History English

surrounding walls. It had three entrance 10. Panchala : The mahajanapada of
gates and bastions. King Ajatashatru was Panchala was divided into, Uttara (north)
the one who annexed the territory of the Panchala and Dakshina (south) Panchala.
Vrujji/Vajji’s land to Magadha. The river Bhagirathi was the natural
boundary that divided the mahajanapada.
6. Malla : The city of Kushinara or Ahichchhatra, the capital of Uttara Panchala
Kushinagara (Kasia) in the Gorakhapur was located near the village of Ramanagar,
district was the capital of this mahajanapada. district Bareilley, Uttar Pradesh. Kampilya,
Gautama Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana present-day Kampil in the Farukhabad
at this city. A copper plate inscription (5th district of Uttar Pradesh, was the capital of
century C.E.) was found at the ‘Parinirvana Dakshina Panchala. The mahajanpadas of
Stupa’ in this city. It read, “Parinirvana Kuru and Panchala often fought for
chaitye tamrapatta iti”. In the later vedic supremacy. Both the divisions of Panchala
period Malla mahajanapada was a mahajanapada were monarchies in the
monarchy. Later it turned into a republic. beginning. At a later date, they turned into
There were two more cities in the a sangharajya.
mahajanapada, namely, ‘Pava’ and
‘Bhaoganagara’. According to the Jaina 11. Matsya : The capital of this
texts, eighteen republics from the regions of mahajanapada was Viratnagar, which was
Mallas, Lichchhavis and Kashi-Kosala, had located at Bairat in the Jaipur district of
formed a confederation to fight Ajatashatru. Rajasthan. Matsya was merged into the
By the 3rd century B.C.E. the Malla empire of Magadha at a later date. Bairat
mahajanapada was merged into the Maurya is one of the places where Ashokan edicts
empire. have been found.

7. Chedi : This mahajanapada had 12. Shoorasena : This mahajanapada
occupied Bundelkhand and the region was located on the banks of the river
around it. The city of Shuktimati or Yamuna. Its capital was the city of Mathura.
Sotthivati was its capital. It is supposed to Greek historians have mentioned the name
have been situated near ‘Banda’ in Uttar of the mahajanapada as ‘Shursenoi’ and
Pradesh. Mathura as ‘Methora’. Later, the
mahajanapada of Shoorsena was merged
8. Vamsha or Vatsa : Kaushambi was into the Maurya empire.
the capital (Kosam near Allahabad) of this
mahajanapada. According to the tradition 13. Ashmak/Assak : We have seen
of Purana texts Hastinapur was destroyed earlier that Potali was the capital of
by a flood of Ganga and King Nichakshu, Ashmak mahajanapada and probably it was
a descendant of the Pandavas had to shift a feudatory state of Kashi mahajanapada.
his capital to Kaushambi. The protagonist
of the play ‘Swapnavasavadatta’ written by 14. Avanti : This mahajanapada
Bhasa is King Udayan. He was the king encompassed the region of Malwa, Nimad
of the Vatsa mahajanapada and the and its neighbouring regions in Madhya
contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Pradesh. Avanti mahjanapada was divided
into Uttara Avanti and Dakshina Avanti.
9. Kuru : The capital of this Ujjayini (Ujjain) was the capital of Uttar
mahajanapada was located at Indrapat near Avanti, while Mahishmati (Mandhata,
Delhi, Its name was Indraprastha or District Khandwa) was the capital of
Indrapattana. According to the Jataka Dakshina Avanti. King Pradyot was a
literature, the kings of Indraprastha belonged contemporary of Gautama Buddha. In the
to ‘Yudhitthil’ gotra. 4th century B.C.E. Avanti mahajanpada

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became an integral part of the Maurya entitlement of ‘Saamraj’. The epithet ‘Raja’
empire. always indicates a lower cadre.

15. Gandhara : This mahajanpada had A ‘Raja’ was expected to be a ‘Kshatriya’
spread into Kashmir and Afghanistan. and according to the existing norms a
Taxila was its capital. Pukkusati or Brahmin was expected to refrain from
Pushkasarin was the king of Gandhara, accepting the position of a ‘Raja’. However,
who was a contemporary of King Bimbisara. there are a number of exceptions to this norm
He had established diplomatic relations with as seen in the Vedic literature and Buddhist
King Bimbisara. By the 6th century B.C. the jatakas. The position of Raja was generally
Iranian emperor, Daryush I conquered bequeathed on the son of the ruling king
Gandhara mahajanapada. The Behistun after him. However, at times, a king was
inscription in Iran (516 B.C.E.) mentions elected by people. The first wife of the king
Gandhara as one of the satrapies of the was given the epithet of ‘Rajmahishi’. She
Iranian empire. was the one who was formally crowned
along with the king. A powerful sovereign
16. Kamboja : This mahajanapada is performed ‘Ashvamedha’ sacrifice to
mentioned in the ancient literature along establish his supremacy. The coronation of a
with Gandhara. Rajapura (Rajauri) was its king, principally gave him absolute authority
capital. Kamboja was well-known for its over his subjects. He was the one to decide
excellent horses and its horsemen warriors the amount of taxes to be collected from
for their skills of warfare. Kamboja people them. He was the ultimate lord of all the
had resisted Sinkandara’s advent. The land in his kingdom and so he could donate
Aspasioi (Ashvayana) was part of the any portion of that land according to his
Kamboja mahajanapada. The mahajanapada wish. Nevertheless, his power was not totally
is mentioned in Ashoka’s edicts as ‘araj’, unrestricted. The king made his decisions by
meaning ‘those who do not have a king’. seeking advice from his officials such as
In turn, it means that those who were a ‘Purohita’, ‘Senani’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Gramani’,
republic. etc. Besides, there was an assembly of people
of all classes. When it assembled, everybody
6.5 Mahajanapadas - Administrative present there could participate in the decision
System, Guilds making process. There were instances when
people’s assemblies made a king step down
Administrative System : In the 5th lesson, from the throne.

we have seen various terms in the context Guilds (Shrenis) : Along with
agriculture and animal husbandry, trade and
of the types of ancient states. They were systematic management and organisation of
the trade are also essential factors for the
‘Rajya’, ‘Svaarajya’, ‘Bhaujya’, ‘Vairajya’, prosperity of a state. The guilds of the
merchants and the artisans played a great
‘Maharajya’, ‘Saamrajya’ and role in the growth of the mahajanpadas into
wealthy states. These guilds had their own
‘Parmeshthya’. It is difficult to define these way of organisation and functioning. Among
the important characteristics of the guilds
terms. However, ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ were, local organisation of various
occupations, transferring the skills to the
and ‘Katyayana Shrautsutra’ explain the young members in the family with hands-on

term Rajya and Saamrajya in the conext of

sacrificial system. According to it, the king

who performs ‘Rajasooya’ sacrifice is

designated as ‘Raja’. The kingdom ruled by

him is designated as ‘Rajya’. When a ‘Raja’

performs ‘Vajapeya’ sacrifice, he is entitled

to the epithet of ‘Saamraj’ and the ‘Rajya’

under his rule is entitled as ‘Saamrajya’. A

‘Raja’ is always desirous of the superior

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training, leadership naturally invested in the their funds for the operations involved in
senior and experienced members of the production and trade, as well as for the
guild and other members following them social cause. It was in the way of giving
voluntarily. donations and giving loans with interest at
modest rates.
Guilds had their own, strict rules.
Hence, they had a stringent structure. This 6.6 Philosophy and Various Sects
stringent structure is perceived as one of the
main reasons of the rise of the caste system. During the times of mahajanapadas the
The paid outsiders who worked in the guilds political and social scenario in ancient India
were known as ‘Karmakara’ and unpaid was witnessing transition and these changes
workers as ‘Dasa’. were bound to reflect in the material and
philosophical notions about life. In this
The guilds had acquired an important regard, the Vedic system revolved around
place in the political, social and financial the duties of a householder, sacrificial
matters by the Maurya period. According to system and material prosperity. At the end
Kautilya, the king’s control on the of the Vedic period questions about abstract
transactions of guilds was very important. aspects of human existence began to gain
Structurally the shrenis had a great potential attention. It included questions about matters
of channelling the central power. The like the meaning of human life, its
Ashokan edicts show that the roads and the significance in the infinite nature of the
transport system was maintained with great universe, the mystery of death and the
care. It had made transport of goods and journey of the soul after death. It resulted
travelling convenient. Obviously, this state in the creation of various philosophical
of affairs was favourable for the growth of texts, known as ‘Upanishadas’. The debates
trade and development of shrenis. that were churned up during this period
gave rise to various schools of thoughts.
The functioning of the guilds was They included schools propounding the
controlled by the state. Detailed records immortality of soul to the schools that
were kept of the production by the guilds, refuted the very existence of the soul. The
their financial operations and above all the latter included ‘Charvaka’ or ‘Lokayat’
traditions of guilds. Every guild had an school, which openly opposed the social
independent space in the city, allotted to it. organisation based on the Vedic authority,
beliefs and rituals. This school also
There were independent traditions with propagated that the ‘Truth’ comprises only
respect to the interrelationship between the those things, which are subject to sensory
guild members and the karmakaras, various experience. The Charvaka/Lokayat school is
stages of production and fixing the prices one of the ancient Indian schools of thought
of produced goods. Each guild had its own (darshan) which denies the existence of
rules based on its traditions. The state ‘God’. It opposes the authority of Vedas
administration did not interfere in these (vedpramanya) and the notions of the
aspects of the functioning of the guilds. It existence of god and life after death. It also
kept the internal independence of the guilds discarded all rituals arising out of this kind
intact. If a decision has to be reached about of belief systems. It is the only materialistic
the matters of a guild, then the king sought school of philosophy ( ‘Jadavadi Darshan’)
advice from a guild representative. that was developed in ancient India.

The chief of a guild of artisans was It may be said that the ancient Indian
known as ‘Jyeshthaka’ or ‘Jyetthaka’. The philosophical schools took roots in this
chief of a guild of merchants was known
as ‘Shreshthi’ or ‘Setthi’. The guilds used

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period. The 6th century B.C.E. is important Siddhartha, the father of Vardhamana
from this point of view. The rising of a Mahavira, was the chief of the ‘Dnyatruka’
class of wandering mendicants known as clan. His mother, Trishaladevi was from the
‘parivrajakas’ or ‘shramanas’, was Lichchhavi clan. Vardhamana Mahavira
characteristic of this period. They renounced was born in 599 B.C.E., in Kundgram near
the householder’s life and wandered with Vaishali. His wife’s name was Yashoda.
their disciples, in search of the ultimate Vardhamana Mahavira left home at the age
truth. Among the various streams of of 30, in search of the truth. At the age of
thoughts, a large number of people were 42 he attained absolute knowledge (Keval
attracted to the teachings of Vardhamana Dnyana). Thereafter, people started
Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. Their addressing him as ‘Kevali’, ‘Jina’ and
teachings showed the way to overcome the ‘Mahavira’. His followers came to be
disparity in the society resulted from the known as ‘Jaina’. Vardhamana Mahavira
varna and caste system. travelled and preached continuously for 30
years after the attainment of absolute
Both, the Jaina and the Budhhist knowledge.
schools of thought are considered as the
‘nastik’ schools. Both refuse to accept the Vardhamana Mahavira addressed
authority of the Vedas and the Vedic rituals. people in Ardhamagadhi, the language of
Both the schools had followers in large common people. He preached about good
numbers from all strata of the society. behaviour and life of devotion (devotion to
the five vows). He put absolute emphasis
6.7 New Religious Trends on the three principles of ‘Samyk Darshana’,
Jainism : The Jaina religion has a ‘Samyk Dnyana’ and ‘Samyak Charitra’.
tradition going back to very ancient times. These three principles are known as the
According to the tradition of Jain religion, ‘Triratna’ of the Jaina religion. They are
Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th and the the primary guiding principles for a person
last ‘tirthankara’ (saviour and the spiritual aspiring for the attainment of absolute
teacher). Parshvanath was the 23rd knowledge. Vardhamana Mahavira preached
tirthankara. He gave four vows of non- that all beings, animate and inanimate,
violence (Ahimsa), truth (Satya), non- possess consciousness, to a varying degree.
stealing (Asteya) and non-possesion If hurt, each of them experiences pain.
(Aprigrah) to his followers. Vardhamana
Mahavira added the fifth vow of celibacy The core principle of Vardhamana
(Brahmacharya) to it. These five vows are Mahavira’s philosophy is ‘pluralism’
known as ‘Panchmahavratas’. (Anekantavada) or ‘many sidedness’ of the
truth. According to it the truth has multiple
Vardhamana Mahavira facets.

Mahavira founded the Jaina Sangha.
Emperor Chandragupata Maurya was a
contemporary of Bhadrabahu, the sixth
principal Acharya of the Jaina Sangha.
According to the Jaina tradition Chandragupta
Maurya had embraced Jaina religion.

Buddhism : Gautama Buddha and
Vardhamana Mahavira were contemporaries.
Gautama Buddha was born in 563 B.C.E., in
Lumbini (Rummindei) in Nepal. His father’s

45

name was Shuddhodana. He was a member (1) There is Sorrow (Dukkha)
of the Shakya clan. Gautama Buddha’s everywhere in the world. (2) The root cause
mother’s name was Mayadevi. She was from of sorrow is Greed (Trishna). (3) To
the Koliya clan. Gautama Budhha’s wife conquer this greed is the way to cut the
was Yashodhara. sorrow at its very root (Dukkhanirodha).
(4) The way to stop sorrow from emerging,
Gautama Buddha left home at the age is the eightfold path (Ashtangika Marga).
of 29, in search of the truth. This event is
known in the Buddhist tradition as Gautama Buddha explained the eightfold
‘Mahabhinishkramana’. Thereafter, Gautama path by including:
Buddha tried to attain the ultimate knowledge
through various means, such as seeking (1) Samyak Drishti (To understand and
guidance from various gurus and extreme accept that nothing happens against the
austerities. After realising that nothing of it rules of the nature)
was useful, he sat down meditating at Gaya,
under a pippal (ficus religiosa) tree, on the (2) Samyak Sankalp (Right determination)
banks of the river Niranjana (Lilajana). Here
he attained enlightenment at the age of 35. (3) Samyak Vacha (Right speech)
After that he was known as ‘Buddha’,
‘Tathagata’ and also as ‘Shakyamuni’. After (4) Samyak Karmanta (Right behaviour)
the enlightenment he delivered his first
sermon in the deer-park at Ishipattana, near (5) Samyak Aajiva (Livelihood by right
Saranath. This event is known as means)
‘Dhammachakkapabattan’. For the next 45
years Gautama Buddha travelled continuously (6) Samyak Vyayam (Conscious avoidance
to preach dhamma to people. He taught in of offensive things)
Pali, a language of common people.
(7) Samyak Smriti (Watchfulness and
Gautama Buddha memory of right things)

In his sermons, Gautama Buddha (8) Samyak Samadhi (Establishing the
addressed the fundamental question of mind firmly in equanimity; a state
‘sorrow’ in human life. The root cause of beyond pleasure and sorrow)
human sorrow and the way to overcome it
were two main issues addressed by Gautama The eightfold path is also known as
Buddha. ‘Madhyama Pratipada’. Gautama Buddha
founded the ‘Bhikkhu Sangha’. The concept
Gautama Buddha preached four of ‘Surrendering to Buddha, Dhamma and
‘Aryasatyas’ (four great truths). Sangha is very important. This concept is
known as ‘Trisaran’. The three vows,
namely, ‘Buddham saranam gachchhami’,
‘Dhammam saranam gachchhami’ and
‘Sangham saranam gachchhami’ are
essential in the Buddhist religion.

The 6th century B.C.E. saw transition in
all the fields of life, in ancient India. The
power conflict among the mahajanapadas
started in this century. It continued among
the four mahajanapadas of Kashi, Kosala,
Avanti and Magadha. By the 4th century
B.C.E. the kingdom of Magadha grew
powerful and the independent existence of
the other mahajanapadas came to an end.
We will study the history of the rise of
Magadha in the eighth lesson.

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You would like to know : An Ashokan pillar inscription was discovered at the site
of Rummindei in Nepal. The inscription announces, “The king ‘Devanampiya Piyadasi’
visited this place after his coronation and he prayed here. He declares that Buddha
Shakyamuni was born here. To commemorate the fact he erected a stone pillar at this
place. He did this with the intention of making this place venerable in people’s mind. He
exempted the village of Lumbini from paying the taxes in order to enhance its prosperity.”

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.3 Complete the concept map given below.

complete the sentence. Jaina Religion

(1) Ashmaka is the name in 24th Tirthankara

language.

(a) Pali (b) Sanskrit

(c) Ardhamagadhi (d) Prakrit Parshwanath Vardhamana Mahavir

(2) The capital of Kashi mahajanapada

was .

(a) Gorakhpur (b) Chandanagar

(c) Rajagriha (d) Varanasi

(3) Gautama Buddha was born in . Q.4 Explain the statements with reasons.
(1) Rise of mahajanapadas came into
(a) Kushinagara (b) Sarnath being.
(2) The process of Second urbanisation
(c) Lumbini (d) Pataliputra began in ancient India.
(3) Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama
(4) The river was the natural Buddha attracted a large number of
followers.
boundary between Uttara Panchala

and Dakshina Panchala.

(a) Yamuna (b) Bhagirathi

(c) Ganga (d) Niranjana

(B) Find the incorrect pair and write Q.5 Explain the following cocepts. by
the correct ones. (1) Nastik Darshan
(2) The eightfold path preached
(1) Kosala – Shravasti Gautama Buddha
(2) Anga – Champa
(3) Matsya – Mathura Q.6 Describe the administrative system of
(4) Gandhara – Taxila the mahajanapadas with the help of
following points.
Q.2 (A) Find the odd man out. (a) Terms showing types of states
(1) Buddha, Tathagata, Shakyamuni, (b) King’s installation
Vardhamana Mahavira (c) Authority of the king
(d) Decision-making
(B) Choose the correct reason and

complete the sentence.

Gautama Buddha travelled Activity
(1) Collect and compile the information
continuously for 45 years.... about Jain Tirthankaras.
(2) Collect information about Jataka
(a) in the search of a Guru stories. Select any of the Jataka
stories and present it as stage play.
(b) to practice austerities

(c) to preach dhamma

(d) to attain enlightenment



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7. India and Iran (Persia)

7.1 Indian Subcontinent and Iran same name, ‘Pars’. Greeks knew the city by
7.2 Conflict between the Iranian the name, ‘Persepolis’. The Iranian empire
was known as ‘Persian empire’ because it
(Achaemenid) Empire and Greece originated in the Pars region.
7.3 Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire
Emperor Cyrus II had begun to build a
and India new capital at ‘Pasargade’. However, it did
7.4 Political and Cultural Impact of not get completed in his lifetime. His son,
Cambyses II succeeded him. He moved back
the Iranian Contact to Susa and re-established his capital there.
7.5 Taxila Cambyses II had conquered Egypt.
7.6 Advent of Alexander
Daryush I, who succeeded Cambyses II
7.1 Indian Subcontinent and Iran reinforced the fortification walls of Susa. He
also built a massive palace and a hypostyle
Excavated evidence has sufficiently (many columned) hall known as ‘Apadana’.
proved that the trade and cultural relations He also built the city of ‘Persepolis’ in the
between the Indian subcontinent and Iran style similar to Susa. He built a palace and
have continued since the Harappan times. apadana in Persepolis also.
The empire of Elam, contemporary to the
Harappan civilisation, existed in the southwest Reconstructed
regions of Iran. It was culturally closer to picture of
Mesopotamia. Its capital was at ‘Susa’.
Hence, it was also known as ‘Susiana’. Many ‘Apadana’ at
dynasties ruled Iran at later dates but all of Susa
them maintained their capital at ‘Susa’. The
archaeological evidence found at Susa has
confirmed the trade and cultural relations
between Iran and the Harappan civilisation.

Visit the following website to see the map of the Iranian Geographically Iran is the region, which
empire:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/ forms a link between the east and west of
Persian_Empire%2C_490_BC.pnghttps://commons.wikimedia. Asia. Naturally Iran held an important
org/wiki/File:Persian_Empire,_490_BC.png position in the trade and also in the cultural
exchange between East Asia and West Asia.
The Iranian empire was established by
Cyrus II (also known as Cyrus the Great) of
the Achaemenid dynasty. He was from the
tribe of ‘Pars’. This tribe dwelt in the
mountainous region in the northwest of Iran
and adjacent to Afghanistan. This region was
known by the tribe’s name, ‘Pars’. Even the
main city of the region was known by the

48

By the Way : ‘Ariana’ is another the kingdoms in West Asia and then the city
name of Iran. Greek historians mention states in Greece. Then also they continued to
it as ‘Ariane’. ‘Ariana’ is the Latin have intermittent battles. The rising of the
variation of the Greek name ‘Ariane’. Ionian Greeks against the Achaemenid rule
is supposed to be significant.
The trade that was conducted from Asia
and the Persian Gulf to Mesopotamia and Cyrus II conquered Lydia, a Greek state
Egypt expanded to Greece and Rome. The to the north of Mediterranean Sea, around
ancient routes used by caravans of merchants the mid of the 6th century B.C.E. As a result,
were provided with safety and security by the Ionian Greek city states under the Lydian
the Persian emperors. They rebuilt some of rule, inevitably became part of the Achaemenid
the routes. Cyrus II and Daryush I developed empire. The Greeks in Ionia had migrated to
the route beginning from Susa and reaching Anatolia, that is, the Asian part of the
the Mediterranean Sea. This route is known Turkey. It is also known as ‘Asia Minor’.
as the ‘Royal Road’. Some of the branches
of the Royal Road linked the Indian During the reign of Daryush I all
subcontinent and Egypt. Alexander started Ionian city states got together and rebelled
from Macedonia on his expedition to India. against the Achaemenid rule. The rebellion
He used the same route to reach India. was subdued completely after a struggle of
five years by the Achaemenid army.
By the way : (1) To see, how the
name Alexander was changed to The effects of this unsuccessful rebellion
‘Sikander’ in Indian languages, is a are important for understanding the
matter of linguistic analysis. Alexander interrelationship between Greece and Persia
is a common version of the Greek in the ensuing period. The Ionian Greeks had
name ‘Alexandros’. The meaning of received help from the states of ‘Athens’ and
‘Alexin’ is ‘to protect’. ‘Andros’ means ‘Eretria’ in Greece. Hence, Daryush I attacked
‘man’. Thus, the name ‘Alexander’ Athens. At this time the battle between
means ‘the protector’. ‘Iskander’, Daryush I and Athens was fought on the
‘Skander’ are the Persian variations of grounds of Marathon near Athens. Therefore,
Alexander. Iskadnser or Skander turned it is known as the ‘Battle of Marathon’.
into ‘Sikandar’. Daryush I was defeated in this battle.

(2) The inscriptions of the emperor, Xerexes, the successor of Daryush I,
Daryush I at Susa, Pasargade, tried once again to invade Greece. However,
Persepolis and Behistun have been he was also defeated. Thereafter the conflict
enlisted as the ‘World Cultural between the Achaemenids and the Greeks
Heritage’. continued over a prolonged time. Ultimately,
Athens and the confederacy of other Greek
7.2 Conflict between the Iranian city states declared a war for independence
(Achaemenid) Empire and Greece against the Achaemenid rule in Greece.
Neither of the two had a conclusive victory.
Greek historians have recorded the In 449 B.C.E. a treaty was signed between
frequent battles between the Achaemenid the Greek confederacy and the Achaemenids.
empire and the city states in Greece. Among
them the records of Herodotus are important. As the effect of this prolonged conflict
The Achaemenid emperors first conquered the Achaemenid rule grew weak. This was
bound to reflect in the political and financial
spheres. An impact of this conflict was to

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manifest in the way of the invasion of Persia By the way : The Greek historian
by Alexander III, the king of Macedonia, Herodotus was born in 484 B.C.E., in
who was later regarded as the ‘Conqueror of Halicarnassus, a Greek city state. He
the World’. began to write with the intention of
tracing the history and causes of the
Arrian was a Greek historian of the battles between Greek city states and
1st century C.E. He wrote a book called Achaemenid empire during 500-449
‘Anabasis* of Alexander’. He has referred to B.C.E. The book he wrote was named
the correspondence between Daryush III, the as ‘Historia’ (The Histories). He, at
last Achaemenid emperor and Alexander. the outset of the book says, “Herodotus
Daryush had written to Alexander about the of Halicarnassus here displays his
release of his mother, wife and children. inquiry, so that human achievements
Alexander responded by reminding Daryush may not become forgotten in time, and
of the sorrow inflicted on the Greeks by the great and marvellous deeds – some
earlier invasions of the Achaemenid emperors. displayed by Greeks, some by
Alexander wrote that he had arrived in barbarians – may not be without their
Russia by crossing the ocean, with the glory.”
intention of punishing the aggressive Persians.
Next, he accused Daryush of provocating the Herodotus was the first historian
Greeks against him and he reminded Daryush who collected information seeking
that he was a defeated king. So Daryush was answers to a particular question, and
further snubbed that he should not behave as then to put it in a chronological order.
an equal to Alexander. While doing this he did not bring in
notions like god, human destiny, etc.
* ‘अअAnअaअbaअsisअ*अmअeaअns’ अto अspअuअr अintअo action. Later putting historical events in
chronological sequence became an
This correspondence is indicative of essential theme of history writing. This
two things: theme proved to be fundamental in the
development of history writing as an
(1) The Greeks felt that their self-esteem independent discipline. Therefore,
was challenged. Herodotus is said to be the father of
historiography.
(2) The Greeks now felt confident about
their strength to conquer the Persians. kept by the Greek historians that Cyrus II
had conquered the region of the Kabul basin
It may be said that these two factors (Gandhara). It was part of the Achaemenid
inspired Alexander’s expedition. empire. The river Vitasta (Jhelum) had
formed its eastern boundary. Alexander
7.3 Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire and crushed the Achaemenid empire and the
India region of Punjab which was the part of
Achaemenid empire.
The Achaemenid emperors established
the Persian empire by conquering smaller The revenue received by the Achaemenid
kingdoms in the northeast region of the empire from its provinces (satrapies) in the
Indian subcontinent and expanded their Indian subcontinent was more than any other
boundary up to Punjab. It was the same provinces. According to Herodotus, this
period when the Magadha empire was on the revenue amounted to 360 talents* of gold
rise in India.

It becomes apparent from the inscriptions
of the Achaemenid emperors and the records

50

dust**. Accepting the possibility of and proceeded further by sailing around the
exaggeration in this description, it clearly coast of the Arabian Sea and then entering
indicates that the revenue collected from the the Red Sea. He ended his journey at ‘Suez’,
Indian states formed a major share of the situated in the delta region of the Nile. It
Achaemenid treasury. took two and half years for him to complete
this journey.
*Talent used to be a unit of weight and
according to the standard, set in various ancient The logbook of the journey of Scylax is
countries it varies from 20 to 40 kilograms per known as ‘Periplus of Scylax’. The original
talent. periplus is lost but we get to know about its
contents from the writings of the Greek
** Gold dust (placer gold) is collected from historians. This periplus was the first source
the sands on the river banks. of information of the Indian subcontinent to
the western world, especially to the Greeks.
7.4 Political and Cultural Impact of Very soon after the completion of the
the Iranian Contact expedition by Scylax, Daryush I conquered
the region in the lower reach of the Sindhu.
The Persian supremacy prevailed in the
Indian subcontinent for at least two centuries. Scylax had reported an already existing
However, it had ended much before the canal that linked the Nile and the Red Sea.
advent of Alexander. Thinking of the impact It was dug by an Egyptian Pharoh. Daryush
left by the Persian contact in the period of I revived that canal by digging it again. It
two centuries, one thing can be noticed opened a new water way for the transport
prominently. It is about the administrative between Persia and the Indian subcontinent.
system set by the Persian rulers. Every
conquered region was annexed to their This newly available route facilitated the
territory as a satrapy and a satrap (governor) trade between Achaemenid provinces in the
was appointed as its chief administrator. This north-western region of the Indian subcontinent
method was followed by Alexander and later and the regions of Sindh-Punjab. The ivory
by the Scythian (Saka) and Kushana rulers and the teak wood coming from India had
as well. great demand in the Persian markets. The
inscription of Daryush I at Susa records the
The Aramaic script came into use in use of Indian ivory and teakwood for building
the north-eastern regions of the Indian the palace.
subcontinent, during the times of Achaemenid
rule. Kharoshthi, an ancient Indian script Herodotus has described the Indian
evolved from this script. The Ashokan edicts soldiers in the Achaemenid army. According
in this region are inscribed in the Aramaic to it, Xerexes’ army had soldiers from
script. The method of installing royal edicts Gandhara, Sindh and Punjab, when he
at vantage points seems to be borrowed from invaded Greece in 480 B.C.E. The soldiers
the examples of Achaemenid inscriptions. from Gandhara were equipped with bows
made of cane and spears with short shafts.
Herodotus tells us that Daryush I had They also had horses and chariots drawn by
sent many explorers to gather information horses. The Indian soldiers from Sindh and
about the course of the river Sindhu and the Punjab used cotton clothes and used bows
Arabian Sea. Among them was ‘Scylax of and arrows made of cane. They were expert
Karyanda’, a Greek sailor from Ionia, who archers. When Xerexes retreated from Greece,
was well- known. He was the first Ionian it was decided to keep a regiment posted
Greek who stepped on the Indian land.
Scylax began his exploration from the Sindhu

51

there. That regiment had Indian soldiers. Susa and Persepolis. For that purpose,
emperor Cyrus got Greek architects and
In the times before Cyrus II, the founder sculptors from the Greek settlements in Asia
of Achaemenid empire, there was no coinage minor under his rule.
in use in Persia. The barter system prevailed
to a large extent. Sometimes silver ingots of Columns at Persepolis
particular weight were used for exchanging
commodities. Cyrus II had conquered the city Persepolis was razed completely by
state of Lydia, where use of coins was Alexander after conquering Persia. It was the
already in practice. Those coins were known end of the Persian Empire. The architects,
as ‘stater’. Cyrus issued coins similar to sculptors and other artisans lost the royal
Lydian coins. patronage. They had to move out in search
of work. They migrated to India. They
Daryush I issued coins with his own received royal patronage in the court of
emperor Ashoka. Their style is reflected in
portrait on it. the stone pillars erected by empror Ashoka.
Thus, the sculptural art in ancient India has
The Gold coins its roots in the Persian; and acordingly in the
Greek sculptural style.
issued by him
7.5 Taxila
were known as Mahabharata mentions King Takshaka
as the king of ‘Naga’ people. Taxila was the
‘Darik’ and capital of King Takshaka. The archaeological
evidence confirm that Taxila has a hoary
Persian ‘Siglos’ silver coins past. It was the capital of Gandhara
were known as mahajanapada.
The archaeological remains of this city
‘Siglos’. A portrait of Daryush I, holding a are strewn over a large area that comprises
18 archaeological sites. They are enlisted as
bow and arrow can be seen on these coins. the World Cultural Heritage. It is situated on
the Grand Trunk Road, 30 kilometres away
One ‘Darik’ was equivalent to 12 ‘Sigloi’* from Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan.
Evidence of prehistoric people using
in value. microliths have been found at Taxila and in

** ‘‘अSiअgloअi’अiअs अtheअअpluअra’l अofअ‘अSiअgloअs’अ.

Along with the Achaemenid coins, coins
from Greek satrapies also remained in
circulation in Persia. Some satraps issued
their own coins imitating Greek coins. These
coins were cast in moulds. The obverse side
of a coin usually carried the portrait of a
king and the reverse side had a symbol
punched on it.

It is possible that the ancient Indian
punch marked coins were influenced by this
technique of punching.

In the times that preceded emperor
Cyrus’ reign, the practice of building huge
public monuments did not exist in Persia.
Hence, there was no existing Persian
architectural style to follow while creating
the magnificent palaces and sculptures in

52

By the way : The inscription of from various regions of the Indian subcontinent
Daryush I mention the Greeks as ‘Yauna’. were attracted to Taxila because of the fame
The roots of this word is in the Greek of the acharyas. Thus, Taxila had become a
word, ‘Ionia’ The terms such as ‘Yona’ great centre of education. Thereby it had
(Prakrit) and ‘Yavana’ (Sanskrit) assumed the magnitude of a natural university.
mentioned in Indian literature originally However, the king and his administration at
mean ‘the resident of Ionia’. These terms Taxila did not interfere in the decisions of
occur in Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puran an individual acharya as to the nature of his
texts and other literature. method of teaching, the subjects to be taught
by him or the nature of the syllabi. The
Let us see one more example of duration of a course was dependent on
changes happening in the meaning and individual student’s intellectual capacity to
form of the word through the cultural learn. There was no formal system of
contacts and borrowing of words from examinations. Rather success in examination
other languages. Ancient Persian language was not perceived as the test of real
was the official language of the knowledge. It was the acharya who decided
Achaemenid empire. It is used in the the level of maturity of his students.
inscriptions of the Achaemenid emperors.
These inscriptions mention the people in Among the subjects taught at Taxila
the Indian subcontinent as ‘Hidush’ and included, Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda,
‘Hridush’. In the Ionian Greek language ancillary branches of the Vedas (Vedangas),
the consonant ‘h’ is not pronounced when Ancient Traditions and Ethics, Philosophy,
it occurs at the beginning of a word. Mathematics, Music, Medicine, Puran Texts,
Hence, Scylax the Ionian Greek explorer, History, Weaponry, Poetry, etc.
perhaps recorded it as ‘Indos’ and its
plural as ‘Indoi’. Herodotus used these Acharya Chanakya is believed to have
words as synonymous to Hidush and taken Chandragupta Maurya to Taxila for
Hridush. The roots of the word ‘India’ education when he was young. Chanakya
is in this Greek usage. himself hailed from Taxila. After becoming
the emperor of Magadha, Chadragupta
some caves in its vicinity. The neolithic established a regional capital at Taxila.
village at Taxila was settled around 3500
B.C.E. Its remains have been found at a site During the reign of Ashoka Maurya
called ‘Sarai-Khola’. Taxila became an important centre of learning
of Buddhist tradition. Taxila did not lose its
Taxila was ruled by King Ambhi at the importance even when the land suffered from
time of Alexander’s advent. He welcomed the invasions of Greeks, Shakas and
Alexander and presented gifts to him. The Kushanas. However, in the 5th century C.E.
Greek historians accompanying Alexander the glory of Taxila gradually waned under
described Taxila as a “city full of hustle the pressure of Huna invasions.
bustle of people, prosperous and the one that
was under a well-established administration.” 7.6 Advent of Alexander

Some information about Taxila can be Alexander invaded the Indian
gathered from the Buddhist literature and subcontinent and conquered some kingdoms
from the writings of the Greek historians. from Afghanistan to Sindh-Punjab. He,
There were several learned individuals however, could not establish his rule there
(Acharyas) staying in Taxila. Many students for a long time. The information of his
advent primarily comes from the Greek

53

historians like Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, greatly influenced by his valour. The Greeks
Plutarch and Justin. were unfamiliar to the use of elephants in
warfare. To penetrate the file of elephants
At the time of Alexander’s advent the proved to be a great challenge for them. The
Achaemenid rule in Sindh-Punjab and Greek historians have unanimously praised
Afghanistan had weakened and a number of the skill of Porus in warfare and also his
small kingdoms had come into existence. The courage.
political strife stopped them from uniting to
resist Alexander’s invasion. After the confrontation with Porus,
Alexander reached Nysa, a Greek settlement.
Alexander became the king of Macedonia People of Nysa resisted Alexander in the
in 334 B.C.E. He defeated emperor Daryush beginning but later they welcomed him.
III in 331 B.C.E. Thereafter he marched up Thereafter, Alexander proceeded in the
to ‘Shistan’ province of Iran and from there direction of Chenab and Ravi. He conquered
he turned toward Kabul. After conquering the the kingdoms on the way and reached the
region around Kabul, he reached the foothills banks of Beas. By that time Alexander’s
of Hindukush mountains. Then he camped at soldiers had lost spirit and they refused to
a place called Nicaea, situated on Uttarapatha. march forward. Alexander was forced to
Ambhi welcomed Alexander and sought return.
friendship with him. Another king whose
name was Sisikottas (Shashigupta) surrendered Before setting on the return journey
to Alexander. However, not all Indian kings Alexander handed over the regions in Punjab
surrendered to Alexander so easily. Many to Porus and those in Sindh to Ambhi. He
fought with Alexander with great valour. handed over the kingdom of Kashmir to
Alexander conquered almost all kingdoms in Abhisara, the king of Varanavati. On his
Kabul, Sindh and Punjab. way back he defeated Shibis and Mallas, etc.
In rest of the regions he appointed Greek
On the banks of Jhelum Alexander and satraps. In 325 B.C.E. Alexander died at
King Porus confronted each other and there Babylon, while he was on his way back to
was a fierce battle between them. Porus was Greece.
defeated but Alexander and his army was
trees on both sides of the road, sarais for
For Additional Information : The overnight stay, etc. He erected pillar edicts
highway linking the regions from Bihar to at vantange points on this highway.
Afghanistan is known as ‘Grand Trunk
Road’ in modern days. It was in use as At a later period Shershah Sur and
a trade route even during the times of Emperor Akbar rebuilt this highway. In the
Gautama Buddha. It was known as British period a new metalled road running
‘Uttarapatha’ in those days. Its starting parallel to Grand Trunk Road was built
point was at the port city of ‘Tamralipti’ from Kolkata to Peshawar. This road is
in Bengal; known as Tamluk today. It still in use.
ended at Taxila. Emperor Chandragupta
Maurya established this highway in a well In modern times the highway starts
planned way. It was about 3200 kilometres from Bangla Desh and from Hawrah it
in length. proceeds to West Bengal, thereafter it goes
to Delhi and to Amritsar, from there to
Emperor Ashoka provided many Lahore and Peshawar and in the end to
essential amenities for the merchants and Kabul.
travellers on this highway, such as planting

54

Alexander’s invasion of India did not his vast empire from Bihar to Afghanistan.
have far reaching impact on the political It was the beginning of a new era in the
scenario of India. In a very short period after Indian history.
his death Chandragupta Maurya established

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.3 Write in correct chronological order.
complete the sentence. (1) There was a fierce battle between
Alexander and Porus.
(1) The Greek historian is said (2) Alexander appointed satrapies before
starting on the return journey.
to be the father of modern (3) Alexander died at Babylon in 325
B.C.E.
historiography. (4) Alexander conquered Kabul and
Sindh.
(a) Herodotus (b) Alexander
(c) Scylax (d) Daryush Q.4 Explain the statements with reasons.
(1) Alexander invaded Persia.
(2) Taxila was ruled by King (2) Alexanders’ invasion of India did not
have for reaching impact on the
at the time of Alexander’s advent. political scenario of India.

(a) Chandragupta (b) Ambhi Q.5 State your opinion.
(1) Herodotus is said to be the father of
(c) Porus (d) Shashigupta modern history writing.
(2) Ancient Taxila was the centre of
(3) The Ashoka edicts are written in knowledge and education.
script.
Q.6 Answer the following questions in detail.
(a) Sinhala (b) Aramaic (1) Describe the political and cultural
effects of Achemenid rule on India.
(c) Kharoshthi (d) Modi (2) Describe Alexander’s invasion of
India.
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write
the correct ones. Activity

(1) Persopolis - City built by Daryush I Collect additional information about the
(2) Halicarnassus - Herodotus was born palace at Persepolis and Apadana at Susa
with the help of internet.
here
(3) Taxila - Centre of knowledge and 

education
(4) Nysa - Persian settlement

(C) Write the names -
(1) Last emperor of Achaemenid empire-
(2) Name of the coins issued by Daryush

I-

Q.2 Find the odd man out.
Daryush I, Xerexes, Cyrus II, Alexander

55

8. India during Mauryan period

8.1 Rise of Magadha Empire You would like to know : The
8.2 Nanda and Mauryan Empire concept of ‘Chakravarti’ occurs in the
8.3 Emperor Ashoka literature on ancient Indian polity. The
8.4 Administrative system, trade, sovereign ruler whose chariot could roll
in all four directions without any
literature, art and architecture, obstruction, was known as Chakravarti.
social life It was expected that his rule should be
ethical and for the welfare of the State.
In lesson six, we studied the history of During his tenure the wheel of ‘Ruta’
the sixteen mahajanapadas that existed in remains intact. His rule is on an extended
India. Among these mahajanapadas, the territory. Chandragupta Maurya was the
power of Magadha became strong during the first Chakravarti Emperor.
struggle of the four mahajanapadas namely,
Kasi, Kosala, Avanti and Magadha and the dynasty ruled over Magadha.
empire of Magadha came to a rise.
The Haryanka dynasty is mentioned in
During this period, the first Indian empire the Mahabharata. Bimbisara was the first
emerged. The kingdom of Magadha acquired well-known king. His father Mahapadma
the form of an Empire. The administrative built the fort at Girivraja and established the
system of this empire was well established first capital of Magadha. After ascending the
and its work was carried out through various throne, Bimbisara started building the
departments. Several factors are essential for foundation of Magadha Empire. He attacked
the emergence of an empire. For example, the neighbouring kingdom of Anga and
dominance over an expanded region, an conquered it. This victory increased the power
administrative system having the revenue of Magadha. Bimbisara established
gathered in the form of taxes, king is the matrimonial relations with many royal houses
sovereign ruler of the state and army actively such as Kosala, Lichchhavi, Videh, Madra to
enforces king’s authority. support his expansionist policy. At the foot
of the fort of Girivraja, he established the
The king’s position was strengthened new capital of Rajgriha.
through ritual performances. The power and
related rights are concentrated in the hands After killing Bimbisara, his son
of the ruling family. Ajatashatru became the king. He adopted the
expansionist policy of his father. He expanded
8.1 Rise of Magadha Empire the Magadha kingdom up to the foot of
Vindhya ranges. Ajatashatru built a small
Magadha was an important kingdom fort on the bank of Ganga at Pataligrama.
among the mahajanapadas that existed in It became a centre of trade of local
ancient India. Fertile and rich land, perennial commodities. In the later period, Pataligrama
rivers, excellent facilities of navigation, came to be known as Pataliputra. It became
availability of commercial markets etc. were the capital of the Mauryan Empire.
the reasons for the rise of Magadha as
empire. Later the people deposed Ajatashatru

In the 6th century BCE, the Haryanka

56

and selected his minister Shishunaga as the ruler of the Nanda dynasty. During his
king. The Shishunaga dynasty ruled between period, the state treasury was enormously
430 B.C.E. to 364 B.C.E. and then rich. His military was also very huge. It
Mahapadmananda usurped the throne and consisted of 2,00,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry,
established the Nanda dynasty. 6000 elephants and 2000 chariots.

By the way : Pataliputra was an During the period of Nandas, another
important city in ancient India. The city factor that helped in strengthening the central
of Pataliputra was the capital of ruling power was the importance given to enhance
dynasties like Shishunaga, Nanda, the revenue collection. Along with the
Maurya, Gupta and Pala. ‘Patali’ is a expansion of the empire came the economic
species of rice grown in this region. prosperity of the State. The state treasury
Hence, the city might have acquired the was always full. The Nandas built canals
name. In his book Indica, Megasthenes and made arrangement of irrigation facilities.
has mentioned the city of Pataliputra as These facilities led to the development of
Palibothara. agriculture and trade. In 321 B.C.E.
Chandragupta Maurya attacked Pataliputra
Political stability as well as other factors and brought an end to the Nanda rule.
were responsible in the strengthening of
Magadha as an empire. Magadha had control Mauryan Empire: Mauryan Empire was
over all the prominent regions in the Ganga the first well organised and strongly controlled
Valley. By conquering the kingdom of Anga, empire in the history of India. Religious texts
the regions of the east coast came under their and other literature, inscriptions, coins,
control and Magadha succeeded in increasing sculptures etc. are the sources that help us
the trade with the distant regions. Magadha to clearly understand the political, social,
was blessed with natural resources. Its land economic, and religious conditions of this
was fertile, especially for rice cultivation. period.
There was rise in revenue due to the
expansion of the kingdom. The abundance of The Mauryan empire had spread on a
sources for timber, ivory, iron and copper large region of the Indian sub continent and
gave a momentum to the local industries. was controlled by a central power. The
The political ambitions of the rulers, combined Mauryan rule brought about consolidation of
with wealth and prospering trade were the the political system.
reasons for the development of Magadha rule
and establishment of a huge empire. Chandragupta Maurya defeated the
Nandas and established the Mauryan dynasty.
8.2 Nanda and Mauryan Empire In the text of Mahavamsa, Chandragupta is
referred as ‘the emperor of Jambudvipa i.e.
Nanda Dynasty: The Nanda dynasty is emperor of Bharatvarsh’. The Mauryas
mentioned in the Puranas. The Magdhan created a huge empire by conquering the big
empire established by Ajatashatru was further and small states in northwest, north and
expanded by Mahapadma Nanda. According southern regions. The war between
to some scholars, the Nanda rule had spread Chandragupta and the Greek king Seleucus
upto Nanded in the South, whereas some was very important. As a consequence, the
scholars think that it was extended upto boundaries of Mauryan Empire extended to
Mysore. On this basis it can be said that the Hindukush in the northwest. The Mauryan
Mahapadma Nanda was the first great Empire extended from Hindukush to the Bay
emperor of India. Dhanananda was the last of Bengal in the east and Gujarat in the
west, as well as Himalayas in the north to
the Krishna river in the south.

57

Chandragupta Maurya died around 298 himself coronated in 268 B.C.E. He called
B.C.E. His son Bindusara became the king. himself as ‘Devanampiyo Piyadasi’ (Beloved
During his tenure he sent his son Ashoka to of the Gods) in many of his rock edicts and
subdue the revolt in Taxila. During the period pillar inscriptions.
of Bindusara the empire established by
Chandragupta Maurya remained intact. During the early period of his rule,
Bindusara died in 273 B.C.E. Ashoka adopted his ancestors’ policy of
Digvijaya and expansion of kingdom. He
8.3 Emperor Ashoka attacked Kalinga and conquered it. Ashoka’s
victory at Kalinga proved to be a turning
Ashoka became the emperor of Mauryan point in history as well as in the life of
empire after the death of Bindusara. He got

58

For Additional Information : The You would like to know : During
rock edicts and Pillar inscriptions of the period of 321 B.C.E. to 181 B.C.E.,
Ashoka: the expansion of Mauryan empire took
place in Maharashtra. The Mauryas must
The rock edicts and Pillar inscriptions have entered Sopara from Gujarat. Sopara
of Ashoka are found at many places in is a well-known port in north konkan.
the regions of Afghanistan, Nepal and Sopara and Chaul (Champavati) were
India. In 1750 C.E. Padre Tieffenthaler prosperous trade centers and learning
rediscovered Meerut pillar inscription of centers of Buddhism. Bhagvanlal Indraji
Ashoka. Ashoka’s inscriptions are excavated the Stupa at Sopara which is
inscribed in Brahmi script. In 1837 C.E. known as ‘Baruda Rajacha kot’. In this
James Princep deciphered the Brahmi excavation the fragments of rock edict of
script on the inscriptions. The inscriptions Ashoka were found. It is the 8th rock
of Ashoka are very important sources of edict among the 14 edicts of Ashoka.
the history of his rule. The boundaries of Some of its remains are kept in the
Maurya Empire can be ensured on the museum of Asiatic Society in Mumbai.
basis of these inscriptions. The description The 9th rock edict was found in the
of Ashoka’s efforts for the spread of Bhuigaon village. Its remains are kept in
Buddhism can be obtained from these the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu
inscriptions. Even though Ashoka Sangrahalaya in Mumbai.
embraced Buddhism but he never tried to
forcibly impose it on his subjects. The Stupa of Nalasopara
written evidence of the spread of
Buddhism and Indian culture in distant drinks, guiding principles regarding code of
countries through the Buddhist monks conduct etc. Ashoka’s policy of ‘Dhamma’
sent by Ashoka occurs in these meant virtuous conduct based on moral
inscriptions. It included Emperor Ashoka’s values. He sent monks to various countries
son Mahendra (Mahinda) and daughter for the spread of Buddhism.
Sanghamitra (Sanghamitta).
The first Buddhist council was held at
Ashoka. There was a great human loss Rajgriha after the mahaparnibban of Gautama
in this war. Ashoka became victorious. The Buddha. King Kalashoka organised the
destruction caused due to the Kalinga war second council at Vaishali. Ashoka organized
brought about a great change in the mind of the third Buddhist council at the capital
Ashoka. His mind got diverted towards the Pataliputra.
non- violent, peaceful Buddhist religion. The
desire of digvijaya was replaced by The kings who succeeded Ashoka were
Dharmavijay (Dhammavijay). His career not efficient. This led to the decline of the
proved to be important because of the Mauryan empire. Brihadratha was the last
religious ideals propagated by him and the king of the Mauryan dynasty. He was killed
creation of a mechanism to until it in people’s by his General Pushyamitra who then came
life. to power.

For the implementation of
dhammavijay, Ashoka introduced some new
policies, for example, appointment of
‘Dharmamahamatras’, ban on intoxicating

59

Important information : In the rock Antiochus II Theos of Syria (260 B.C.E.
edicts of Ashoka there are references about -246 B.C.E.), Ptolemy II Philadelphus of
the contemporary kings from the western Egypt (285 B.C.E. - 247 B.C.E.), Antigonus
world. The identification of Greek king Gonatus of Macedonia (276 B.C.E. -239
Antiouchus and the four greek kings beyond B.C.E.), Magas of Cyrene and Alexander
the kingdom of Antiouchus namely, of Epirus. This paragraph is an important
Turmaya, Amtekina, Maga and link in the process of connecting the
Alikasundara is done through a paragraph chronological sequence of ancient Indian
from one of the inscriptions. That is history.

8.4 Administrative system, trade, the head to the lowermost office of the
literature, art and architecture, social life Gramini. At the local level the people were
given autonomous rights to a great extent in
Administrative system the internal matters. In this way the
administration of Mauryan kingdom was
The nature of administrative system decentralised. The most important feature of
during the Mauryan period is clearly Mauryan administration was the effort made
understood with the help of Kautilya’s for the overall material and moral development
Arthashastra, Megasthenes’ Indica and the of the people. The Mauryan administration is
inscriptions of Ashoka. Chandragupta Maurya appreciated due to various factors such as
was a valiant king and an efficient keeping the civil and military areas separate
administrator. He set up a defined mechanism from each other, creating an independent
of state administration, which suited the judicial system, implementing a specific
economic conditions and the needs of the salary system to the officers, control over the
Mauryan empire. The Mauryan emperors trade in the kingdom etc.
created a unified empire. At the same time,
they devised a decentralised administrative Trade
system for efficient functioning of the vast
empire. In the administrative system of the There was an increase in revenue due to
empire, there was a Mantri Parishad (council well organised taxation system. ‘Bali’ was a
of ministers) made up of wise, experienced, tax to be given in the scale of the land under
virtuous and selfless ministers who gave cultivation. ‘Bhag’ was a share from the tax
advice to the king. There was a committee on production. Agricultural land and the tax
of some of these ministers, who were known acquired from the agricultural production was
as ‘Mantrana’ to look after the day to day the basic foundation of the administrative
affairs of the state. Mauryas had created a system. Industries gained momentum during
stable framework of administration by this period. Cloth production was the most
creating various departments of administration important industry. Apart from that metallurgy,
and appointing the experienced and expert carpentry, ivory art, spinning, weaving and
officers over it. These officers were known many such professions began. The prosperous
as Amatya. Arthashastra mentions total 18 agriculture and flourishing industries led to a
Amatyas such as Pradhan, Samaharta flourishing internal and foreign trade. Internal
(revenue), Sannidhata (finance), Senapati, trade was carried through land route and
Yuvraj etc. Kautilya has given information water ways. Many royal ways were built on
about 30 administrative departments. The the trade routes during this period. Many
hierarchical order of the officers in the roads such as Pataliputra to Takshashila,
Mauryan empire started from the Samrat at Pataliputa to Kashi-Ujjaini, Pataliputra to

60

The increasing use of iron and also the During the Mauryan period, along with
different types of iron implements, painted Sanskrit literature, many texts were written
pottery and its distribution upto southern in Prakrit language. Especially the orders of
parts of India indicates expansion of trade. Ashoka are inscribed on the rocks and pillars
Bharuch, Roruk (Rodi), Sopara, Tamralipti in Prakrit language. The famous texts of
and many such ports on the coastal region Buddhist literature, Tipitaka, were edited
of India were famous for trade purpose. during this period. Among the texts of
Exports were carried out on a large scale Tipitakas, Abhidhammapitaka was composed
from India to countries like Greece, Rome, after the third Buddhist council.
Egypt, Syria, Bactria, Sri Lanka etc. The
commodities such as cotton and silk cloth, This period was very rich from the point
linen, jari clothes, spices, diamonds, ivory,
perfumes etc. were exported from India to of view of Jain literature. The texts like
these countries. Glass articles, dyes etc. were
imported. The government levied taxes on the ‘Dashavaikalika’, ‘Upasakadashanga’,
production of goods as well as on its import
and export. Vartani (transport tax) and shulk ‘Acharanga Sutra’, ‘Bhagvati Sutra’ etc. were
(octroi) are found to be mentioned in the
contemporary sources. In return the composed during this period.
government took up responsibility of security
of the goods. For the protection of the trading Art and architecture
community the government had appointed
officers like Chorarajjuka and Seemaswami. After the establishment of Mauryan rule,
there was happiness, peace, prosperity and
Literature good governance. Mauryan art is the
beginning of ancient Indian architecture and
Literature reflects the thought process of the sculptural art.
the people and the political, social, economic
and religious conditions. During the Mauryan It appears that, during the Mauryan
period, along with the literature in Sanskrit period, the artists had acquired the skill of
language, the use of Pali and Ardhamagadhi cutting and carving the stone. In both, the
literature in Prakrit language is also seen. skill of a specific expression of art and the
For the spread of Jainism and Buddhism, technique of mirror polish of the stone is
literature was created in Prakrit language. seen. This is known as ‘Mauryan Polish’.
The Prakrit languages mainly included Pali, During this period stone statues of Yaksha
Ardhamagadhi, Shaurseni, Maharashtri etc. and Yakshi are found. Especially the statues
The world famous work of Panini’s
Ashtadhyayi was composed in this period. of Yakshi are beautiful
Bhasa was one of the great dramatists in and finely carved. The
Sanskrit literature. The thirteen dramas written famous Chauri bearer
by him includes ‘Swapnavasavadattam’. The of Didarganj is supposed
most important work of this period is to be one of such
Kautilya’s Arthashastra. This text is divided statues. The Yaksha
into 15 sections including total 180 topics. statues in Parkham and
The topics from King to Ganikas and politics the female images at
to war strategies are found to be discussed Besnagar and Patna of
in Arthashastra. this period are exhibited
in the Mathura museum.

Chauri bearer The pillars erected
of Didarganj by Emperor Ashoka and
the sculptures on them
are excellent examples
of Mauryan sculpture.

61

There is the lion capital of the pillar at Social Life
Rampurva and Lauria Nandangarh. The
Sankissa pillar has an elephant capital. At The remains found in the excavations
Sarnath the pillar capital has four lions reflect the rich lifestyle of the people.
carved on it. This sculpture of the four lions Megasthenes mentions the seven classes of
is the ‘National emblem’ of India. Indian society based on their profesion;
Priest, Cultivators, Shephards and Hunters,
The beginning of rock-cut caves is seen Traders and Labours, Soldiers, Spies and
in the Mauryan architecture. The rock cut Government officials. The life of the people
caves on Barabar and Nagarjuni hills are the was prosperous and happy. The class of
first datable rock cut caves of India. entertainers is mentioned which includes
actors, dancers, singers, musicians etc. Chariot
Do You Know? and horse racing, wrestling as well as dance
and singing competition were the popular
During this period the concept of means of entertainment. Gambling was also
‘Vishti’ is mentioned in context of craft in practice but the state had control over it.
production. ‘Vishti’ was a tax paid by the
people in form of physical labour. Through The system of education during vedic
vishti the artisans provided a stipulated period continued during the Mauryan period.
amount of free labour to the state. The cities of Taxila, Kashi Ayodhya etc.
became great centres of higher education and
There was a huge palace of Chandragupta art during the Mauryan period.
at Pataliputra. Megasthenes compares it with
the Palace of Susa, the Female education began to be neglected
capital of Iran. The high during this period. But according to Kautilya’s
brick fortification wall Arthashastra, it seems that during Mauryan
was built for the protection period women were given certain rights.
of the palace and inside Women had complete rights over the
the palace there were Stridhana. The Government took care of the
many buildings. These orphan and disabled women. Many women
buildings were built of spies were a part of the intelligence system.
stone. Wood was also
used in the buildings. One The Mauryan period has multiple
of the unique contribution dimensions and hence it has obtained a
in the field of art are the historical significance. After the death of
huge standing pillars Capital of an Ashoka, the centralised administration
erected during the period Ashokan Pillar continued to grow weak and the empire
of Ashoka for the spread disintegrated into small kingdoms. In the
of religion. We know them as Ashokan Post-Mauryan period Shunga, Kanva and
Pillars. These pillars are erected at thirty Satavahana rulers rebuilt their empires. Vedic
places. They are erected at places related to religion, varnashrama system, and vedic
important events in the life of Gautama lifestyle once again gained importance. We
Buddha and on important royal paths. During are going to study about these dynasties in
Ashoka’s period, stupas were built on a large the next chapter.
scale. It is said that during his rule, Ashoka
built 84,000 stupas.

62

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (a) Spread of Art
complete the sentence. (b) Spread of religion
(c) Growth of trade
(1) The first well-known king of the (d) For recognition of his work

Haryank dynasty is . Q.3 Explain the following statements with
reasons.
(a) Chandragupta Maurya (1) Ashoka’s victory at Kalinga proved
to be a turning point in history as
(b) Bimbisara (c) Ajatashatru well as the life of Ashoka.
(2) The war between Chandragupta and
(d) Mahapadma the Greek king Seleucus was very
important.
(2) The Nanda dynasty was established (3) The Mauryan administration acquired
by . a definite form.
(a) Dhanananda (b) Shishunaga
(c) Mahapadma Nanda Q.4 State your opinion.
(d) Emperor Ashoka (1) Chandragupta Maurya is the first
Chakravarti emperor in the history of
(3) The great drama in Sankrit literature, India.
(2) The rock edicts of Ashoka are
Swapnavasavadatta, was written by important sources of history.
(3) Various trade guilds developed during
. the Mauryan period.

(a) Kautilya (b) Bharat Q.5 Observe the map on Page number 58
and answer the questions based on it.
(c) Kalidasa (d) Bhasa (1) Regions included in Ashoka’s Empire
(2) Locations of Ashoka’s rock and
(B) Find out the incorrect pair, correct pillars edicts.
it and rewrite.
Activity
(1) Built the foundation of Magadha
Empire – Bimbisara Collect information about the Stupas
during the period of Ashoka.
(2) Brought an end to Nanda rule –
Chandragupta Maurya 

(3) Chinese traveler who visited India
during the period of Chandragupta
Maurya – Megasthenes

(4) Changed his mind due to the
destruction in Kalinga war – Emperor
Ashoka

Q.2 Choose the correct reason and complete

the sentence.

Emperor Ashoka erected many pillars.

Reason .

63

9. Post Mauryan India

9.1 Shunga Empire Heliodorus at Besnagar (Vidisha) indicates
9.2 Rise of Satavahana Empire that there were some Greek followers of
9.3 Administrative system, literature, Vaishnavism. Literature in Sanskrit language
was encouraged during the Shunga period.
art and social life To review the changes in Sanskrit language,
Patanjali wrote the ‘Mahabhashya’ based on
Magadha was the first empire of India. Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’. According to some
A stable and systematic administration was scholars, there were many new additions
set up during the Mauryan period. We studied made in the original text of Mahabharata
this in the previous lesson. After Emperor during this period. The Manusmruti was
Ashoka, due to the internal conflicts, this composed during this period.
empire became weak. After Brihadratha, the
last Mauryan emperor, Pushyamitra Shunga Along with literature, the Shunga’s
came on the throne. contribution in the field of art is also
important. The stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut,
9.1 Shunga Empire Garuda pillar at Besnagar are excellent
examples of art during this period. The
The Shunga empire was spread from sculptural art in the Shunga period widened
Magadha in the east to Siyalkot (Punjab) in its horizons and depicted the life of common
the west, as well as Himalayas in the North people on a large scale.
to Vidarbha in the south. Although Pataliputra
was the main capital, Pushyamitra established The last king of Shunga dynasty,
a second capital at Vidisha. Pushyamitra Devbhuti, was not an efficient king. His
Shunga was valiant and ambitious. He minister, Vasudeva, killed him and established
strengthened his rule in the provinces of the Kanva dynasty. This incident is described
Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti etc. Later he conquered in the Harshacharita by Banabhatta.
the lost provinces of Magadhan empire upto
Siyalkot. He courageously repelled the attack 9.2 Rise of Satavahana Empire:
of the Greek King Demetrius. His victory
over Demetrius is mentioned in After the Mauryas, the Shunga dynasty
‘Malavikagnimitram’ a play written by established itself in the north whereas in the
Kalidasa. south the Satavahana dynasty rose to power.
The disintegration of Mauryan empire created
Try this out : Collect information a favourable atmosphere for the rise of new
about the plays written by Kalidasa and powers. Satavahanas are mentioned as the
make a note based on it. earliest ruling dynasty in Maharashtra.
Initially the Satavahana rule came to a rise
After establishing his rule over North in Nashik, Pune, Aurangabad and later
India and some parts of South India. spread in the vast region of Maharashtra,
Pushyamitra twice performed the Ashwamedha Andhra and Karnataka. Paithan, in
sacrifice to proclaim himself as a powerful Maharashtra, was the capital of the
king. Pushyamitra revived the vedic sacrificial Satavahanas. The Puranas mention the
system which had lost its significance during ‘Andhras’ or ‘Andhrabhrutyas’. According to
the Mauryan period. The Garuda pillar of some scholars, these terms refer to
Satavahanas.

64

For the map of Satavahana empire, visit the became weak due to the constant struggle
website given below: between Shakas and Satavahanas.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Satvahana.svg 9.3 Administrative system, literature,
art and social life
Many Satavahana inscriptions are found
in North Maharashtra. Simuka, the first Administrative System :
Satavahana king, is mentioned in the
Naneghat inscription. Shri Satakarni, Hala, The state under the Satavahanas was
Gautamiputra Satakarni, Yajna Satakarni divided into small provinces and on every
were among the important kings of the province civil and military officials were
Satavahana dynasty. appointed to administer individual provinces
over it. These included civil officials, such
Before Gautamiputra Satakarni, some of as ‘Amatya’, ‘Mahabhoj’ and military
the Satavahaha kings were not capable. officials, such as ‘Mahasenapati’ and
Taking advantage of this situation, the Shaka ‘Maharathi’. Grama (village) was the smallest
Satrapas established their rule in the western unit of administration. Grama was a source
regions of India. Gautamiputra Satakarni, the of revenue and also for the recruitment of
Satavahana king, conquered the Shakas. soldiers during warlike situations. Thus,
Satavahana dynasty regained its strength Grama was an integral part of the central
with this victory. machinery.

Gautamiputra Satakarni conquered Agriculture was the main source of
Central India and the entire regions of means of subsistence. Along with it many
Dakshinapatha. He defeated the southern industries and trade flourished under the
kingdoms of Avanti, Surashtra (Saurashtra) Satavahanas. Various shrenis (Guilds) also
and the Shaka kings in Maharashtra. Similarly emerged during this period. The trade and
he established his dominance over the industries were controlled with the help of
Republic states in Central India and Rajasthan. these shrenis. The shrenis also provided
A hoard of coins is found at Jogaltembi in loans. Indo-Roman trade also flourished
Nashik district. These coins belong to Shaka during the Satavahana period. Trade centres
Kshatrapa King Nahapana on which like Pratishthan (Paithan), Tagar (Ter), Nasik
Gautamiputra restruck his own emblem. This (Nashik), Karhatak (Karhad) developed
clearly indicates that Gautamiputra proved during the Satavahana rule.
his strength by gaining victory over Nahapana.
Tagar (Ter) and Pratishthan (Paithan)
After Gautamiputra, Vashishthiputra are mentioned in the ‘Periplus of the
Pulumavi and Yajnashree Satakarni were the Erythraean Sea’. According to it, “Among
important kings. But after their rule, the market towns of Dakshinapatha, there are
Satavahana rule began to decline. They two cities of special importance; Paethana

For Additional Information : The reign and achievements of Satavahana Emperor
Gautamiputra Satakarni are described in the Nashik inscription of his mother Gautami
Balashri. Gautamiputra Satakarni is mentioned as ‘Shakapahlavyavannisudan’ i.e. the
destroyer of Shakas, Pallavas and Greeks, ‘Satavahanakulayashahpratishthapankar’ i.e.
the one who reinstalled the success of the Satavahana family, ‘Trisamudratoyapitavahana’
i.e. the one whose horses drank the water of the three seas. Such type of mentioning
indicates that many kings in the southern region must have accepted feudatory status and
ruled under the suzerainty of Gautamiputra Satakarni. The Satavahana kings used
Matronomics, i.e. using the names of their mothers as prefix, for example, Gautamiputra
Satakarni, Vasishthiputra Pulumavi etc.

65

(Pratishthana or Paithan of today) at a Various artisons such as Kularika*,
distance of about twenty day’s journey to the Tilpishaka**, Kolika*** are mentioned in the
south of Barygaza (Bhadoch); beyond which inscriptions at Nashik and Junnar. Pliny
about ten days to journey towards the east, mentions thirty fortified cities that existed in
there is another great city, Tagar (Ter). Satavahana kingdom. The coins, found during
Carnelion is transported in great quantity the excavations at the archaeological sites of
from Paithan to Bhadoch. There are no these cities are indicators of the well
permanent roads built for these purposes, but developed trade during this period. Sopara,
only untreaded tracts. Cotton cloth, muslins Kalyan, Bhadoch were important trade centres
and sack cloth (rough jute fabric) and other of this period.
merchandise from coastal regions is
transported from Tagar to Barygaza.” * ‘अअ*Pअoअtteअr अअ*अ*अOi’l अmiअlleअr अअअ***‘अWअeaअver

You would like to know : Naneghat for the convenience of travellers. There is a
is a mountain pass on the ancient trade stone jar excavated for collection of toll in
route in Maharashtra. This route connects the pass. Sopara and Kalyan were the most
the ancient town ‘Jirnanagar’ (Junnar) and important trade centres in ancient
the konkan province. The route proceeds Maharashtra. Internal as well as foreign
in the direction of Junnar and descends trade was carried out from these towns.
into Kokan at Murbad (District Thane). Especially, the goods imported from Rome
Satavahanas excavated a cave on this were unloaded at Sopara and from there it
route; the inscriptions in this cave mention was carried over to Paithan and Kolhapur
the Satavahana queen Naganika, the via Kalyan, Naneghat, Junnar, and Nevasa.
achievements of the Satavahana kings and Similarly the same route was used to
the donations given by them. These transport the goods to be exported to Rome.
inscriptions are in Brahmi script. There Another important feature is that the
were statues of the Satavahana kings. At inscriptions in the cave include numeric
the foothills of the pass there is a village symbols for “2, 4, 6, 7, and 9’’ that resemble
named Vaishakhede. A number of inns modern numerals.
(Dharmashalas) were probably built here

By the Way : This is king of the Satavahana dynasty,
a picture of a ship on the
coin belonging to King compiled ‘Gathasaptashati’.
Pulumavi. This image on
the coin is an indication of Gunadhya, a minister in his
flourishing sea trade during
Satavahana period. court, wrote an incomparable

text named ‘Brihatkatha’ in a

Prakrit language called Paishachi.

Sarvavarma wrote a treatise on

Sanskrit Grammer, named

‘Katantra’.

Literature : Art and Architecture : The influence of
Persian and Greek sculptural styles during
During the Satavahana period, learning the Mauryan period seems to have decreased
and art received royal patronage. Prakrit during the Shunga and Satavahana period. A
language and literature flourished during new native Indian style emerged in this
Satavahana period. Hala, the seventeenth

66

For Additional information : The
world famous Ajanta caves, cave no. 8,
9, 10, 12 and 13 belong to the
Satavahana period. It is interesting that
the paintings in cave no. 9 and 10 are
the earliest in India.

Karle Chaitya Society : The society of Satavahana
period was organised into four varnas.
period. The four gateways (Toranas) of the Similarly during this period the caste system
Sanchi Stupa No.1 built during this period also became deeply rooted. The intermixture
are excellent examples of this style. Many of varnas and castes (Varnasankara), closed
incidents from the life of Gautama Buddha nature of different guilds, need of including
are carved on these gateways. A number of foreigners in the social structure were some
rock-cut caves (Viharas and Chaityas) at of the reasons behind it.
Bhaje, Nashik, Karle etc. belong to
Satavahana period. Especially the Chaitya at Apart from that, there were four classes
Karle, its magnificient facade entrance and
sculptures are the finest examples of the in the society. The first class consisted of
sculptural art of this period.
officials such as ‘Maharathi’, ‘Mahabhoja’
Gatha Saptashati : The
Satavahana king, Hala, compiled and ‘Mahasenapati’. They were appointed on
several poems written in Prakrit. He
selected 700 verses, and compiled it the various ‘Rashtrakas’ (Subhas).
which was named as ‘Gaha Sattasai’
(Gatha Saptashati). This is the first text ‘Mahabhoja’ was appointed on the Konkan
composed in Maharashtri Prakrit
language. These poems beautifully province and Maharathi on the plateau area.
portray human nature and transactions.
Various religious observance, ethical The second class consisted of ‘Amatya’,
norms and contemporary festivals are
described in it. Gatha Saptashati reflects ‘Mahamatra’ and ‘Bhandagarika’, ‘Naigam’
the social life in Maharashtra of
Satavahana period. Some words in (traders), ‘Sarthavaha’ (chief of caravan
Gatha Saptashati are used in today’s
Marathi language as well. The poems merchant), and ‘Shreshthi’ (Head of trade
in Gatha saptashati clearly indicate the
relation between Maharashtri Prakrit guilds). ‘Lekhanika’ (scribes), ‘Vaidya’
and the modern Marathi language in
Maharashtra. (physicians), ‘Halakiya’ (cultivators),

‘Suvarnakar’ (goldsmith), ‘Gandhika’ (traders

of perfumes) were included in the third social

class. Whereas the fourth class included

‘Vardhaki’ (carpenter), ‘Malakara’

(gardeners), ‘Lohavanija’ (blacksmith), and

‘Dasaka’ (fisherman).

The invasions of foreigners like Greeks,
Pallavas, Shakas and Kushanas took place
during the Satavahana period. But these
foreigners were soon absorbed in the social
structure. This means that the contemporary
society, was flexible enough to accommodate
the foreigners. However, these political
invasions also brought about some social,
economic and cultural changes which we will
study in the next lesson.

67

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.2 Explain the following statements with
reasons.
complete the sentence. (1) During the Satavahana period there
was rise of many trade centres.
(1) The last emperor of the Mauryan (2) The caste system became rigid during
the Satavahana period.
dynasty was .
Q.3 Give your opinion.
(a) Ajatashatru Prakrit language was encouraged during
the Satavahana period.
(b) Chandragupta Maurya
Q.4 Write short notes:
(c) Brihadratha (1) Nashik inscription of Gautami
Balashri
(d) Emperor Ashoka (2) Naneghat – ancient trade route in
Maharashtra
(2) The Nashik inscription mentions king (3) Gatha Saptashati
as ‘Trisamudratoyapitavahana’.
Q.5 Write information about the Satavahana
(a) Gautamiputra Satakarni dynasty with the help of the given
(b) Hala points.
(c) Yadnashree Satakarni (a) Rise and expansion
(d) Simuka (b) Administrative system
(c) Trade and industries
(3) Satavahana king, Hala, compiled (d) Literature and art
.
Activity
(a) Brihatkatha
(b) Gatha Saptashati Collect information about historical
(c) Katantra remains in your surrounding area and
(d) Meghdoota prepare an information booklet based on
the gathered information.
(B) Find incorrect pair and write the
correct ones. 

(1) Kalidasa – Malavikagnimitram
(2) Gunadhya – Gatha Saptashati
(3) Sarvavarma – Katantra
(4) Patanjali – Mahabhashya

68

10. Changing Times

10.1 Nomadic tribes of Central Asia 10.2 Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas

10.2 Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas Indo-Greeks : The Greek Satrapas of
North-west are known as ‘Indo-Greeks’. In
10.3 Kushana Empire Indian tradition, they are mentioned as
Yavana. Their objectives were to establish
10.4 Gupta Empire their dominance in the region of Mediterranean
Sea and to strengthen the hold over trade in
10.5 Vardhan Empire west and central Asia. Seleucus Nicator was
Indo-Greek king from the province of Bactria
10.6 Karkotaka Empire in the North-west. In the conflicts between
the Indo-Greek kings, the kingdom of Bactria
10.7 Trade, coinage, art, iconography proved to be powerful. Bactrian king
Demetrius attacked India in 180 B.C.E. He
10.8 Indo-Roman trade (Trade centres won over Takshashila. His capital was at
in Maharashtra) Sakal (Siyalkot). During this period, the
Indo-Greek king Eucratides established an
After the disintegration of Mauryan independent kingdom. In this way, two
empire, the ambition of local rulers got independent Indo-Greek kingdoms were
strengthened. The regional kingdoms came to established in the northwest region. There
a rise. Among them, we studied the Shunga were 40 Indo-Greek kings in total including
and Satavahana kingdoms in the last lesson. the two branches established by Demetrius
During the same period there began foreign and Eucratides. The only source to know the
invasions, such as invasions by Greek, history of Indo-Greeks is their coins. Things
Shakas, Kushanas, on India. This period of like emblems, script, portraits on their coins
the rise of regional kingdoms was also the of the kings, images of deities are their gifts
period of political and social transition. to the numismatic tradition of India.

10.1 Nomadic tribes of Central Asia To know the extent of Indo-Greek kingdom see :
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indo-
After the death of Alexander, the Greeks_100bc.jpg
Satrapas appointed by him declared their
independent status and they came to be Shakas : Shakas came from Central
known as Indo-Greek kings. During the Asia. They established their kingdom by
declining period of Indo-Greek kings, nomadic driving out the Greeks of Bactria. Their
tribes in Central Asia attacked Bactria. The colony acquired the name ‘Shakasthan’
tribes of Central Asia migrated to India in (Shistan). ‘Maues’ alias ‘Moga’ was the first
this period. These migrations proved to be Shaka king in India. He established the
important in the political scene in North kingdom by conqureing the provinces of
India. In the latter half of 2nd century B.C.E., Gandhara and Punjab. Due to the weakness
the Pahalavas (Parthians) and Shakas of the succeeding Shaka kings, Pahalava
(Scythians) attacked northwestern regions. king Gondophernes defeated them and
The Yuezi tribes from China pushed the established his rule in India.
Shakas out from Central Asia. Yuezis were
pastoralists. With the strength of their war
skills, they vanquished the local kings and
there they established their own kingdoms.

69

For additional information : The rule of Shaka king
Rudradaman proves to be noteworthy due to his conflict
with the Satavahanas. The Junagarh inscription in
Saurashtra is an important Sanskrit inscription. It is
inscribed below the Ashokan edict. The Ashokan edict is
in Prakrit while Rudradaman’s inscription is in Sanskrit.
It seems that the Shaka kings had adopted Sanskrit
language. The Rudradaman inscription records repairs of
Sudarshan lake that was built during the Mauryan era. It
shows that the lake was used over a prolonged period. It
mentions Rudradaman’s victory in the Narmada valley,
expedition against Satavahana kingdom and praises him
for his victory over Yaudheya Republics in Rajasthan.

Junagarh inscription

Although the Shaka rule in Gandhara Kushanas : After coming to Bactria from
and Punjab came to an end, some Shaka central Asia, the Kushanas captured the Indo-
rulers continued to rule in Western India. The Greek kingdoms. As an effect of their contact
Shaka administrative system was structured with the Greek is reflected in some traits of
after the Achaemenid and Seleucid models. Kushana culture. After pushing the Shakas out
The state was divided into various Satrapis to the South, under the leadership of Kujula
(provinces) and ‘Mahakshatrapa’, a military Kadphises, the Yuezi groups came together
official, was appointed for each satrapy. and Kujula Kadphises brought them to
These Satrapies were further divided into northwest India from the Hindukush mountains.
sub-sections and a Satrapa was appointed on He declared himself as the king of Bactria.
each of it. These Satrapas were permitted to With this the Kushana rule was established
engrave their own inscriptions and also issue upto Kabul, Kashmir. We get this information
coins. It seems that they had considerable from Chinese records, Greek, and Roman
autonomy. literature. In Indian literature, Kushanas are
referred as ‘Tukhar’ or ‘Tushar’.
You would like to know : Shakas
were nomadic pastoralists. There are 10.3 Kushana Empire
no architectural remains, which can be
ascribed to Shakas. However, their After winning over the small kingdoms,
characteristic tombs have been Kushanas followed the system of Shakas and
discovered. These tombs contain established their Satrapis there. A military
remains of an individual, who could officer called ‘Satrapa (Kshatrapa) was
be their chief, along with his personal appointed on the satrapies. The King was the
belongings including remains of his chief of all the Satrapas and adopted the
horse and other objects. Horse was an titles like ‘Rajadhiraj’, ‘Maharaj’ etc. The
important part of the culture of Shakas. concept of divinity of the King is seen for
Their skills in mounted archery enabled the first time in the inscriptions on the
them to make swift attacks. Saddle, Kushana coins. They called themselves as
reins, composite bow and arrow made ‘Devputra’(Son of God).
their war technique more effective.
By defeating many Shaka kings,
Kanishka obtained the status of an emperor.
He built the Kushana empire from Kabul to
Pataliputra and from Kashmir to Malwa. He

70

is said to have attacked China twice. From You would like to know : The detailed
Central Asia it was difficult to administer Prashasti (eulogy) of Samudragupta is
over the far extended empire. Hence an inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad.
intermediate administrative centre was the This prashasti is a written source giving
need of the moment. Hence, Kanishka information of his political career. This
established two capitals, one at Purushpur inscription is known as ‘Prayaga Prashasti’.
(Peshawar) and the other at Mathura. It is paradoxical right below Ashokan’s
Kanishka had organised the fourth Buddhist edict declaring the importance of
Council in the vihara at Kundalvan in ‘Dhammavijay’ is inscribed the detailed
Kashmir. account of Samudragupta’s ‘Digvijaya’.

The Kushanas had adopted the Indian means, ‘the annihilator of all kings’ proves
culture. This is obvious from the name of this. Samudragupta first conquered neighboring
last Kushana king ‘Vasudeva’. During his kingdoms. After the conquest in the North,
period the decline of Kushanas began. The he carried out expedition in the South to
Kushana empire disintegrated into pieces and conquer the Southern kingdoms. During that
the various Satrapas became independent. period, the rule of Vakatakas was strong in
The Kushana rule existed in the province of southern region. Samudragupta could include
Punjab and Gandhar till 4th century C.E. the southern part upto the region of Kanchi
under his dominance, except the Vakatakas.
Visit the below website to see the expansion of the The rulers of the regions beyond his conquered
Kushana empire : https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/ area became his feudatories. By obtaining
tribute from these kings, he made them accept
Kushan_Empire#/media/File:Kushanmap.jpg his sovereignty.

10.4 Gupta Empire After this great conquest (Digvijay),
Samudragupta performed Ashwamedha
The history of Gupta empire indicates sacrifice and proclaimed himself as
the process of transformation of a small state Chakravarti king. Shakas, Kushanas, and
into a mighty empire. Srigupta was the kings in Sri Lanka accepted the suzerainty
founder of Gupta dynasty. His title ‘Maharaj’ of the Guptas. The image of Samudragupta
indicates that he was a feudatory. His son along with a lyre (Veena) on his coins
Ghatotkach also uses the same title which indicates that he was a patron of art.
means during his period also the Gupta kings Chandragupta II defeated Shakas and
were feudatories. Chandragupta I is given the ascended the throne. He took up the title
credit of expanding the Gupta rule and ‘Vikramaditya’. He established his rule in the
transforming it into an empire. The title western regions of Malwa, Gujarat, and
added to his name, titled ‘Maharajadhiraj’, Kathewar. Due to this the areas on west
gives an idea of the increasing status of the coast also came under the dominance of the
Gupta kings. He married Kumaradevi who Guptas and they entered into the trade carried
belonged to the Lichchhavi clan. This out in the west. Later Chandragupta crossed
matrimonial alliance proved to be politically Hindukush and brought the north-western
beneficial for the Gupta dynasty. His portrait provinces under his control. In this manner
with Kumaradevi is seen on a coin issued by he established a sovereign state encompassing
him. His rule was spread over in the regions the entire north India. He gave his daughter,
of Magadha, Saket (Ayodhya) and Prayag. Prabhavati, in marriage to the Vakataka king
King Samudragupta was the most brilliant, Rudrasena II and created congenial relations
valiant and benevolent ruler of this dynasty. with the Vakatakas in the south.

Samudragupta’s ambition was to rule
entire India as an unified empire. His title
‘Sarvarajochchheta’ on his coins, which

71

During the period of Kumargupta, son of kings proved to be incapable of protecting
Chandragupta II, the Huna invasions in India their kingdom. Finally their kingdom was
began. Kumaragupta withheld the attacks of disintegrated into many small kingdoms.
Hunas. After Kumaragupta, the succeeding

You would like to know : Chandragupta II gave patronage to many scholars, just
like his father and had deep interest in knowledge and art. It is said that there were
‘Navratnas’ (nine gems) in his court. They were : Dhanvantari (physician), Kshapanak
(astrologer), Amarsinha (lexicographer), Sanku (architect), Vatal Bhatt (magician),
Ghatkarpura (architect/author), Kalidasa (great poet), Varahamihira (astronomer) and
Vararuchi (grammarian).

72

State administration and social life: excellent examples of their skills. Beautiful
and realistic portrayal of various aspects of
The Gupta period is considered as the the king is characteristic of Gupta coins.
Classical Age of Indian history. ‘Nigam’, ‘Shreni’ and ‘Gana’ like
Organisations were established by traders
During the Gupta period, king was the and industrialists.
centre of administration. The Prince, Amatya
(ministers) and advisors helped him. Many a Till the Gupta period, many foreign
times, the Prince was appointed as Viceroy communities, came and settled in India.
who looked after the provincial administration. They were accepted in the social system.
Every province was subdivided. These Smriti texts such as ‘Narada Smriti’,
subdivisions were called ‘Vishaya’. There ‘Yajnavalakya Smriti’ were written during
was an independent administrator appointed this period. These texts provide a glimpse of
on these Vishayas. They were known as the social changes in this period.
‘Vishayapati’. ‘Kumaramatya’ were the
provincial officers and ‘Ayuktak’ were the For additional information : Textile
officials who looked after the affairs of the industry flourished during Gupta period.
districts. Gupta administration was A variety of textiles were produced on
decentralized. Many decisions were taken at large scale. These varieties include
the local level. Kshaum (linen), Chitrapatta (printed silk),
Dukul (silk), Pulakbandh (coloured cotton),
The Gupta kings changed the economic Pushpapatta (floral designs), Amshuka
structure of agricultural system. Their (muslin). These textiles had great demand
preference was on giving the land to local in internal and distant market.
farmers for tilling. Land donations were also
made for the cause of religion and learning. The prosperity is reflected in
These lands were tax free. They were called contemporary sculptural art and literature.
as ‘Agraharas’. Similarly, in this period the Political stability in the Gupta period,
civil and military officers were granted land prosperity and royal patronage gave impetus
grants instead of salaries. The roots of feudal to the creation of Sanskrit literature. One of
system, an important feature of the mediaeval the best creations in Indian literature of this
period lie in this system. It is believed that period is Kalidasa’s ‘Shakuntalam’. Human
this feudal economy brought about the decline figure was the central theme of the sculptures
of urban centres. Because of revenue tax in Gupta period. Human sculptures and
exemption on the donated land, the revenue images of deities were created during this
decreased and royal treasures depleted. It period. Sculptures belonging to this period
was concentrated in the hands of local are found at many places such as Sarnath,
landlords. Because of this the king no longer Devgadh, Ajanta. During this period, Hindu,
remained in the centre of power. Buddhist and Jain religious icons were made
of stone, metals and terracotta. The Greek
According to the Chinese traveller Yuan influence seen on Gandhara style is no longer
Chwang, sugarcane and wheat were cultivated seen on the sculptures of Gupta period.
in the north-western province of the Gupta
empire, while rice was cultivated in Magadha During this period, the foundation of
and eastern regions. Indian temple architecture was laid down.
Use of dressed stones became common during
Minerals, animals and herbs were the this period. The earliest remains of temples
main commodities of trade that brought of Gupta period are found in places like
prosperity during Gupta period. Goldsmiths Sanchi, Bhumra, and Deogadh. These are a
enjoyed a high social status in this period.
The gold coins during Gupta period are

73

few examples of the Gupta style of Hundreds of students, not only from India
architecture. but also from other countries like China,
Tibet, Korea, Japan, Shri Lanka etc. came
You would like to know : In the Gupta here. Harshavardhan’s empire was the last
period, there was remarkable progress in powerful empire in ancient India.
making alloys and casting of metals. The
10.6 Karkotaka Empire
iron pillar at
Among the dynasties that ruled in
Delhi stands as a Kashmir, the Karkotaka dynasty (7-9th century
C.E.) is mentioned by Yuan Chwang. He had
witness for this. been to Kashmir when he had visited India.
A detailed information regarding this dynasty
Since many is found in Kalhan's Rajatarangini.
Durlabhavardhan was the founder of
centuries the iron Karkotaka dynasty. His empire extended
from Narmada to Tibet.
pillar stands
The reign of Lalitaditya (Muktapeed,
without rusting. 724-760 C.E.), the grandson of
Durlabhavardhan, is noteworthy. He is credited
From this we with two victorious expeditions (Digvijaya).
He drove away many foreign tribes on the
understand that northern borders of Kashmir, especially the
region in the Amudarya basin. It included the
during this period Tukhar (Turks) as well. He conquered the
regions from Avanti in the north upto
the science of Pragiyotishpur (Assam). He conquered Tibet
with the help of Yashovarma, the king of
metallurgy was Avanti (Kanauj). After conquering the regions
upto Kaveri river in the south, he crossed the
very advanced. seas and reached the land beyond (Shri
Lanks). This is mentioned by Kalhan, which
Iron Pillar : Mehrauli suggests that Lalitaditya had extended his
empire from Tibet in the north to the river
10.5 Vardhan Empire Kaveri in the south. Lalitaditya's empire is
comparable to the Gupta empire. Lalitaditya
During the declining period of the was a devotee of Vishnu. He built the Martand
Guptas, in Nothern India there was rise of temple. He set up the city of Lalitpur. Latpur,
dynasties such as Vardhans at Sthaneshwar situated on the banks of river Jhelum, might
(Thanesar), Maukharis in Ganga Yamuna be the ancient Lalitpur. He built Buddhist
Doab, Maitrakas in Saurashtra etc. Viharas at Hushkapur (Ushkur).
Pushyabhuti was the founder of the Vardhan
dynasty. After the accession of 10.7 Trade, coinage, art, iconography
Prabhakarvardhan, the Vardhan dynasty
became powerful. He took up the sovereign In Indian history, the period of six
title of ‘Parambhattarak Maharajadhiraj’. centuries from 2nd century B.C.E. to 4th
The most prominent ruler of this dynasty was century C.E., was the period of arrival of the
Harshavardhan. His empire extended from Central Asian tribes and the kingdoms that
Nepal to Narmada and Saurashtra to Bengal. they established. These people adopted
After Harshavardhan, there was no heir to various cultural traits as they came to India.
the throne under the situation the empire The introduction of these traits brought about
disintegrated and many feudatories declared
independent status in North India.

We get a lot of information about this
period from ‘Harshacharita’ written by
Banabhatta who was the court poet and also
from the travel accounts of Chinese traveller
Yuan Chwang. The universities of Nalanda
and Vallabhi became the great learning
centres during harshavardhan’s reign.

74

For Additional Information : Some border regions of India and China. There
Bactrian coins resemble the Greek coins in were political relations between Kushanas
terms of their shape and weight. On some and Chinese rulers. The legends on the
of these coins the image of owl is seen. Kushana coins found in Central Asia are in
Owl is the symbol of Goddess Athena. Prakrit language, written in Kharoshthi script.
Athena was the main deity of Athens. This evidence indicates that people speaking
Indo-Greek coins are found in Bactria. The Prakrit language were also staying outside
Greek legends are written on the obverse the Indian subcontinent.
side and the legends are written in Prakrit.
Kharoshthi script on the reverse side. The Gandhara region had become a
melting pot of Indian, Greek, Roman, Persian
a transformation in the cultural life of India and Shaka cultures. This province acquired
as well.
importance from cultural
In contemporary India, agriculture and point of view. A new style
animal husbandry were the main sources of of iconography developed in
livelihood. Along with it various industries the cities of Pushkalavati,
and trade developed during this period. Taxila, Purushpur etc. It is
India’s contact with the foreigners proved to known as ‘Gandhara style’.
be beneficial for this. During this period also The theme of the sculpture
merchant and artisans guilds (shrenis) were was Indian but the style was
in existence. During this period, India’s sea Greek. The Mahayana sect
trade began to increase on a large scale. of Buddhism gave an
Indian goods were sent upto the Red Sea and impetus for the development
from there via Egypt to Rome. From India, of this style of art. Along
animals such as tiger, lion and monkey; birds with the images of Gautama
such as parrot and peacock; wool, silk, Gandhara Art Buddha and Bodhisatva
muslin, cotton cloth, ivory, pearls, spices, statues of the donors are carved in stone. But
sandalwood, medicinal herbs, diamonds, this style remained limited to parts of North-
precious stones, and other luxury items were west India. In the icons of Gandhara style,
exported and from other countries goods such there was more emphasis on physical beauty.
as lead, copper, glass, silver, gold, wines etc. During the same period, Mathura and Varanasi
were imported. Due to this trade the flow of style of art developed. The images of Gautama
gold coins was constantly coming in India Buddha were completely Indian in nature.
and hence India became prosperous. Mathura was an important centre of Indian art
of sculpture. Portrait sculpture is the feature of
The portraits of kings and images of Mathura style of art. The statues of Kushana
deities were inscribed on the gold coins of kings, Vima Takshama and Kanishka are
the Bactrian Greeks. There was a great examples of this portrait sculpture. Similarly
impact of the Greek and Roman coins on the images of Saraswati, Vishnu, Surya, Shiva
coins of Shaka and Kushana rulers. The use and Karttikeya were created for the first time
of Kharoshthi script is seen on the Shaka during this period. The sculptural art during
coins. Kushana period was an indication of innovation
in the history of Indian sculpture. During this
The coins of this period indicate the period there was an effort of imprinting the
mixed impact of Greeks, Indian and Persian reflection of the then society.
cultures. The Kushana kings depicted Indian
deities on coins. They brought in circulation 10.8 Indo-Roman trade (Trade centres
the gold and copper coins with the image of in Maharashtra)
Shiva. Kushana coins are also found in the
The Periplus of Erythrean Sea written in

75

Greek language in the mid 1st century C.E., these coins found in South India gives an
mentions about the Red Sea and the sea idea of the extensive scale of this trade. The
routes connecting coastal line, ports, provinces, flourishing Indo-Roman trade gave rise to
goods exchanged in trade. Red Sea was several markets and cities. There was rise of
important for trade relations between India important ports in western India as well. The
and Rome. Among the trading commodities merchandise transported to Maharashtra were
textile, black pepper, precious stones, ivory stored at Ter, Nevasa, Bhokardan, Kondapur,
and animals such as monkey, parrot and and Sannati. The ports of Sopara and Kalyan
peacock for the entertainment of the Roman were important centres of Indo-Roman trade.
elites came to be exported from India. Gold Excavations at the archaeological sites have
coins were paid in exchange of these goods. brought forth the evidence of trade in the
Coral and liquor were also imported. The form of Roman pottery (amphorae) and red
remains of Amphorae are found in the ware. The replicas of Roman coins are also
excavations. Residues at the base of the found in the excavations. In South India,
amphora, revealed remains of wines. along with increase in trade the Buddhist
Amphoras were also used for storing olive centres were established at places such as
oil and garom (pickled fish). The price of Dharnikot, Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda.
the goods exported to Roman market was
paid in gold coins. The large amounts of In the next lesson we are going to study
about the ruling powers in South India.

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and was concentrated in the hands of
local landlords.
complete the sentence. (2) Every tide of Huna invasion made
the Gupta rule weaker.
(1) The history of Indo-Greeks is known

through their .

(a) literature (b) inscription Q.3 State your opinion.
Samudragupta performed
(c) coins (d) pottery sacrifice after Digvijaya. Asvamedha

(2) Gupta dynasty was founded by

. Q.4 Write Short notes.
(1) Gupta Sculpture
(a) Sri Gupta (b) Ghatotkach (2) Indo-Roman Trade

(c) Samudragupta (d) Ramgupta

(3) After accession by defeating the Q.5 Answer the following question with the
help of given points.
Shakas, took up the tile of How did the standardisation in various
sections during the Gupta period take
‘Vikramaditya’. place?
a. division of Gupta administration
(a) Chandragupta II b. changes in economic struture economy
of agriculture
(b) Ramgupta (c) Chandragupta I c. Development of Gupta coinage

(d) Kumaragupta

(B) Find the incorrect pair and write Activity
the correct ones.
Collect more information about
(1) Kshaum – Linen cloth ‘Harshacharita’ written by Banabhatta,
(2) Pushpapatta – Cotton cloth with the help of internet.
(3) Dukul – Silk cloth
(4) Amshuka - Muslin cloth

Q.2 Explain the following statements with 
reasons.
(1) During the Gupta period the power

76

11. Kingdoms in South India

11.1 Important kingdoms in South India established their rule from Pudukkottai to
11.2 Administrative system, trade, social Kanyakumari. Towards their west, the Cheras
had created their kingdom in Kerala. They
life are mentioned as ‘Kedalaputra’ (Keralaputra/
11.3 Literature, art, architecture Sons of Kerala) in contemporary literature.
These kingdoms were in constant conflict
In this lesson we will be introduced to with each other to establish political suprem
the kingdoms in South India, their acy.
administrative system, trade etc.
In many stories of Sangham literature,
11.1 Important Kingdoms in South we find mention of the first Chola king
India ‘Karikala’. He brought together eleven small
kingdoms and built a strong army and by
Chola, Pandya and Chera dynasties : defeating the Chera and Pandya kings, he
Chola, Pandya and Chera were the ancient established the Tamil dominance.
ruling powers in South India. The kingdoms
in South are mentioned in Megasthenes’ Some kingdoms arose to the north of
‘Indica’, Panini’s grammar and inscriptions Krishna-Tungabhadra rivers. Among them
of Ashoka. Ancient Tamil literature, known Satavahanas were most powerful.
as ‘Sangham’ literature, is believed to be one
of the main sources of history of South Vakataka dynasty : The power of
Indian rulers. Satavahanas started growing weaker from
the 3rd century C.E. Vakatakas took advantage
For Additional information : of this situation and established independent
South India has a great contribution in rule. Vindhyashakti was the founder of
the history of India and its culture. Due Vakataka kingdom. After Vindhyashakti ,
to the cultural exchange between North King Pravarasena I ascended the throne. He
India and South India, the Indian culture expanded the Vakataka Empire to Malwa in
became diverse and still remained the North and from Gujarat to South upto
united. The people living in South India Kolhapur, Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh).
spoke Dravidian languages. Tamil, Kolhapur was knwon as ‘Kuntala’ at that
Kannada, Malyalam and Telugu are the time. Pravarasena I performed four
four main languages in the Dravidian Ashwamedha sacrifices and took up the title
group of languages. ‘Brauhi’ language ‘Samrat’.
spoken in Baluchistan is a part of the
Dravidian group of languages. After Pravarasena I, the Vakataka
kingdom got divided and two main branches
Chola Dynasty : The Chola Kingdom were created. Among them, Nandivardhan
was established in first century C.E. Chola (Nagardhan-Ramtek, Nagpur district) was the
dynasty originated in Thanjavur and capital of one branch. The capital of the
Tiruchirappalli (Tamilnadu). This province second branch was at Vatsagulm, i.e. modern
was known as ‘Cholamandala’ (Coromandel Washim (Washim district).
is an anglicised form of ‘Cholamandala’). To
the south of Cholas, the Pandyas had Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Gupta
emperor Chandragupta II, was married to

77

Vakataka king Rudrasen II. This is already he established his capital at Vatapi (Badami).
mentioned earlier. Varahadev, minister of His grandson Pulakeshi I was the first
Harishena, was a follower of Buddhism. important king of the Chalukyas. He built the
Cave no.16 of Ajanta was excavated at his fort of Badami. He performed the
instance. The excavation of other caves at Ashwamedha sacrifice and took up the title
Ajanta and the murals were done during the of ‘Maharaja’. He also took titles like
reign of Harishena. ‘Prithvivallabha’ and ‘Satyashraya’. After
Pulakeshi I, his son Kirtivarman I came to
Vakataka king Pravarasena II composed power. During his reign, he conquered the
‘Setubandha’ in Maharashtri Prakrit. Among Kadambas of Vanvasi (Karwar) and Mauryas
many of Kalidasa’s classical works, of Aparanta (North Konkan) and expanded
‘Meghadoota’ deserves special mention. his rule. Kirtivarman was a patron of art.
References to historical geography of The beautiful caves at Badami were created
Vakataka period occuring in this poetic work by him.
are important.
Pulakeshi II was the greatest king of the
Chalukyas : During the rule of Chalukyan dynasty. He performed the
Harshavardhan in North India, the Chalukya Digvijaya and strengthened the power of
dynasty ruled in the south for approximately Chalukyas. His achievements are described in
200 years. Jaising was the founder of this the eulogy (prashasti) composed by poet
dynasty. In the beginning of 6th century C.E.

78

Ravikirti. He defeated the Kadamba Pallavas and Chalukyas took place during
kings, Maurya, Nala, Kalchuri, Rashtrakuta, his period. His son Narsimhavarman defeated
Lat, Malav and Gurjara dynasties and the Chalukyan Emperor Pulakeshi II. During
established the Chalukyan rule over Vidarbha Narsimhavarman’s region, many temples
and other parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka. were built at Mahabalipuram. It includes the
The expedition of Harshavardhan to conquer monolithic temples (Rath Mandiras) as well.
the southern states was resisted by Pulakeshi Yuan Chwang, the well-known Chinese
II. He defeated Harshavardhan thereby traveller, was in his court for a certain period
acquiring great fame. After his victory he of time. The literary works by
took up the the title ‘Parameshwara’. With Narsimharvarman are important as major
the conquest in south, his empire extended source of Pallava history. The Pallava rule
from Narmada to Kaveri and from east coast ended in 9th century C.E. The Chola king,
to the west coast. His fame had reached Aditya, defeated the Pallavas and
beyond India as well. During this period destroyed it.
Badshah Khosrow Parvez ruled in Iran. It is
said that he had sent his ambassador to the Yudhisthira Rath Temple at Mahabalipuram
court of Emperor Pulakeshi. The Pallavas of
Kanchi defeated Pulkeshi II. Vikramaditya, Rashtrakutas : Dantidurga was the first
the son of Pulakeshi II, in turn defeated the powerful king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
Pallavas. The struggle between Chalukyas The rule of Rashtrakutas was spread from
and Pallavas continued over prolonged period Vindhyan ranges to Kanyakumari in the
of time. The last king of Chalukyas, south. After Dantidurga, his uncle Krishna I
Kirtivarman, was defeated by the Rashtrakuta became the king. He uprooted Chalukyas
king Dantidurg. rule. The famous Kailas temple at Ellora is
ascribed to Krishna I. The succeeding
Pallavas : Around 6th century C.E. to 9th Rashtrakuta rulers became influential in
century C.E., the Pallavas were known as the North India as well. Amoghvarsh was a
most powerful rulers in South India. Historians capable king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
vary in their views regarding the origin of Amoghvarsh composed the texts entitled
the Pallavas. Some copperplates of the ‘Ratnamalika’ and ‘Kavirajmarg’. He
Pallavas are found. There is a mention of established a new city at Manyakheta
Sinhavarman and Shivaskandavarman Pallava (Malkhed) near Solapur. The Rashtrakuta
who ruled over the regions of eastern coast. dynasty declined because of the attacks by
Kanchi was the capital of the Pallavas. We Parmars and Chalukyas of Kalyani.
get a detailed information of the Pallava
dynasty beginning from the reign of
Simhavishnu. He conquered the province of
Cholas and extended his rule from Krishna
to Kaveri. After Simhavishnu, his son
Mahendravarman ascended the throne. He
was a great scholar. He wrote the Sanskrit
play ‘Mattavilasa’. He wrote books on
subjects like music, dance, sculpture, painting
etc. These art forms received patronage under
him. During his reign, several temples were
built at Tiruchirapalli, Chingalput and in east
and west Arkat district. The war between

79

of Kolhapur and Kadambas
captured some of the regions
in North Konkan. Mummuni,
brother of Chhittaraj, built the
huge temple of ‘Amreshwar
Mahadev’ at Ambarnath.
This is considered as the
beginning of the Bhoomija
style of temple architecture
in Maharashtra.

Kailas Temple at Ellora 3. Shilaharas of
Kolhapur - The modern
Shilaharas : There were three branches districts of Satara, Sangli,
of this dynasty – Shilaharas of south Konkan, Ratnagiri, and Belgaum were
north Konkan and Kolhapur. They called included in this kingdom.
themselves as ‘Tagarapuradhishwar’ (Tagar- Jatiga established the Kolhapur branch of
Ter, Osmanabad district). Jimutvahan is Shilaharas. Bhoj II was the important king
considered as the founder of all the three of this dynasty. The cities of Kolhapur,
branches. They ruled for almost three hundred Valivade and Panhala were the capitals of
years as the feudatories of Rashtrakutas and this kingdom. The Shilaharas of Kolhapur
later the Chalukyas. are credited with the creation of the
magnificent ‘Koppeshwar Mahadev’ temple
1. Shilaharas of South Konkan - at Khidrapur.
‘Sanafulla’ established the south Kokan
branch of Shilaharas. His son, Dhammiyar Gonds : The Gond dynasty was
set up the village of Vallipattana and built
a fort there. Later King Adityavarma established at Chanda (Chandrapur) during
expanded his kingdom from Thane to Goa.
Rattaraj was the last ruler of this dynasty. the Yadava period. Kol Bheel was the
The history of this dynasty is known with
the help of one of the copper plates found founder of this dynasty. He brought the
at Kharepatan.
people of Gond tribe together and encouraged
2. Shilaharas of North Konkan -
Kapardi established the north Kokan branch them to rebel against the Naga dynasty. He
of Shilaharas. Rulers of this branch were
initially the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. established the capital at Sirpur. In the later
Their capital was at Sthanak (Thane).
Aparajita was another important king of this period Khandkya Ballal Singh built a fort at
branch. He ruled for around thirty five years.
Chittaraj followed Aparajita as king. His Ballarpur and shifted the capital from Sirpur
brothers fought for their claim to the throne.
Taking advantage of this, the Shilaharas to Ballarpur. The temple at Achaleshwar was

constructed during his period. Nilkanth Shah

was defeated by

Raghuji Bhosale of

Nagpur and the Gond

territories were merged

in his kingdom. Sixty

two Gond kings ruled

for many centuries in

Devgad, Nagpur and

Chandrapur in

Maharashtra.

Queen Durgavati The struggle of
Queen Durgavati of

80

the Gond dynasty, against the Mughals is ‘Lilacharitra’ written by Mhamimbhatta
considered important. After the death of
her husband, Duragavati fought against in of the Mahanubhava sect, ‘Viveksindhu’ by
Mughal emperor Akbar. She was not ready
to surrender to him. Instead she preferred Mukundaraj, ‘Bhavarthdipika’ by
death.
Dnyaneshwar belong to this period. Similarly

the composition of saint poets like Namadeva,

Janabai, Chokhoba of the Varakari sect

Yadavas : Yadava dynasty is one of the composed poems, which are known as
important dynasties of mediaeval Maharashtra.
Bhillam V (1185-93 C.E.) is the important ‘Abhangas’. Many temples were built in this
king of the Yadava dynasty. He expanded
the kingdom by defeating the Kalachuris. He period. They are generally referred to as
established his capital at Devgiri and got
himself coronated. In the later period Singhan ‘Hemadpanti’ temples. The Gondeshwar
was an important ruler of this dynasty. He
defeated the Hoysalas, Shilaharas and temple at Sinnar and the temple complex at
expanded the rule of Yadavas.
Anjaneri are the finest example among the

temples built during this period. An important

feature of the Hemadpanti temples is that no

mortar is used. Instead the stones are

interlocked with the help of mortise and

tenon. During this period, the crucial forts of

In 1294 C.E. Alauddin Khalji attacked Ankai and Tankai were constructed.
south India. Ramadeva, the Yadava king was
defeated by Khalji. From here onwards the Gondeshwar Temple at Sinnar
Yadava rule began to decline. In 1307 C.E.
Alauddin sent his commander Malik Kafur 11.2 Administrative system, trade,
to carry out a campaign over Devgiri. He social life
defeated the Yadavas. Yadavas accepted a
feudatory status to Delhi. In 1310 C.E.
Yadava king Shankardev was killed by
Malik Kafur. In 1318 C.E. the rule of
Yadavas was brought to an end by the Delhi
Sultanate.

The Yadava period has a special In the administrative systems of South

importance in the history of Maharashtra. Indian dynasties there were officials such as

During this period there was notable ‘Mahadandanayaka’, ‘Rashtrika’,

development in the cultural sphere of ‘Deshadhikruta’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Ayukta’, etc.

Maharashtra. The Mahanubhav and Warkari The council of officers in the Chola kingdom

sects had a beginning in the Yadava period. was called ‘Udankuttam’. The kingdom was

During this period, Patan in Khandesh, divided into many provinces. These provinces

Solotagi in Karnataka and Paithan in were known as ‘Mandalam’. A member of

Maharashtra become important learning the royal family was the chief of the

centres. During the same period, Sanskrit Mandalam. There were many officers under

texts were written on subjects like him such as ‘Vishayapati’, ‘Deshadhipati’,

Dharmashastra, ‘Purva Mimansa’ ‘Deshadhikrut’, ‘Rashtrika’, etc. The

(philosophical text), Nyaya and Vedanta. The administration of the Southern kingdoms was

critical work on Yajnyavalkya by Aparark, very efficient. Every order issued related to

‘Chaturvargachintamani’ are among the state affairs recorded down and no action

important Sanskrit texts. ‘Sangitaratnakara’, was taken unless authenticated by the

text based on Indian music, by Sharangdev concerned officer. Village autonomy was an

is considered relevant even today. important feature of the state administration

in South India. The ‘Gramasabha’ (village

81

council) looked after the entire administration industries in South India flourished during
of the village. The head of the Gramasabha this period. Cities like Paithan, Tagar (Ter),
was known by different names such as Nashik etc. flourished because of it.
‘Gramabhojaka’, ‘Gramakuta’ etc. head of
the Gramasabha was elected by the villagers The goods produced in rural areas were
or sometimes appointed by the king. A brought for sale in the cities. The market
council similar to Gramsabha functioned at place used to be located in the centre of the
district and provincial level. Land revenue city. The merchant guilds (Shreni) in South
was the main source of income for the state. India played an important role in trade and
Apart from it the excise tax, professional tax, the social system.
pilgrimage tax were the sources of income.
11.3 Literature, art, architecture
In the kingdom of Cholas, Pandyas,
Cheras, Vakatakas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, The tradition of writing poetry and
Pallavas, Shilaharas and Yadavas many grammar was prevalent in south India from
professions requiring specialised skills were ancient times. The ‘Sangham literature’ is
practiced. Ivory was obtained from the supposed to be most ancient in the Tamil
Malayagiri jungle. The Cholamandalam tradition. This literature is one of the main
provinces were well-known for excellent sources of political history of South India. It
quality textiles. Plain and coloured cotton is believed that three ‘Sanghams’ (Council)
cloth as well as silk clothes was produced in were held.
this province. In the Chera kingdom was
known the fine cloth produced there. It was This period was important from the point
one of the important commodities in the of view of Sanskrit literature. Kalidasa
Indo-Roman trade. It is mentioned in the composed the ‘Meghdoot’ at Ramtek in
travel accounts of Marco Polo. The trade and Vidarbha. During the Vakataka rule,
compositions in Prakrit language were created.
For Additional information : Coins Pravarsena II, the Vakataka king, wrote the
of South India- During the Mauryan well-known composition named ‘Setubandha’.
period the Maurya coins were in circulation ‘Harivijaya’ was composed by Sarvasena,
in South India. After the decline of the founder of Vatsagulm branch of
Mauryas the Pandya kings issued their Vakatakas.
own punch marked coins. The images like
sun, horse, stupa, tree, fish were carved Two styles of architecture are seen in
on it. On the Chera coins, there used to South India, one is the ‘Dravida’ style and
be bow and arrow on one side and image other is the ‘Vesara’ style of architecture.
of an elephant on the other. On the Chola
coins the symbol of tiger as the royal The Dravida style of architecture emerged
emblem of Cholas is depicted. The Chola and developed in the regions from Krishna
coins were made of gold, silver and the river to Kanyakumari. The important feature
legends on it was inscribed in Devnagari of Dravida architecture identified by
script. The coins belonging to Chalukya construction of Shikhara. In this type the
king Rajaraja are issued in three metals- storeys reduce in size as the Shikhara rises.
gold, silver and copper, with the image of Kailasnath and Vaikuntha Perumal temples
Rajaraja and a tiger. Due to the trade at Kanchi, Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore
with Rome, many Roman coins are found are some of the excellent examples of
in this area. It is seen that the seals of Dravida style of architecture.
Indian rulers are reprinted on these coins
and again brought into circulation. The Chalukyas built temples at places
like Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal etc.

During the Rashtrakuta period the world
famous ‘Kailasa’ temple was created.

The metal statues of the Chola period

82

Bronze statue of Nataraj Shiva are the best among Indian metal sculptures. Among
them the most famous is the bronze statue of Nataraj
Shiva.

During the Vakataka period the sculptural art
and paintings reached its zenith. The Ajanta cave no.
1, 2, 16, 17, and 19 were carved out during this
period. It seems that the artists had good knowledge
about the details of physiology and nature.

Till now we studied the cultural and political
history of India. Ancient India had established cultural
relations with far away countries.

In the next two lessons we will study about the
cultural relations between India and other countries.

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (2) Examples of Dravidian style –
Rajarajeshwar temple, Elephanta
complete the sentence. caves, Halebid temples, Badami
temples
(1) The name of the well-known king of
Q.3 Explain the following statements with
Vakatak dynasty was . reasons.
(1) A strong rule of the Chalukyas was
(a) Sarvasena (b) Pravarasena created in south India
(2) Yadava period has a special
(c) Jaising (d) Chandragupta importance in the history of
Maharashtra.
(2) After the conquest in South,
Pulakeshin II took up the title of Q.4 Write short notes.
. (1) Administrative system in South India
(a) Parameshwara (b) Vishayapati (2) Coins in South Indian dynasties
(c) Deshadhipati (d) Satyajay
Q.5 Answer the following question in brief
(3) Kalidasa composed at with the help of points given below.
Describe the rule of Shilahara dynasty.
Ramtek in Vidarbha. (a) Founder
(b) Shilahara of south Kokan
(a) Shakuntal (b) Meghdoot (c) Shilaharas of north Kokan
(d) Shilaharas of Kolhapur
(c) Malavikagnimitra (d) Harivijay
Activity
(4) The world famous Kailasa temple
Visit the Kailasa temple at Ellora and
was built during the period. prepare a detailed note.

(a) Chalukya (b) Pallava 

(c) Cher (d) Rashtrakuta

(B) Fine the incorrect pair and write
the correct ones.

(1) Setubandh – Panini
(2) Harivijay – Sarvasena
(3) Indica – Megasthenes
(4) Sangit Ratnakar – Sharangdev

Q.2 Find the odd man out in the group.
(1) Ancient kings in South India – Chola,
Pandya, Maurya, Cher

83

12. India, Nations in the northwest of the Indian
Subcontinent and China

12.1 Trade and Cultural Relations in never tried to impose their culture, religions
the Ancient times and political rule on the local people.
Wherever they went, they had cultural contact
12.2 India and Gandhara (Afghanistan and exchange with the native people and it
and Pakistan) resulted into the enrichment of the native
cultures.
12.3 India and China
The spread of Indian culture in the
12.1 Trade and Cultural Relations in nations lying beyond the Hindukush mountains
the Ancient times was mainly a result of the spread of Buddhist
religion.
So far, we studied about the transitions
in the various fields such as historical, social, The Indian trade with distant lands is
financial, cultural etc., over a prolonged mentioned in the texts like ‘Kathasaritsagara’,
period of about 4000 years. In this lesson we Jataka Stories, ‘Deepvamsa’, ‘Mahavamsa’,
are going to study about the impact of the etc. These texts narrate many stories of the
Indian culture on the other countries. sea travels and adventures of the Indian
merchants. The Sangham literature mentions
It is very significant that the Indians
travelling or migrating to other countries

84

the boats of the yavanas who brought gold group of merchants, who paid a visit to the
and carried back black pepper in exchange. court of the Roman Emperor Augustus.
There are a number of inscriptions reported
from the western parts of Maharashtra, that The coin hoards found in Tamilnadu had
mention the donations given by yavanas. Roman gold coins in it. Many of those coins
show cuts taken for the purpose of assaying
‘Ophir’, a port city is mentioned in the (for the checking the grade of gold) the gold.
‘Old Testament’ (Bible), which is supposed It means those coins were not in circulation
to be referring to ‘Sopara’ near Mumbai. The as coinage but they were valued for its gold.
Indian teakwood and the Himalayan cedar It is said that Nero, the Roman emperor had
timber was in demand in Babylon. Beside paid one million gold coins for a single
the timber, commodities like sandalwood, chalice of emerald of Indian make. Pliny the
ivory, tortoise shells, monkeys, peacocks, elder had expressed concern about that the
pearls, precious and semi-precious stones, as Roman gold being drained into India. He
well as black pepper, cinnamon and incense compared India to an enormous sink draining
were also exported from India. A sailor’s all gold of the world. Strabo tells us that
handbook of his sea travels is known as animals such as snakes, hunting dogs, tigers,
‘Periplus of Erythrean Sea’ ( Latin name : elephants, birds like parrots and peacocks,
Periplus Maris Erythraei). The ancient port things like hides and horns of rhinoceros,
cities like Bharuch, Sopara, Kalyan, etc. are expensive textiles, pearls, ivory and spices,
mentioned in this periplus. Also the important etc. from India were in great demand among
trade centres like Ujjain are described in it. the Roman elites.
Beside the periplus there are other texts like
‘Geographia’ written by the Greek historian Apart from the Roman gold coins, many
Strabo, ‘Naturalis Historia’ by Pliny the other things like lead, zinc, corals, wines,
elder, ‘Geographia’ written by the Greek olive oil were the Roman imports coming to
mathematician-geographer Claudius Ptolemy, India. The archaeological survey conducted
‘Indica’* by the Greek historian Arrian, etc., in the sea near ‘Bet Dwaraka’ in Gujarat, in
which are the sources of information about the year 2000-2001 has yielded amphorae of
the Indo-Roman trade. various sizes, anchors, potsherds and a lead
ball, etc. The amphorae were used to transport
*Arrian was the historian of the 2nd century olive oil and wines, which were imported
C.E. He never visited India. Most of the from Rome. There are many archaeological
information in his work is derived from ‘Indica’ sites, which have yielded evidence of the
written by Megasthenes. Indo-Roman trade. It confirms that the cities
in Maharashtra like Paithan, Ter, Kolhapur*,
‘Periplus of Erythrean Sea’ mentions Bhokardan (Bhogvardhan) in the Jalana
that Hippalus, the Greek navigator had district were important trading centres.
accurately traced all the ports on the
Erythrean Sea. *Ptolemy has mentioned Kolhapur as ‘Hippokura’.

In the 1st century C.E. the Indo-Roman 12.2 India and Gandhara (Afghanistan
trade had begun to grow. The silk route and and Pakistan)
the ports on the south and west coasts of
India played vital role in this trade. The It is apparent that geographically
records of the Greek historians mention of a Afghanistan (Gandhara) was favourably

85

By the way: The crows were known also clearly indicates that the ancient
to ancient sailors as the birds who begin Indian merchants used to sail to distant
to fly in the direction of land, the moment lands.
it is in their view. The sailors used to
follow the crows in order to reach the ‘Baveru’ is identified with Babylon.
coast safely. Crows trained for these Babylon was a kingdom that existed in
purpose were known as ‘Dishakak’. A Mesopotamia during 1800-600 B.C.E. The
Harappan terracotta tablet shows a boat Achaemenid emperor Cyrus II conquered
and dishakaks flying above it. Babylon in 539 B.C.E.

The story of ‘Baveru Jataka’ offers a This story confirms that ancient Indian
testimony to the use of dishakak by ancient merchants used to carry birds like crow
Indian sailors to reach the coast. This story and peacock for selling.

situated on the trade route that linked India Kushana Emperor Kanishka and Post-
and Central Asia. It had close cultural Kushana Period : Kanishka’s empire had
connections with India from the ancient spread from Pataliputra in the east to Kashmir
period of janapadas till the introduction of in the north and further to Central Asia.
Islam. Whether it were the invaders from the Purushspur (Peshawar) and Mathura were the
Central Asia, or the Buddhist monks sent out two capitals of his empire. Ancient Kapisha
by Emperor Ashoka , or the Chinese monks (Begram) was an additional capital of the
travelling to India, all had to pass through Kushanas, which was located on the silk
Afghanistan. route at a vantage point. The trade route
from Afghanistan to China was under the
Emperor Ashoka’s Period : We have rule of Kushanas. This route starting from
seen that the 13th edict of Emperor Ashoka Taxila extended further, crossing through
mentions the names of Greek kings, who Khyber pass to Bamiyan in Afghanistan and
were his contemporaries. It also mentions from there to China through the plateau of
that people in their kingdoms were following Pamir.
the path of morality as outlined to his
message of Dhammavijaya. Among these In the Kushana period, Buddhism reached
kingdoms was included the kingdom of
Kamboja in Afghanistan. China by this trade route. Some of the coins

The Ashokan edict at Kandahar is in of emperor Kanishka carry the image of
Greek language and the script used for it is
Aramaic. This inscription shows that Gautama
Afghanistan was the integral part of Ashoka’s
empire. Buddha. It also

Ashoka had sent ‘Thera Mahyantika’ has a legend
(Majjhantika) to Kashmir and Afghanistan
and ‘Thera Maharakkhita’ to the Greek which reads,
(Yona) kingdoms, for spreading the teachings
of Gautama Buddha. ‘Boddo’. This

Gold coin of Kanishka is the oldest
representation

of Gautama

Buddha in an image form on a coin.

86

The Chinese monks like Fa-Hien, Yuan The building of the vihara complex at
Chwang, who travelled through India have Takht-i-Bahi had begun in the 1st century
described the Buddhist viharas and stupas in C.E. The work was continued till 7th century
India. There are numerous remains of viharas C.E. Among the remains discovered there are
and stupas in Afghanistan. Among them a three stupas and other buildings.
place called ‘Shahji-ki-Dheri’ near Peshawar
in Pakistan was excavated. The importance Apart from these remains in Afghanistan,
of the stupa discovered at this place is the famous ‘Bamiyan statues of Buddha’ are
underlined by the fact that it was built during declared as the World Cultural Heritage.
Kanishka’s period. It is also known as Bamiyan is 250 kilometres away from Kabul,
‘Kanishaka’s Stupa’. According to prevailing to the west of it. There are about 750 caves
tradition, the sacred remains in the box hewn out in one of the cliffs of the mountain
(karandaka) found there are of Gautama ranges known as ‘Kuh-e-Baba’. There were
Buddha. The box has an inscription. It also very beautiful Buddhist murals painted inside
mentions the name ‘Agnishala’, the main these caves. The same cliff has two huge
supervisor of the building work of ‘Kanishka niches dug in it. In these niches were built
Vihara’, in the precints of ‘Mahasena two standing Buddha statues in stucco. One
Sangharama’*. This box is in the Peshawar of it was 53 metres tall the other was 38
museum at present. metres. The core of these statues was carved
out in the original sandstone of the cliff. The
*Sangharama means the residential complex built core was plastered with several layers of
for the bhikkhus. mud mixed with straw. The folds of Gautama
Buddha’s robes were modelled in this clay
The ancient ‘Nagarhar’, modern ‘Hadda’ plaster. His forearms were supported with the
near Jalalabad in Afghanistan was another help of wooden armatures and fixed with
important centre of Buddhism. There are wooden pegs. According to Yuan Chwang
several remains of stupas and viharas the statues were surrounded by colourful
scattered over the place. The sculptures found murals and even the statues were painted and
around the stupas are excellent specimens of decorated with gold coating and precious
Gandhara style. ‘Takht-i-Bahi’ is another stones.
important place, which is enlisted as ‘World
Cultural Heritage’. It is in the Pakhtunkhwa These statues were destroyed by Taliban,
province of Gandhara region. It is a part of a fundamentalist organisation in 2001 C.E.
Pakistan now.
The government of Afghanistan, with the
A Sculpture from a stupa at Hadda help of UNESCO and various associations
from countries like Japan, France, Switzerland,
etc. is working to restore this World Cultural
Heritage. Some of the murals inside the
Bamiyan caves were rediscovered, when the
work of restoration began. Also, remains of
a 19 metres long ‘Mahaparinibban’ image of
Gautama Buddha were found.

According to Yuan Chwang’s description
there was a library of rare Buddhist
manuscripts at Bamiyan. Archaelogists have
indeed found birch bark and palm leaf
manuscripts in a Bamiyan vihara.

87

Bamiyan Buddha images further to Central Asia, linking one oasis
to the other in the desert. It was easier for
Some images of Hindu gods and the merchants and travellers to find
goddesses have also been found in facilities of accommodation and food in
Afghanistan. Among them is an image of the oasis cities. They also found ready
Ganesha found near the city of Kabul. This market for their merchandise. Another line
image is dated to 4th century C.E. and it is crossed through the steppes to the north of
the earliest image among the extant Ganesha this main line. Journey on this line was
images. It may be noted that even in India relatively shorter. However, it was rarely
an image of Ganesha, as ancient as this one used by merchants as it was infested by
is not found. There is one temple called troublesome pastoral tribes and it hardly
‘Khair Khana’ near Kabul. The excavations have any accommodation and food facilities
at this site have yielded an image of God en route.
Surya mounted on a chariot.
The Silk route that continued from the
A detailed review of all the Buddhist Xinjiang province of China bifurcated into
and Hindu remains in Afghanistan is not two lines and both reached Taxila. One of
possible in this book. However, the above it reached the Gandhara region from the city
examples are enough to confirm the close of Kashgar in Xinjiang and the other reached
cultural association between the Gandhara Kashmir via Leh from Yarkand in the same
region and India before the advent of Islam. province. The Chinese monks used the same
route to reach India. An internal line to the
12.3 India and China north of the Xinjiang line started from the
province of Gansu (Kansu) and reached
The route that links Asia and Europe Kashgar. The famous ‘Great Wall of China’
was referred for the first time as the ‘Silk is in this province.
Route’ by Ferdinand von Richthofen, German
geographer. The silk route runs more than By the way : Some Chinese texts
6000 kilometres. One may have an impression mention Kashmir by the name of ‘Ki-
that the silk route is an unbroken highway. Pin’. Some texts have mentioned the
However, in reality this route is an intricate ancient city of Kapisha (Begram) in
web of major and minor lines bifurcating and Afghanistan by the same name.
crossing each other. Chinese literature mentions India
variously as ‘Shen-tu’, ‘Tien-chu’,
One of the major lines of this route ‘Tien-tu’, ‘Xien-tu’, ‘Yuan-tu’, ‘Xuan-
linked China and India and then extended tu’, etc. Among all these names the
name Yin-tu has prevailed in China
till today.

In China the kings of ‘Han’
dynasty were ruling, when Kanishka
ruled in India.

Sir Aurel Stein, the British
archaeologist was the first to conduct
an archaeological survey on the silk
route traversing through India, China
and Central Asia.

88

It was in the 1st century C.E. that Buddha and Bodhisattvas. This art style that
Buddhism began to spread from India to originated in the Xinjiang province is known
China. The ‘Han’ dynasty that arose in China as ‘Serendian Art Style’ (Seres meaning
in this period had expanded its empire up to China + India). Serendian Art Style was
Central Asia. They dominated the silk route. influenced by Gandhara art. It presents a
Keeping in with the tradition ‘Ming-ti’ the combination of Greek, Persian and Chinese
second king of the Han dynasty had sent his art forms. During the exploratory survey
representatives to India. They returned to conducted by Sir Aurel Stein many terracotta
China accompanied by two Buddhist monks, sculptures of Serendian style were brought to
‘Kashyapa Matang’ and ‘Dharmaraksha’ in light.
67 C.E. They carried many Buddhist texts
with them. The texts were loaded on white In the 4th- 6th century C.E. many Buddhist
horses. After reaching China the monks temples and viharas were built in China.
translated the texts in Chinese language. The However, stupas built in this period were
Chinese emperor built a temple in their very few. Instead of a stupa every temple
honour, which is known as ‘White Horse had a pagoda of Chinese style. These pagoda
Temple’. This is the first Buddhist temple being wooden, hardly any of them exists
built in China. today. These pagodas used to have multiple
floors. The upper floors of the pagodas
In the 3rd century C.E. the rule of the successively reduced in size. The uppermost
Han dynasty ended and the period of floor held a metal staff (yashti), which was
disintegration and unrest began with it, fixed with metal rings that became
pushing common people to a state of successively smaller in size. Arrangement of
desperation. This period lasted till 6th century staff and the rings seems to be the only
C.E. People got attracted to Buddhism in reminder of the Umberella in the Indian
this period in large numbers. Many Chinese stupa architecture. Later, pagodas were built
pilgrims began to visit Buddhist centres in by using bricks and stones.
Central Asia and India. In the 4th century
C.E., Kumarjeeva the famous and highly The influence of Buddhist art tradition
learned monk translated many Buddhist texts from India still exists in the form of rock-cut
in Chinese language. In the 6th century the caves. Three of them have received the status
popularity of Buddhism reached its peak in of World Cultural Heritage. Among them the
China. By this time both sects of Buddhism, caves of ‘Dunhuang’ are located on the
Theravada (Hinayana) and Mahayana, and ancient silk route. These caves are known as
their sub-sects were well established in China. ‘Mogao Caves’. Creation of these caves
In 7th century C.E. Islam and Christianity continued till 13th-14th century C.E.
were gradually introduced. Kubalai Khan, the
grandson of Genghis Khan had great interest The merchants coming from the
in Buddhism. interior regions of China used to gather at
Dunhuang. It was an important meeting point
The spread of Buddhism in China in the for the Chinese merchants and those coming
1st century C.E. also introduced a new trend from other countries. Nearly 500 caves of
in the Chinese art. Many of the Mahayana Dunhuang are enriched with numerous
Buddhist monks who arrived in China, hailed sculptures and murals. Thousands of
from Central Asia. Their presence in China manuscripts were discovered from these
inspired the making of images of Gautama caves.

89

In the next lesson we will briefly its history and the extant traces of Indian
review the spread of Indian culture in Sri culture in those countries.
Lanka and the countries in Southeast Asia,

Exercise

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.2 Complete the concept map.
complete the sentence.
Jataka Stories
(1) The coin hoards found in
had Roman gold coins in it. Texts describing the
(a) Tamilnadu (b) Maharashtra Indian trade with
(c) Karnataka (d) Kerala distant places

(2) The famous king Hammurabi had Q.3 Explain the following statements with
reason.
ruled the kingdom of . (1) Buddhism reached China during
Kushana period .
(a) Syria (b) Babylon (2) The merchants rarely used the shorter
line of the Silk Route.
(c) China (d) Greece
Q.4 Give your opinion.
(3) The route that links Asia and There were close cultural association
between the Gandhara region and India
is referred as the ‘Silk Route’. before the advent of Islam.

(a) Europe (b) Africa Q.5 Write short notes.
(1) Shahji-ki-Dheri
(c) America (d) Russia (2) The Bamiyan Buddhas

(4) ‘White Horse Temple’ is the first Q.6 Answer the following question with the
help of given points.
Buddhist temple built in . Write about the ties between ancient India
and China.
(a) India (b) Japan (a) Trade relations
(b) The spread of Buddhism in China
(c) China (d) Egypt (c) Serendian art style

(B) Find the incorrect pair and write Activity
the correct ones. Collect more information about the ‘Silk
Route’ with the help of internet.
(1) Strabo – Geographia
(2) Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia 
(3) Hippalus – Hippokura
(4) Arrian – Indica

(C) Write the names.
(1) A place in the Gandhara region

enlisted as a world Cultural heritage.
(2) Buddhist monks in the 4th century

B.C.E. who translated many Buddhist
texts in Chinese language

90

13. India, Shri Lanka and Southeast Asia

13.1 India and Sri Lanka sermon from Thera
13.2 India and Southeast Asia
Mahinda, the King and

all the subjects

13.1 India and Sri Lanka accompanying him

The history of Sri Lanka and India has became the followers
remained close-knit from ancient times.
‘Deepvamsa’, ‘Mahavamsa’, ‘Chullavamsa’ of Buddhism.Anula,
are the three texts that tell us about the
Indian and Sri Lankan dynasties, their mutual the wife of king’s
relations and the historical events, in the
times before and after Gautama Buddha. younger brother wished
These texts are known as ‘Vamsagranthas’.
to become a Bhikkhuni.
According to the Vamsagranthas, the
first kingdom of Sri Lanka was established On hearing of her
in the 6th century C.E. and was known as
‘Tambapanni (Tamrapanni)’. Another name wish, Thera Mahinda
of the kingdom was ‘Rajrat’. Greek historians
have mentioned it as ‘Taprobane’. According suggested that his sister
to the tradition, King Vijaya, the founder of
this kingdom was a prince from the Vang- Theri Sanghamitta
Kalinga kingdom in India. He first went to
Supparaka (Sopara) on the west coast of (Sanghamitra) may be
India from Vang-Kalinga and from there
reached Sri Lanka. invited from India, for

the purpose.

Statue of Accordingly, Theri

Devanampiya Tissa Sanghamitta arrived in
at Mihinthale Sri Lanka. She brought a

branch of the ‘Bodhi’

tree along with her. King Devanampiya Tissa

welcomed her personally. Theri Sanghamitta

initiated Anula into the Buddhist Sangha.

Anula was the first woman to became a

Buddhist nun. With Anula’s initiation, Theri

Sanghmitta established the first Bhikkhuni

For further information of the ancient Shasan (Bhikkhuni Sangha) of Sri Lanka.
kingdoms and important ports in Sri Lanka,
visit the following web site. The festival known as ‘Unduvapa Poya’*
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anuradhapura_ is celebrated every year in Sri Lanka, on the
Kingdom#/media File:Important_ locations_of_ full moon in the month of December, in the
Anuradhapura_Kingdom.png memory of Theri Sanghamitta’s arrival.

Thera Mahinda (Mahendra), son of * ‘Unduvapa Poya’ means full moon in the month of December.

Emperor Ashoka arrived at Mihinthale, near The important cultural places in Sri
Lanka
Anuradhpur, the capital of Sri Lanka. He
Anuradhpur - Mihinthale : Thera
initiated (pabbajja/pravrajjya) King Mahinda and Theri Sanghamitta stayed at
Mihinthale near Anuradhpaur. It facilitated
Devanampiya Tissa of Sri Lanka to Buddhism.

This event has been described in great details

in the vamsagranthas. After listening to the

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