety.

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14 Cont.
5

9. Materials used must be strong and good
quality.

10.Steps must be parallel to each other
except when there is a change in
direction.

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14 Head room
8

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149

1.Inner string 7.Banister (or
(closed). handrail).
2.Outer string 8.Return nosing.
(open). 9.Fascia.
3.Tread. 10.Landing.
4.Riser. 11.Curtail.
5.Newel post.
6.Balusters. BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

15 Tread & Riser

1

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15 Components of Staircase
2

 Stairs flight

1. A flight consists of successive steps from
the lower floor to the upper floor.

2. Each flight not exceed 16 step
otherwise a platform should be made
available.

3. Each step includes a tread and riser.

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15 Components of Staircase
3

 Landing

1. Constructed between two floor
levels

2. Acts as separator between two
flight steps

3. Landing provides temporary resting
area.

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15 Components of Staircase
4

 Slope

1. Slope of stairs is the angle created by
stairs flight with the horizontal line.

2. Stairs slope for residences normally not
exceed 42 degree.

3. Public building such as school and
offices not exceed 38 degree

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Components of Staircase

155

 Headroom

1. To provide enough space to ease
movement of users, furniture and
others

2. Minimum distance-

 measured vertically is 2 m if it is or
 measured at right angle is 1.5 m

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Components of Staircase

156

 Handrail

1. Hand rail should provide when stairs
height exceeds 600 mm or three
steps.

2. The height of hand rail is 840mm to
1000mm from the tread

3. Made of timber or metal

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TYPES OF STAIR

157

Straight stairs
i. Run straight from lower to upper floor.
ii. Can built without landing if the number of steps does

not exceed 16 otherwise, a landing is required

Quarter turn stairs
i. Has two flight-lower and upper
ii. Both flight make a right angle to each other
iii. The lower flight can be constructed longer than the

upper flight and vice versa.
iv. Both flight are separated by square landing
v. The size of landing is equal to the width of the stairs.

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

TYPES OF STAIRS

158

Half turn stairs
1. Having two flight and a landing.
2. Both flight are equal in length and the rectangular

landing is located at mid floor height.
3. The steps of both are parallel to each other.

Geometric stairs
1. Has shaped steps
2. Spiral stairs is constructed around the column or at

circular central void
3. Utilises minimum space
4. Suitable only to user.

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TYPES OF STAIR

15
9

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16
0

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window

162 Introduction

Is an opening formed in a wall to
admit daylight through some
transparent material.

Windows should resist wind
loadings, be easy to clean and
provide safety and security.

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Functional Requirement

163

1. Provision of daylight
the amount and quality of daylight entering a
room depends on:
a) size and shape of windows
b) size and distribution of members of the window
frame
c) position of the window in relation to the room
(orientation)
d) effects of internal and external light reflection.

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Functional Requirement

16
4

2. Provision of ventilation
windows provide ventilation by use of
openable panels.
According to the Building By Laws,
ventilation of room must be achieved by
providing openable panels equivalent to
1/20th of the room floor area.
Critical accommodations requiring
ventilation are kitchens, bathrooms and
other sanitary accommodations.

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

Problems in fulfilling functional
16 requirement of window

5 1. Weather resistance
 It is crucial that rainwater do not pass to
the inside of frame.

2. Heat and sound insulation
 Walls provide very good heat and sound
insulation but when opening such as windows
are made, this ability is breached.

3. Security
 Windows should be suitably fitted with
latches or stays to prevent them from being
opened from outside.

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

Problems in fulfilling functional
16 requirement of window

6

4. Maintenance
 the means in which windows are
opened are very much affect their
maintenance.
 the outside surfaces of windows are
more easily cleaned than the inside.
 windows that are located in a high
position such as above a staircase are
more difficult to clean.

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General Principles Of Windows Design

167

5. Window Types

Classified in three different ways or a combination
of them.
1. The method of opening

 Casement which are side hung, top hung, bottom
hung

 Pivot hung either horizontal (reversible), vertical or
louvre

 Sliding, either vertical or horizontal
 Miscellaneous: Projected side hung, Projected top

hung, Sliding folding

2. The materials from which they are made: steel;
aluminium; timber; PVC

3. Size of windowBUILDING TECHNOLOGY

168 Types of Windows

Pivoted window • (Tingkap berpangsi)

Horizontally pivoted

Vertically pivoted • (Tingkap gelangsar)

Louvre Sliding
window

Vertically sliding

Horizontally sliding

Composite action • (Tingkap Majmuk)

Projected side hung

Projected top hung
SBlUidILDinINgG TfEoClHdNiOnLOgGY

16 Types of window
9

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170

Horizontally sliding Louvre

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17
1

Projected side hung Top hung

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