Indian Society

(C) Identify the appropriate term from Q.5 (B) State whether the following
the given option in the box and statements are True or False with
rewrite it against the given statement. reasons.

Urban community, Devrai, Gramdevata (1) Division of labour is complex in urban
community.

(1) Sacred groves in the tribal community. (2) The traditional influence of caste has
changed today.
(2) Instances of white collar crime.

(D) Correct the underlined words and Q.6 Give your personal response.
complete the statement.
(1) Why is there lack of community
(1) Individual status in urban society is feeling in cities?
mostly ascribed.
(2) Explain the need for rural development.

(2) The custom of worshipping non-living Q.7 Answer the following question in
bodies is called animism. detail. (About 150 words)

Q.2 Write short notes. ‘Traditional communities tend to hold
on to their customs, traditions and
(1) Problems of tribal community. beliefs.’ Using examples of your own,
explain the statement with special
(2) Characteristics of urban community. reference to either family or religion.
Also, discuss any three ways by which
Q.3 Write differences. change is introduced into traditional
communities.
(1) Rural economy and Urban economy

(2) Tribal community and Urban
community

Q.4 Explain the following concepts with Activity
examples.
Visit a government primary or
(1) Urban crime Ashram school in a tribal or rural or
urban area. Find out from the School
(2) Sacred groves Head about enrolment numbers,
classes taught, number of teachers,
Q.5 (A) Complete the concept map. subjects they teach, problems they
face, needs that they have. Write a
Purpose for report on your findings.
cultural contact

with tribals

Activity

What do you mean by rural
reconstruction ? Find out about
programmes started by (a) government
and (b) voluntary associations for
people in rural India. Prepare a poster
exhibition in your school or library.



www

42

3. Diversity and Unity in Indian Society

3.1 Diversity in Indian Society as variety or different. We will discuss in
3.2 Unity in Diversity this part about the most powerful sources of
3.3 Challenges to National Unity diversity i.e. race, religion, language, region,
caste, class and gender in Indian society.

INTRODUCTION Equality

India is a land of “Unity in diversity”. Racial Diversity : A simplistic definition
In light of this statement we will discuss in of race could be that it is a group of people
this unit, aspects and indicators regarding with a set of distinctive physical features.
diversity and unity in Indian society, together A.W. Green says, “A race is a large biological
with the challenges posed for national human grouping with a number of distinctive,
integration. The sources of diversity in India inherited characteristics which vary within a
may be traced through a variety of ways, the certain range.” Racial classifications are
most obvious being the ethnic origins, made on the basis of certain genetic traits.
religions, castes, tribes, languages, social Such types of traits used in classification of
customs, cultural and sub-cultural beliefs, races are referred to as racial criteria. It is
political philosophies and ideologies, a difficult task to construct a systematic
geographical variations etc. Despite this, one ethnography of the teeming millions of Indian
feature that is most often noticed about India population. However, several anthropologists
is its unity in diversity. Unity implies oneness like J.H. Hutton, D.N. Majumdar and B. S.
or a sense of ‘we-feeling’; it holds tightly Guha have given racial classifications of
together various relationships and belief Indian people. Let us look at the classification
systems of diverse ethnic communities or given by - B.S. Guha. He classifies the
institutions into some form of acceptable population of India into six main racial
unity, through bonds of contrived structures, groups, as follows:
norms and values. The phrase “Unity in
diversity” refers to the state of togetherness
or oneness in-spite of immense diversity.
“Unity in diversity” is based on the concept
where the individual or social differences in
physical attributes, caste, gender, creed,
cultural and religious practices, etc. are not
looked upon as conflicting. In this unit, we
shall also examine how the dynamics of
racial, religious, linguistic, regional, caste,
class and gender differences generate forces
that question this oneness.

3.1 DIVERSITY IN INDIAN SOCIETY

Indian society is a land of various types
of diversity. The dictionary defines ‘diversity’,

43

It is observed by scholars now, that there RReelliiggiioouuss PPooppuullaattiioonn %%
are no pure racial types across the world, ggrroouupp ((22001111 CCeennssuuss))
rather there are mixed types of the archetypal
racial groups. Migrations across time and HHiinndduuss 7799..8800
space have ensured that there occurred a lot
of intermixture of these races and this resulted MMuusslliimmss 1144..2233
in enormous racial heterogeneity among the
people of India. Thus even though there are CChhrriissttiiaannss 0022..3300
racial classifications of human beings, at SSiikkhhss 0011..7722
present, the basis for identifying differences BBuuddddhhiissttss 00..7700
is no longer limited to external physical JJaaiinnss 00..3377
attributes. The use of scientific technology PPaarrssii 00..0066
has enabled the study of physical qualities TThheerree aarree oonnllyy 44665500 JJeewwss iinn IInnddiiaa..
through genetic studies and DNA testing,
which have greater validity and reliability. We cannot assume that all members of
a faith are unanimous with regard to their
Religious Diversity : The institution of beliefs and practices. There are various
religion is universal. It is found in all interpretations of sacred literature and
societies - past and present. Religious dogmas ethnocentric positions on the part of many
have influenced and conditioned economic sub-groups within. Religion tends to bring
endeavours, political movements, social together people of the faith to celebrate
hierarchies, and cultural differences. Religion commonly cherished festivals and events.
is one of the key facts of diversity in Indian These festivities have brought together people
society. Although India is a multi-religious of differing faiths to celebrate festivals like
and multi-cultural country, the secular Ganapati, Diwali, Ramzan Eid, Pateti,
mandate informed by the Constitution of Christmas and so on. Also, the Government
India ensures that the secular fabric of of India through its declaration of public
society is maintained. It is a land where holidays for various religious festivals of
tribal beliefs of animism and naturism, and significance, enable people of various faiths
religions like Hinduism, Jainism and to mark the occasion. For example, Good
Buddhism, have originated and flourished. Friday, Ram Navami, Eid-ul-Fitr etc. For
Later there has been the influence of example, in Kolkata the festival of lights
Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism and (Diwali) is celebrated along with the Jewish
Sikhism. The basic ideas and faith of each
religion may differ, but they continue to
coexist in Indian society.

The Right to Freedom of Religion is also
declared as a Fundamental Right by the
Indian Constitution. Indian religions have
exerted significant influence all over the
world. Each major religion is sub-divided
along the lines of religious doctrines, sects,
and cults. In the next column is a table
showing the distribution of religious groups
in India based on religious identity.

Religious Diversity

44

Festival of Lights (Hannukah). protection to linguistic minorities. A unique
feature of India is the concept of protecting
Activity 1 the interest of children to get basic education
in their mother tongues (i.e. home language).
Form groups of 5-7 students.
Identify a specific religion. 21st February 2017 was declared as an
Interview 5 people of the specific International Mother Language Day by the
religion chosen by you and find United Nations. Long before this, the founders
out about their religious customs of the Constitution of India had already given
and traditions. Write a report and top priority to teaching in the mother-tongue
present your findings in your class. thus enabling the child to develop its full
potential. The language policy of India is
Linguistic Diversity : Multilinguism is pluralistic and it gives priority to the use of
a way of life in India. In 1956, Indian States mother–tongue in administration, education
were organised on a linguistic basis. Hence, and other fields of mass communication. To
domiciles of a particular State speak a implement and monitor this policy, the
particular language. India is a land of many Government has set up ‘The Language
languages. Bureau’ under the Ministry of Human
Resource Development.
The Constitution of India has approved
of 22 official languages. Among these, three Today, linguistic diversity needs to be
languages have been recognised as classical preserved. Speakers of diverse languages are
languages viz. Sanskrit, Tamil and Kannada. becoming rare and the major languages are
All three have been given a special status being adopted after abandoning the ‘mother–
and recognition by the Government of India. tongue’.
These classical languages have a written and
oral history of over 1000 years. Community participation is required to
conserve language diversity which is a major
The Language Policy of India guarantees part of the cultural wealth of India.

Classification of Language Family in India

Indo-Aryan Dravidian Austro - Sino – Andamanese
(Arya) (Dravida) Asiatic Tibetan
(Nishada) (Kirata) Spoken by
Sanskrit, Telugu, tribal people
Kashmiri, Hindi, Kurukh, Munda Has 3 sub
Bengali, Punjabi, Oraon, Maler, [comprised of – divisions of the
Kui, Parji, 14 languages viz. Tibeto- Andaman
Rajasthani, Kolami, e.g. Mundari, Himalayan, Islands viz.
Gujarati, Sindhi, Tamil, Santhali, Ho, Himalayan Aka – Jeru,
Kutchi, Marathi, Malayalam, languages, Ongan and
Oriya, Assamese, Kannada, etc.] Mon Sentinelese
Urdu, Konkani, Tulu, Kota, – Khmer [has Bhutia
Bihari, Avadhi, Coorgi, Toda. Languages
2 sub –
Chhattisgarhi, groups viz.
Bugheli, Alawari.
Khasi,
Nicobari.

45

2011 Census: Total Speakers as a of identities. For instance, all regional
percentage of the total population identifications need to be read contextually.

Language % of Speakers OUR WORLD
Hindi 57.1
English 10.6 Layered regional identities
Bengali 8.9 Region refers to territorial entities found
Marathi 8.2 within the country. For example, one might
Telugu 7.8 talk of the North Eastern region, which
Tamil 6.3 comprises the “seven sisters”. However, even
Gujarati 5.0 within a State, there are regions. For example,
Urdu 5.2 in Maharashtra State the regions include –
4.94 Konkan, Vidarbha, Khandesh, Marathwada
Kannada 3.56 and Western Maharashtra.
Odia 3.02
2.9 You should know !
Punjabi 0.01
Malayalam The North Eastern States of India
include the following – Arunachal Pradesh,
Sanskrit Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram,
Manipur and Tripura known as the “seven
You should know ! sisters”.

As a part of linguistic diversity, the This region has a very hilly terrain
Prasar Bharati of All India Radio has and is immensely rich culturally. A large
to broadcast in twenty-three languages section of the tribal population of India
and 179 dialects. live here. For example: Garo, Khasi,
Naga, Mizo, Zomi, Lepcha, Kuki, Bodo.
Activity 2
You might observe that they also
Make groups of 5 students. have distinctive physical characteristics in
Identify one State in India and the terms of skin colour, hair texture, sunken
languages and dialects spoken in it. nose, almond-shaped eyes, double fold of
If possible make audio recordings of the eye lids.
some languages and dialects. Share
with your class. Display their written While each community has its own
script (if any). history, folklore, dance, traditions, and
music, many of these have been affected
Regional Diversity : Region can be by culture-contact with other communities.
understood as a spatial and temporal construct
that exhibits some degree of cultural
homogeneity. People within this geographical
space identify with the present through its
shared past. Narrow regional identities are
not however independent of wider networks

46

Conversion of large sections to Hinduism, provide services to the Jajman and in return
Buddhism, Islam or Christianity is not was given rewards in terms of kind (food
uncommon. This region also has seen an grains, clothes, and many other considerations
influx of people from other parts of the like free residential plot, free food, aid in
Indian subcontinent and outside India. litigation, use of animal and instruments etc.)
However, the jajmani system is gradually
Each region, has a rich and unique fading away with the advent of market and
diversity of its own. Its natural environment monetary economy.
– rivers, water sources, soil, forests, minerals
and its socio-economic and political The practice of caste system is not
environment. People within a region are confined to Hindus. Caste-like divisions are
diverse as regards their race, ethnicity, seen among Muslims, Christians and Sikhs
language, dialect, food, customs, mannerisms, as well. We have heard of the hierarchy of
beliefs and practices, control mechanisms Amir, Shaikh, Sayyed, Pathan among the
such as laws, mores etc. Every region has Muslims. Furthermore, there are castes like
its own and unique history which has shaped Teli (oil pressure), Dhobi (washerman),
its present. For example, in Maharashtra the Darjee (tailor) etc. among the Muslims.
role and significance of Chhatrapati Shivaji Similarly, caste consciousness among the
Maharaj is well-established. Christians in India is not unknown. Since a
vast majority of Christians in India were
Caste Diversity : Caste is a major converted from the Hindu-fold, some converts
source of diversity in Indian society. The have carried their caste system into their
etymology of the term caste is found in the Christian identity. Under the Constitutional
Portuguese word ‘casta’ meaning race. The Order of 1950, which was amended in 1990,
British used the term caste to define various the term “Scheduled Caste” can only be used
ethnic groups of India. Sociologists today by Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist people who are
define caste through two axis i.e. varna and listed on the schedule, whereas “Scheduled
jati. Varna is the overall, overarching Tribe” persons may have any religious
ideological division of Hindus into the four- identity. In view of this we can well imagine
fold hierarchy of Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya the extent of caste diversity in India.
and Shudra. It is believed that there are
about 3500 jatis found in India, out of which Class Diversity : Diversity is also based
751 are classified under the Scheduled Caste on “class” about which you have studied in
communities. the first year Sociology course. Class is
typically based on: (i) financial position that
The caste system provided the bases of is, economic criteria, and (ii) Education.
social structure. The different castes functioned
in an interdependent barter relationship which Our sense of economic class influences
was the basis of the agrarian economy. It the way we think, the choices we make, the
was also a source of inequality and prejudices we harbour, our dreams, hopes
marginalisation of some communities. It and aspirations. A consciousness about one’s
maintains exchange of goods and services economic class identity is a lived reality.
between various jatis. It was based on a Thus for example, one makes a choice
patron-client relationship. The patron is whether to use public transport or one’s own
known as Jajman who used to be a landlord. vehicle to go to work; one decides whether
The client is known as Kamin (from the to buy grains from a store in our neighborhood
artisan/ service castes). The Kamin used to or at a mall, where to study, or how to get
married and so on. Those who identify as

47

“Upper Class” constitute a small minority in the dominance of ‘heteronormativity’ (that is
Indian society as a whole. The masses the norm that reinforces and “normalises” the
identify as belonging to the middle or lower gender binary) in society and in all its
economic strata. institutions such as family, marriage, polity,
economy, religion etc. There are individuals,
Gender Diversity : In order to understand groups and societies which have challenged
gender diversity it is necessary to appreciate the notion of a binary and thus are more
the difference between sex and gender. You inclusive of sexual and gender pluralities.
might recall discussing gender as a basis for
social stratification in Standard XI Sociology. When discussing gender diversity, we
need to be aware of a related term which
Gender diversity is linked to the notion also leads to diversity - gender expression.
of ‘gender’ (a social construct), which in turn This is inextricably linked to gender
is related to concepts such as gender binary, socialisation. Most of us are coerced into
gender expression, sexuality and sexual conformity to follow the expectations of
orientation. gender linked to one’s sex. Today however,
societies are gradually opening up to
Gender diversity understanding and accepting gender fluidity
(that is, those persons who do not limit
Gender includes diversities that go beyond themselves within the binary). Gender fluidity
gender binaries of female-male, feminine- is not a western import but has been a part
masculine, her-his etc. Today, our understanding of our traditional Indian culture. There are
of gender diversity also includes the sexual references to Hindu deities who were gender
orientation of people. In this context, you fluid.
may be familiar with the acronym ‘LGBT’.
Sexuality : Each individual may
• Lesbian : Female-Female relationship relate to another person physically,
• Gay : Male-Male relationship emotionally and/or sexually. This
• Bisexual : People who are attracted to constitutes one’s sexuality and helps
us to understand the sexual orientation
two sexes (namely, Female and Male) of a person. It is not a preference; it
• Transgender : A person whose biological is not a matter of choice.

sex does not match one’s psychological You will recall reading about
sense of self. decriminalisation of homosexuality by a
historic judgement of the Supreme Court of
What constitutes appropriate behaviour India on 6th September 2018. The Government
for girls/women and boys/men is a result of of India has also recognised transgender
social conditioning, indoctrination and cultural people and their rights.
definitions. Hence, there is variability between
societies, as well as within groups in a Awareness about and sensitivity to
specific society. This leads us to understand diversities based on gender will help: (i)
dispel ignorance and myths related to gender
(ii) restore dignity to people with different
gender identities (iii) eradicate hate, violence,
prejudice and discrimination towards gender
non-conforming individuals (iv) promote

48

equality and justice as enshrined in the Indian India has always assimilated strands of
Constitution. different cultures that it came into contact
with and at the same time has retained the
Activity 3 essentials of its own. This is a fact that has
There have been protests regarding struck several foreign scholars also. Despite
The Transgender Persons (Protection of numerous invasions, the people have managed
Rights) Act, 2019. to maintain the spirit of the past. From early
Find out more about this and hold times as far back as 2000 years ago, there
a class discussion. have been attempts to bring about political
unity of India. Towering examples are Emperors
3.2 UNITY IN DIVERSITY Ashoka, Harshvardhan, Vikramaditya and
Akbar.
Unity amidst Diversity
The fact that Indians today, despite their
India is a country where people from differences, have adapted to political
diverse social locations function as a society. democracy, indicates the underlying unity in
It is not as though no conflicts exist. Indian diversity. One important point is that the
society is characterised by integration of the Indian people have never regarded diversity
plural traditions and cultural practices that as a problem but more as a treasure to be
give it a sense of we-ness. This assimilation cherished.
of diverse traditions is enabled by the
constitutional mandate of India to remain a The inner strength of India lies in our
secular society. There have been phases ability to accommodate variety and multiplicity
where the secular nature of Indian society within the framework of larger unity. It is
has been questioned. Nonetheless Indian the sign of a healthy organism that the
society has demonstrated much accomodation processes of integration and differentiation go
and resilience. on side by side. This is indicative of
civilisational unity.
According to D.P. Singhal, in his book-
“India and World Civilisations” unity in In the words of D. P. Singhal, “The
diversity is a theme that runs through the forces of unity are like the red blood
entire course of Indian history. There is so corpuscles whose proportion in the blood
much diversity in India along lines of region, stream should neither rise above nor fall
language, religion, caste etc. that a picture below a certain point. To preserve this
of unity becomes complex. However, through balance is not an easy task.”
all these differences, there are cross-cutting
solidarities which helps us as a nation to Process of unity in India : At the root
combine and recombine. What does this of all the co-existing diversities, there exists
mean? an underlying unity. This has created a
composite culture decisively pan-Indian in
nature.

Unity implies oneness or a sense of
oneness meaning integration. However, unity
does not mean uniformity, which implies
similarity. The bond of unity in relation to
India’s heritage in a certain underlying
uniformity of life, has been reflected in the

49

observations of many foreigners too. Unity conditions vary to a large extent in different
amidst diversity is visualised in the geo- parts of India, though the overarching
political sphere, institution of pilgrimage, monsoon season connects the whole of the
tradition of accommodation, tradition of country.
interdependence, emotional bonding etc.
You should know !
The concept of secularism in the Indian
context is particularly useful, given the nature Interestingly the term monsoon
of our religious plurality. In India, secularism originates from the Arabic word,
implies respect and tolerance for people of Mausum coined by the Arab traders
all faiths. This is beautifully encapsuled in who did business with the various
the term, ‘sarvadharmasamabhav’. India has kingdoms in this region.
been and continues to be a land with multiple
faith systems. This necessarily includes One would find some kind of unity in
acceptance of people who do not subscribe the agrarian cycles such as the sowing season
to any religious identity, custom or practice, and the harvest season. The natural resources
but who may express their loyalty and such as rivers, minerals and forests cut across
commitment to secular values such as the length and breadth of India. Sharing of
scientific endeavour, humanitarianism, these resources gives the people a sense of
humanism and so forth. oneness. Festivals such as Onam in Kerala,
Makar Sankrant in Western and South India,
Why do we need unity? Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Baisakhi in Punjab
and Bihu in Assam revolve around the
l To strengthen and enrich our cultural harvest season.
heritage
Religious Unity : Although various
l To protect the multiple diversities of religious groups in India present external
Indian society difference, it is not impossible to trace some
commonly shared elements. Each religion
l To protect Human Rights of all preaches fundamentally religious faith, and
citizens. shares a belief in the value of life,
benevolence, piety and virtues such as
l To boost workplace, organisational honesty, simplicity, goodness etc. India is a
and community morale. land of diverse religious faiths.

l For effective and inclusive Religious unity in India finds its
communication expression through places of worship scattered
all over the country. Visitors from India and
l For conflict resolution abroad throng to religious places of Hindus
as Badrainarayan in the North, Dwarka in
l For peaceful coexistence the West and Ramashwaram in the South
and Puri in the East; the Golden Temple of
l For the welfare of all people the Sikhs in Amritsar, the Christian church
irrespective of caste, creed, sex, gender, at Velankanni, the Jewish synagogue in Fort
race, economic class, culture etc. Kochi, shrines of Muslim saints, Ajmer
Dargah etc. Festivals such as Kumbh Mela,
l For prosperity of our land and its Feast of Mother Mary, Kurukshetra festival,
people Ganpati, Durga Puja, Moharram, Thrissurpuram

Geographical Unity : India like every
other country has its own boundaries that are
natural. In the North stands the Great
Himalayas and water bodies on the other
sides of the Indian peninsula. Climate

50

attract lakhs of people of all faiths, year Political Unity : India is a plural society
after year. Despite differences of individual both in letter and spirit. It is rightly
religious practice, religious celebrations and characterised by its unity and diversity.
days continue to represent the religious unity National unity and integrity have been
of this vast country. maintained even though sharp economic and
social inequalities have obstructed the
Thrissur Pooram festival (Kerala) emergence of an egalitarian society. The
Five-Year Plans and several developmental
Role of Religion in Social schemes were geared towards uplifting the poor
Integration and weaker sections of society as a whole.

M.N.Srinivas examines the role of The Constitution of India has established
religion in social integration as a binding the “rule of law” throughout the country. All
force among individuals and groups. He citizens are equal and subject to the same
refers to three points: (1) The relations authority. Religion, language, region, caste,
between different castes and religious gender or community is no longer the basis
groups at the village and other local of special social status, powers and privileges.
levels, (2) The general role of religion The weaker sections of society - the Scheduled
in the economic development of the Castes, the Scheduled Tribes, Denotified
country; and (3) Religion and socio- Tribes, Other Backward Classes, Religious,
economic privileges. There is an Linguistic and Sexual Minorities have been
association between religious communities given special concessions for their
and specific economic functions they amelioration. Colonial exploitation has been
perform. The spread of various replaced by processes of development and an
communities all over the country and egalitarian ideology.
diversification of their economic activities
have strengthened the process of social Activity 5
integration.
Find out about various schemes
Activity 4 started by the government for welfare
Class Discussion in small groups: of: (i) STs (ii) SCs (iii) Women (iv)
Topic: Religion can be a force Disabled persons. Share your findings
that unifies and divides society. in your class.
Assignment based on discussion.
Linguistic Unity : Linguistic unity
means that every language in the country,
whether regional or national language, must
be treated equally. The Indian State recognises
linguistic diversities and also makes special
provisions to protect and support some of the
languages and dialects that are on the verge
of extinction.

The three-language formula followed
by all State Education Boards enables the
inculcation of Hindi and English as languages
to connect with the Union, English to connect
with the outside world and the regional/local

51

You should know ! Modern Indian Language (in
Hindi speaking States)
The Three Language Formula
The Three Language Formula (TLF) English or Modern Indian Language
was devised in the Chief Minister’s not studied as 2nd language (in non-
conference – 1961. The Kothari Commission Hindi speaking States).
(1964-66) examined and recommended
the same. As per the policy the three Most States in India have
languages recommended were: implemented the TLF. Challenges for a
(i) 1st language : Regional meaningful implementation continue.

Language or Mother Tongue.  Find out the States that have
(ii) 2nd language : English or adopted the TLF.

Modern Indian Language (in Note : Today you can use the term
Hindi speaking States) ‘Home Language’ instead of “Mother
Hindi or English (in non–Hindi Tongue”. This is especially useful when
speaking States) relating to families where spouses come
(iii) 3rd language : English or from different linguistic backgrounds.

language for communication within the State. unity does exist in India. Various saints,
Classical languages and languages of writers, artistes (for example Aurobindo,
linguistic minorities have also found a place Mother Teresa, Baba Amte, Tagore, Bhimsen
in educational curricula. Many educational Joshi, Ara, Nizzim Ezekiel) through their life
bodies offer learners the option of answering work have evinced the feeling of belonging
their examinations in a range of mediums to each other, a sense of identity of purpose
(e.g. Marathi, Hindi, Urdu, Gujarati, Kannada, and emotion.
English). Doordarshan and Akashwani have
programmes in multiple Indian languages There are various patriotic renditions
that reach out to millions of persons who of the National Anthem or films based on
tune in to them. These are measures that the principle of cultural integration. These
promote a sense of linguistic unity among have showcased classical musicians, singers,
multi-lingual people of the land. folk artists, crafts persons, artists,
sportspersons, dance forms, defence services,
However, language is a double-edged philanthropists, reformers etc. Such
sword: it can act as a barrier for many on presentations evoke a sense of love, concern
the one hand, and on the other, it serves as as well as pride for that which is Indian.
a bridge, linking people from across the country.
3.3 CHALLENGES TO
Cultural Unity : Indian culture exhibits NATIONAL UNITY
cultural unity, reflected in the literature and
thought of different communities despite the India has always been seen by scholars
obvious differences in customs and traditions. as a unique example of unity in diversity in
Festivals like Diwali, Onam, Eid, Raksha spite of regional, linguistic, religious and
Bandhan, New Year, Christmas are ethnic differences dividing India into
remembered and celebrated all over the apparently irreconcilable social groups. The
country. This is possible only because cultural diversities in terms of communities, races,

52

classes, languages and sub-cultures are bound to time. Caste prejudices are yet another
to pose obstacles to the achievement of factor that affects the way people behave or
national integration. The following factors relate to others. Excessive caste-based loyalty
which obstruct the growth of national feeling is particularly evident at the time of elections,
viz. casteism, communalism, regionalism, with political parties wooing members of
linguism, and economic inequalities have been their own caste for the sake of votes.
outlined below.
Caste and Reservation
Casteism : Casteism refers to loyalty to
one’s own caste before loyalty to the nation. The Constitution of India, allows
Caste ties are so strong that people are affirmative action through positive
inclined to think in terms of caste before the discrimination (reservation) in education
nation. This may lead to caste members and employment, which is based on caste
protecting their own caste group through and socio-economic backwardness for STs
social service, education, medical and other and SCs. Later, this was extended to Other
welfare schemes. This can lead to several Backward Classes (OBCs). Recently the
problems viz. it can restrict interaction in GOI has announced 10% quota for
society. Also, when such caste loyalty takes Economically Weaker Sections (EWS).
political overtones, it becomes dangerous. These reservations are restricted to
This is because caste members take with government-run or government-aided
them their biases and prejudices into politics. institutions. The Central Government has
They then begin to express their petty fixed 15 per cent reservations for Scheduled
jealousies and sectarian interests in various Castes (SC), 7.5 per cent for Scheduled
ways. People are influenced by them and Tribes (ST) and 27 per cent for Other
vote for their own caste members. Those Backward Classes (OBC). A sizeable
castes having numerical strength rise up proportion of Scheduled Castes who have
through politics. Those who win the elections embraced Buddhism and Christianity also
then favour their caste groups in various qualify for such reservations.
ways. In view of all this, the problem of
national integration becomes very serious. Communalism : Communalism refers
mainly to loyalty to one’s own religion before
Despite laws, urbanisation, industrialisation the nation. India is one of the countries in
and education, the caste system continues in the world where so many religions co-exist
the mindsets of many people. Caste has side by side. While on the one hand this
become a means for competing for access to enriches our cultural heritage, at the same
resources and power in modern India. time we also make sure that this does not
Discrimination on the basis of caste is a become a cause for separatism.
major hurdle for national integration. People
engaged in weakening the unity of the Communal conflict is one of the worst
country tried desperately to create divisions blots on national reputation. It is a displeasing
and rifts in the name of caste, creed and factor that affects the unity of the nation.
culture. They succeeded in creating mistrust Whatever may be the cause of the conflict,
among Indian people. The feeling of social the damage it does to the nation is very deep
neglect among scheduled castes due to and far reaching.
suppression by upper castes has disturbed the
sense of ‘we feeling’ and unity. Socially speaking, communal conflict
creates feelings of deep hatred, bitterness and
Caste atrocities get reported from time antagonism between members of different
religious communities. Such conflicts also
lead to feelings of insecurity and they loosen

53

bonds of solidarity. State. There is also a strong urge to give
priority to the economic development of one’s
Economically speaking, communal own region. This leads to Inter-State rivalries.
conflicts retard economic growth and
development. Often, resources have to be So long as this Inter-State rivalry is
diverted for the damage caused by communal economic and social (e.g. for funds and
riots and clashes. Production suffers and welfare schemes), it is healthy. But when this
there is severe monetary loss for the nation. rivalry takes political overtones, it becomes
very dangerous. Political parties give more
Politically speaking, communal conflict importance and weightage to local and
weakens democracy. It allows politicians to regional matters and problems rather than the
use religion as leverage into positions of nation as a whole. Regionalism thus
prominence for their vested interests. Also, on strengthens sectarian biases by political
the international front, communal conflict parties. Inter-regional tensions escalate over
affects India’s image adversely and weakens economic, political and such issues. This has
it considerably. led to regional movements for State rights
and militant movements for separatism. For
Religious antagonism has posed a serious example, the Jammu and Kashmir issue, the
challenge to national integration in India. Punjab problem, Assam issue etc. All this, if
Our history is fraught with accounts of unchecked, can strike at the very root of
frequent conflicts due to religious differences. democracy.
People belonging to different religions feel
that their religion is superior; this is a Linguism : Linguism has its origin in
problem of enhanced ethnocentrism. Religious the linguistic division of States and the
fundamentalists try to impose their religious linguistic minorities within the State. In every
practices on others, which leads to situations State, there is one dominant regional language.
of conflict. Along with this, there are other large sections
speaking other regional languages and
Political manipulation is often known to dialects. They constitute the linguistic
project one religion against the other which minorities. For example, in Maharashtra,
has resulted in communal riots, mutual Marathi is the dominant regional language. At
distrust and disintegration. Large scale illiteracy the same time, there are a large number of
and superstitions are responsible, along with people speaking Gujarati, Konkani, Sindhi,
other causes for the rise of communal Punjabi, Tamil, Kannada etc. Even among
violence and divisive tendencies in the country. Marathi-speaking people, there are variations
in dialect. If these minorities begin to feel
Religious fundamentalism can lead to that their interests are being disregarded and
acts of terrorism which can create a fear their welfare ignored, such a feeling is
psychosis in the minds of people. harmful to our national unity and solidarity.

Regionalism : Regionalism refers to Linguism today has acquired seriousness
loyalty to one’s own State or region before and intensity. It has led to a definite form
one’s nation. This interferes with national of linguistic nationalism which can provide
integration to a great extent. The history of enough impetus for separatism in India.
a particular region is glorified and often it
is misused to stress divisive forces, thus Language plays an important role in
ignoring the common cultural legacy and communication in an organisation. It enables
heritage. us express opinions, share feelings and
convey messages and build knowledge. When
Regionalism emerges due to the desire
of people speaking one language to have one

54

language becomes the basis for conflict of malnutrition deaths of infants?
between people, this problem is called
linguism. It is a form of excess loyalty (2) Private property : Numerous people
towards one’s own language. Linguistic do not own physical property on the one
fanaticism poses a threat to national integration. hand, and on the other, there are very few
who own excessive property. It is true that
Indian States have been divided on a the large part of resources available are
linguistic basis. People of one language try consumed by relatively few people who have
to establish their language over others. There the means to do so.
is conflict on the language issue even today.
The notion of Hindi as an official language (3) Educational differences : This is
of the union does not find complete acceptance often influenced by the economic strata to
across the country. There are many parts which one identifies and belongs. Ask yourself
within India, where Hindi is largely unspoken - ‘Who are the persons who can avail of
– especially in South India and in some professional courses? Who can afford private
North Eastern States. school education? Who can afford an
international education?
The hounding of people who speak
languages other than the dominant language (4) Availability and access to
is well-known. The atrocities committed on opportunities : The purchasing capacity of
linguistic minorities deserves mention. The individuals and groups determine our patterns
underrepresentation of tribal dialects and of consumption and the extent of consumption.
minority languages and decline in the study For example, so many anganwadis and
of literature of various languages is also a Primary Health Centres have no budgetary
matter of concern. provisions to improve their infrastructure and
services. How many children can have access
Economic Inequalities : The economic to mental health care, counsellors and
standard of people in a State depends on a psychologists?
number of factors like resources available,
management and organisation, fertility of land, (5) Individual differences : All of us
distribution of wealth and so on. All States are have different capacities and capabilities.
not equal in this regard and this leads to These are a combination of our individual
economic imbalances. Unequal distribution of potential as well as one’s societal experiences.
wealth within a State causes tension and conflict. For example, an individual may have a flair
Very often, wealth is concentrated in the hands for art, music or acting. However, unless
of a few. Profits from the private sector end up there is scope to develop these abilities/skills,
in the hands of a few privileged sections and it may be impossible to utilise one’s talent
not for the common good. This kind of monopoly for individual or social benefit.
does not allow healthy competition.
(6) Social environment : The social
There are several factors that are environment in which one experiences life
responsible for economic inequality in society. (for example: family, neighbourhood, peer
These include: group, work place) influences and impacts
how we develop as individuals and as a
(1) Family influence : The family to society.
which we belong influences our choices and
opportunities. For example, if one belongs to The impact of globalisation has both
the ‘Below Poverty Line’ (BPL) category it positive and negative consequences. One
may be difficult for the parents to provide demerit is that it has widened the gap between
healthy nutrition. Don’t we come across news the rich and the poor. For example, the “mall”

55

culture found in the big cities clearly favour risks and threats to our environment – which
those who “have” than the “have not’s”. do not discriminate between the rich and the
Privatisation of health care, insurance, poor. For example, pollution, global warming,
occupation and education are more beneficial and terrorism, lack of hygiene or cleanliness
to the upper economic strata of society. – these are problems which are created by
human beings and which need a collective
Economic inequality persists in all social effort. As we address such issues, welfare
systems of society. Even liberal democracies does not only remain at material prosperity,
that are committed to equal citizenship have but about the overall wellbeing of all people.
not been able to escape this problem. In a Some policies have to promote social cohesion
free market system, inequality inevitably and interdependence. So also, rights and
arises. People have different access to rewards responsibilities are for all; from the bottom
(such as money, influence, power etc.) of the social hierarchy to the top.
because of their personal or group
characteristics. This exists in all societies Check your progress
across the globe. So those with higher status 1. Identify two Constitutional provisions
generally have better access to rewards
compared to those with a lower status. to protect weaker sections in Indian
Inequality is thus built into the fabric of society.
society and tends to get passed down from 2. What do you understand by three-
one generation to the next. language formula?
3. Identify three factors that hinder
Welfare State and differing slabs of national unity.
taxation were ways in which attempts were
made to minimise economic inequalities. It Activity 6
was thought that perhaps redistributing wealth
from the affluent to the needy would help to Conduct a debate on :
eradicate poverty. However, this does not
always work because help may not necessarily (a) Laws to protect minority groups
reach those in need. Equality then seems like help to integrate them into society.
a receding horizon.
(b) The caste system should be abolished.
However, our understanding of equality
and inequality is undergoing a change. (c) Protective discrimination is necessary
Today, significant changes are observed in in Indian society.
the status of women, minorities and the
underprivileged. Side by side, we face new Activity 7
Conduct a class/group discussion
on:

‘Measures to promote National Unity.’

56

SUMMARY

l India is a land of diversities and yet l There are also forces that threaten
there is a sense of we-feeling which
unifies us, as a people. national unity as well as national

l Diversities are of various kinds: integration. These factors are:
race, religion, language, region,
caste, class, gender. casteism, communalism,

l Factors that have contributed regionalism, linguism and economic
towards a sense of unity include
the following: geographical factor, inequality.
religious factor, political factor,
linguistic factor and cultural factor. l The need of the hour is to
develop an empathetic
understanding of our multiple
diversities, and work towards
strengthening the overall sense of
national unity and emotional
integration.

EXERCISES

Q.1 (A) Complete the following statements (2) Promotes healthier relationships
by choosing the correct alternative
given in the bracket and rewrite it. (D) Correct the underlined words and
complete the statement.

(1) Gender is ___. (1) Conflict based on caste is called
communalism.
(innate, genetic, learnt)

(2) “Social disparity encourages ___. (2) Sarvadharmasmabhava denotes the
(unity, divisiveness, homogeneity) Indian concept of unity amidst
diversity.
(B) Correct the incorrect pair and
rewrite it. Q.2 Write short notes.

(1) (i) Conflict based on language - (1) Gender Diversity
Linguism
(2) Importance of Unity in Diversity

(ii) Conflict based on religion - Q.3 Write differences.
Terrorism
(1) Regionalism and Linguism
(iii) Conflict based on caste -
Casteism (2) Casteism and Communalism

(iv) Conflict based on region - Q.4 Explain the following concepts with
Regionalism examples.

(C) Identify the appropriate term from (1) Heteronormativity
the given option in the box and
rewrite it against the given statement. (2) Communalism

Totalitarianism, Class, Egalitarianism
(1) It is an achieved status.

57

Q.5 (A) Complete the concept map. uniforms in Indian schools, with regard
to the value of unity?

Obstacles Q.7 Answer the following question in
to National Unity detail. (About 150 words)

(B) State whether the following What does unity mean to you? Discuss any
statements are True or False with three factors which hinder unity. Describe two
reasons. ways in which tribal and urban people can
benefit each other to promote unity. Give
(1) Economic inequality has no effect on examples to illustrate your points.
society.
Activity
(2) Constitutional and legal provisions
provide hope to weaker sections in As a class, collaborate with any
Indian society. association/club within your school
and organise a co-curricular activity
Q.6 Give your personal response. open to all staff, students, parents and
(1) How can participation in sports foster the neighbourhood.
national integration?
(2) What is the significance of school Aim: To promote unity.

Examples: Food Festival, Traditional
Day, Fancy Dress, Poetry Reading,
Skit, Group Dance.



www

58

4. Processes of Social Change in India

4.1 Industrialisation When we speak of industrialisation
4.2 Urbanisation as a process of social change, the industrial
4.3 Modernisation revolution of the 17th and 18th century
4.4 Globalisation Europe comes to mind. It was a process
4.5 Digitalisation whereby there was a change in the production
4.6 Impact of processes of social change process as a result of the use of heavy
machinery and which led to the decline of
INTRODUCTION guilds on one hand and growth and expansion
In the previous year you learnt about the of factories on the other. This process spread
concept of social change, its characteristics from Europe to other regions of the world.
and factors that bring about change. You will
recall the impact of demographic, natural, Definitions of industrialisation
educational, economic, socio-cultural factors
responsible for social change. These are to B. Kuppuswamy : “Industrialisation
be borne in mind when we discuss the means the use of unbiotic power such as
processes of social change that have electricity and steam for the mass production
influenced Indian society and continue to do of goods and easy transportation and
so even today. communication.”

Activity 1 Fairchild : “Industrialisation is the
Identify any four cities and study process of technological development by the
data about their industrial growth. use of applied science, characterized by the
Present your findings to your class expansion of large scale production with
and follow it with a discussion. the use of power machinery, for a wide
market for both.”
4.1 INDUSTRIALISATION
“Industrialisation is a process of
Industrialisation social and economic change whereby a
human society is transformed from a State
pre-industrial to an industrial.”

Characteristics of industrialisation

(1) Growth of industries : This is a
significant characteristic of industrialisation. A
spurt in the growth of factories and industries
is apparant. You will recall learning in
Standard XI Sociology, about Industrial
Revolution in England, the Feudal system as
well as the Guild system. There is necessarily
a shift from handmade products which were
produced within the environs of one’s home
or shop to machine-made products
manufactured in factories.

(2) Mechanisation : The development of
industries led to the mechanisation of

59

workplaces. Mechanisation also implied the 4.2 URBANISATION
use of precision techniques and accuracy in
production. This in turn led to mass production Urbanisation
due to which machine-made goods were
much cheaper than handmade products. One of the inevitable effects of industrial
Workers began to be replaced by machines. growth is the emergence of towns, cities that
Also, mechanisation led to workers feeling eventually grow into a metropolis. Modern
alienated from the process of production. urbanisation was the result of industrialisation.
It is the opportunities of work that attracted
(3) Capital-intensive : When one thinks people to urban areas, thus giving momentum
of industries today, there is intense to large scale exodus of people from villages
mechanisation and automation. Due to to cities. It led to urbanism – which is a
advances in science and technology, industrial typical feature of urban living.
processes are largely automated. The extent
of automation would naturally depend on Definitions of urbanisation
financial resources available. Anderson : Urbanisation is a two-

(4) Labour-intensive : Early industries way process that involves movement from
required skilled and unskilled human villages to cities and change from agricultural
workforce to complete various tasks at all occupation to business, trade, service and
levels. The need for skilled workforce profession and change in the migrants
demanded skill-specific training of apprentices attitudes, beliefs, values and behavioural patterns.
at the workplace. Later, special institutes
came to be established to impart technical Thomas Warren : (in the Encyclopedia
education and also for professional of Social Sciences) has defined urbanisation
education. For example, institutes for as “the movement of people from communities
management training, colleges and universities concerned chiefly or solely with agriculture
offering courses in Engineering, Pure Sciences, to other communities, generally larger, whose
Organisational and Industrial Psychology etc. activities are primarily centred in government,
trade, manufacture or allied interests”.
(5) Division of labour : With changes
in the production processes brought in because Marvin Olsen : Urbanisation must
of industrialisation, various tasks came to be consist of an inward flow of large number
assigned on the basis of specific skills, level of people from scattered rural areas to urban
of training, specialisation and expertise. This communities.
led to differential wage payment and it furthered
the formation of economic classes and the Characteristics of urbanisation
subsequent growth of the trade union movement. (1) Migration to urban centres : The
gradual emergence of factories led to the
Activity 2 migration of people from rural and tribal

Get 4 volunteers from your class
to share their experiences (physical
environment, economic life, customs,
food, religious practices etc.) in a
rural village or city, in 5-7 minutes
each. They may make a PPT with
visuals to support their presentations.
Follow up with a class discussion.

60

areas, to the factory locations. This in turn, areas. There are secondary modes of security
led to gradual increase in the number of control. For example, law enforcement
families living in and around the factories. systems such as traffic signals, city police,
Over a period of time, it led to population etc.
growth and residences around the factories.
Even today, the flux of people from all over (6) Specialised division of labour :
the country continuously, is reaching the Skills, training, specialisation and super
urban centres in search of work. This specialisation carry a special significance in
movement of people for the purpose of the urban scenario. Division of labour is
employment has resulted into cities getting based on one’s skills and expertise. For
overpopulated. Such cities are expanding, example, in a factory, different managers are
turning into metropolises. For example, appointed for specific tasks - production,
Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur. finance, marketing, sales, advertising etc.
Even within these specific areas, the work is
(2) Industrial growth and commutation further divided, based on skills and
: Industrial growth is an essential feature of specialisation.
urban centres today. India has had earlier
phases of urbanisation. Migration as a result 4.3 MODERNISATION
of industrial expansion led to ‘spatial
segregation’, which means, the place of The term modernisation was coined by
residence and one’s place of work drift apart Daniel Lerner. When one uses the term
with the passage of time. It is not uncommon modernisation, it may be with reference to an
to find people in large cities, spending 3-4 individual or group, or even to society as a
hours in commuting to and from the workplace. whole. There is often a tendency to think of
modernisation in economic terms. However,
(3) Heterogeneity : Urbanisation led along with the reference to economic life,
to a heterogeneous gathering of people of modernisation can also be understood in terms
different gender, sexuality, caste, creed, class, of social life, technology, polity, culture,
language, and so forth. This heterogeneous education and so forth. Modernisation has led
co-existence has led to break down of several to changes in values, beliefs and norms. Given
traditional barriers, where one’s contribution below are some definitions of modernisation.
becomes more valued.
Definitions of Modernisation
(4) Urbanism as a way of life : Louis Daniel Lerner : “Modernisation is the
Wirth used the phrase “urbanism as a
way of life” to describe what urbanisation current term of an old process of social change
does to people living in urban areas. They whereby less developed societies acquire the
develop a certain way of life which is typical characteristics, common to more developed
of the urban mind-set: distant, secondary-type
relations, calculative, independent, rational,
less impact of traditions, family, religion,
customs etc.

(5) Civil administration : Urbanisation
implies controls and obligations that are not
administered by traditional bodies such as
panchayats but municipal corporations. Such
bodies are responsible for planning,
development and redevelopment of urban

61

societies.” able to explain the constructive and destructive
aspects of a phenomenon. Self-criticism,
Rustow and Ward : “Modernisation is willingness to introspect critically, is also an
the application of modern science to human aspect of critical thinking.
affairs.”
Activity 3
Alatas : “Modernisation is a process Conduct a 2-minute extempore
by which modern scientific knowledge is speech competition in class on the
introduced in the society with the ultimate topic: ‘Modernisation may be
purpose of achieving a better and more perceived as a challenge in a
satisfactory life in the broadest sense of the traditional society.’
term, as accepted by the society concerned.”
4.4 GLOBALISATION
Characteristics of modernisation
Globalisation
(1) Scientific temperament : This refers
to the development of a scientific way of The process of globalisation in
understanding and explaining any phenomenon. the Indian context received an impetus in
This may come from an education that is 1991, when Dr. Manmohan Singh, the then
based on scientific methods and an emphasis Finance Minister of India put into effect the
on the need for empirical evidence in support New Economic Policy. It was popularly
of given arguments. called the LPG Policy – Liberalisation,
Privatisation and Globalisation. It is a process
(2) Rational outlook : This is linked that ‘opened up the skies’ for Indian economy.
to the notion of rationalism; the approach India became part of a wider global economic
and ability to provide logical explanations world where there could be free trade, free
for any phenomenon. Scientific reasoning flow of capital and resources, free enterprise
explains causal relationships (i.e. cause and etc. This economic policy brought in much
effect relationship) between factors. There is scepticism and criticism. Globalisation has
a shift to secular and rational values from had several positive and negative consequences.
spiritual-religious values. Let us understand the nature of globalisation.

(3) Technological advancement : Definitions of globalisation
Several definitions of modernisation tend to Martin Albrow and Elizabeth
emphasise on the fact of advancement in the
use of technology, which in turn is a King : Globalisation refers to “all those
characteristic of industrial societies. It calls processes by which the peoples of the world
for precision techniques, specialised skills are incorporated into a single world society”.
and accuracy.
Anthony Giddens : “Globalisation
(4) Openness to new ideas : There is a
willingness to receive new ideas, examine
alternatives, find new pathways, to explore
creative ways to solve problems. Being
‘modern’ cannot be limited to only using
modern devices or gadgets.

(5) Critical thinking : This refers to
the ability of critical evaluation. Persons who
claim to be modern are willing to examine
daily events, literature, culture, art, customs,
beliefs from a critical point of view and be

62

can be defined as “the intensification of has led to large-scale marketisation. For
worldwide social relations which link distant example, if one goes to a large shopping
localities in such a way that local happenings mart, you will find rows and rows of products
are shaped by events occurring many miles of a wide variety. Large-scale markets have
away and vice versa”. provided people with options to choose from.
It has indeed resulted in increased consumerism,
Roland Robertson : Globalisation is and thus made us more materialistic.
“the compression of the world and the
intensification of the consciousness of the (5) Interdependence : You have heard
world as a whole”. the term ‘global economy’. How has it
affected us all? It has made all people and
Characteristics of globalisation nations interdependent. We have numerous
examples of parts of a product being
(1) Liberal principle : The principle of manufactured in one country and assembled
‘laissez faire’ is an integral aspect of in faraway places.
globalisation as a process of change. In the
economic context its referred to opening up of (6) Knowledge distribution :
the economy to private players. This is called
the process of liberalisation. Such a process Globalisation is characterised by sharing of
brought together people from all walks of life.
resources. This includes the sharing of
‘Laissez-faire’ : The term is
originally a French term which literally technological know-how, made easier by
translates as “let do’. In the context of
economics, the term has come to mean digital transformation across borders. We are
free trade and free competition. It is a
doctrine that opposed governmental familiar with the concept of ‘outsourcing’; it
interference in the economic sphere.
is the way by which people go beyond
(2) Private enterprise : Privatisation
is an allied process that accompanies geographical borders: people having the
globalisation. It is a process where services
which were previously subject to government required skills and training get opportunities
control, were opened up for private service
providers in the fields like healthcare, to perform specific tasks, without moving out
insurance, radio, television, education etc.
from their location. For example, Business
(3) Profit motive : One of the main
motives for privatisation is to make profits. Processing Outsourcing (BPO) in India
With globalisation, there has been a sharp
increase in competition in every field. There operating for American, British, Canadian
are more opportunities and options available
to aspiring individuals. It has encouraged firms.
many service providers to indulge in profiteering.
For example, numerous private educational Activity 4
institutions, which operate like business houses.
Given below is a way of finding
(4) Marketisation : Globalisation also out about people’s lives. It is called
led to increase in production. This in turn narrative research. It is all about hearing
people’s stories.

Few volunteers from your class
may speak to 1-2 small shops in the
area and find out about their business.
When did it start? Who started it? Are
there changes in their sales? Are there
changes in people’s behaviour? Are
there any problems faced by the sellers?
If so, what are they?

Write about their stories in about
200-300 words. Share with your class.
See if you can see a pattern of
experience or behaviour.

63

4.5 DIGITALISATION aided the process of computerisation, which
in turn has digitised processes for several
Digitalisation sectors, for example, education, banking,
revenue, taxation, marketing etc.
Digitalisation is the use of digital
technologies for handling data of various (2) Frequent change : Digitalisation
nature for various purposes. It involves the had led to frequent changes in business
process of digital transformation – which is models due to growth in newer technologies.
basically a process to “radically improve Have you heard of the use of AI or
performance or the reach of business”. This Artificial Intelligence for various purposes
term ‘digital transformation’ was coined by such as production, manufacturing, surgery,
CapGemini (a French data processing robotics, designing?
company) and the Centre for Digital Business
of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (3) Speed and accuracy : Digitalisation
(MIT), USA. This includes overhauling the has escalated the speed of the processes
process, operations and customer relationships. with a far greater extent of accuracy. For
example data mining, data processing, data
Definitions of digitalisation analysis, data management enables faster
Digitalisation is the integration of speeds, higher degrees of accuracy and these
in turn aid the process of enhanced efficiency
digital technologies into everyday life by the in various sectors – governance, medicine,
digitisation of everything that can be digitised. trade, commerce, banking, insurance, real
estate, stock markets, communication and
Brennen and Kreiss : “Digitalisation transportation systems.
is “the way in which many domains of
social life are restructured around digital (4) Technology driven : Needless to
communication and media infrastructures”. say, digitalisation is based on technology,
innovation, research and development. You
Gartner : “Digitalisation is the use might recall the days when one used 386 and
of digital technologies to change a business 486 microprocessers in the 1980s; and today
model and provide new revenue and value we talk of fifth generation microprocessors;
producing opportunities.” in the world of mobile technology one is now
shifting to 5G technologies.
Characteristics of digitalisation
(1) Computerisation : There is an (5) Spurred creativity : The need for
expansion of the use of computers in all instant data and quick solutions to problems,
walks of life. Processes which were earlier has encouraged human minds to invent,
manual or cumbersome, have now been innovate, patent and create. For example
simplified through programming, information even in the field of education, we are working
technology and computer science. This has towards integrating technology for the purpose
of education in the 21st century. In the
context of pilot training, we have simulators
to enable the trainees get a feel of the real
cockpit experience before they graduate to
actually flying aeroplanes. It would have had
to be a creative mind that invented the
cockpit simulator.

(6) Importance to customers :
Digitalisation is finally meant to have utility

64

value to the end users, i.e. the clients who breakdown of joint families and the shrinking
are recipients of such processes. For example, size of families. The advantages of the joint
for filing Income Tax returns, obtaining Birth family system are not always available in
and Death certificates from the Municipal nuclear homes. Likewise, some disadvantages
Corporation, for On-line admission, for of large-size families may not be found in
declaration of Election results, etc – all of smaller homes.
these processes make use of digitalisation
and it has radically transformed the processes, (2) Impact of Urbanisation : In terms
compared to those used just a few decades of the hold of customs, traditions, religion on
ago. people’s behaviour, this too has diminished.
The urban environment and way of life is
Activity 5 more materialist, radical, commercial,
individualist and non-conforming. Urbanisation
Identify any three Higher Secondary has led to the notion of being “lonely in a
School teachers in your locality or crowd”. The challenges of urban living are
school. Collect information about (a) the quite different from the environment in a
subject they teach, (b) their qualifications traditional society.
(c) number of years of teaching
experience, (d) whether they have (3) Impact of Modernisation : The role
computers in their school/college, (e) of education in demolishing obsolete notions,
whether they use computers and if yes, beliefs and superstitions have paved a way
for what purpose? Report your findings for developing a scientific temperament. The
in class. debate on ‘tradition versus modernity’ still
continues.
IMPACT OF PROCESSES OF
4.6 SOCIAL CHANGE (4) Impact of Globalisation : In post-
1991 India, the impact of the world economy
We have learnt about the processes of on Indian society has brought about numerous
industrialisation, urbanisation, modernisation, changes too. India is now an integral part of
globalisation and digitalisation. Although the global economy. Globalisation had led to
industrial development, urban growth and criss-crossing between nations in terms of
modernisation got a boost with the effects of knowledge, technical expertise, know-how,
British rule on Indian society, the processes human resources etc. We are beset with
of globalisation and digitalisation are positive and negative impact of globalisation.
relatively recent. These processes are not
uniformly spread across the length and Activity 6
breadth of the country.
'Globalisation has positive effect
Let us examine some aspects of their on Indian society.' Form two teams of
impact. four students each, and conduct a
class debate. The teacher may prepare
(1) Impact of Industrialisation : The a black board summary of the
process of industrial growth led to large-scale learning points. It can be followed
emergence of factories. This in turn resulted by an open discussion of observations
in migration to places nearer the factory made by students.
sites, leading to the growth of towns, which
soon became cities and then metropolitan (5) Impact of Digitalisation : This is also
cities. With the growth of cities we have the the era of computerisation and digitalisation.
The impact of changes resulting from these two
processes have had far-reaching changes in

65

Indian society in terms of access to knowledge, challenges such as the impact of big industries
artificial intelligence, e-governance, e-commerce, on smaller ones; the impact on marketing,
e-learning, e-trade, e-shopping etc., the list is consumer behaviour, effect on educational and
endless. The click of a button can open up a job prospects, greater accountability and its
range of options to the user through a very effects, questions relating to individual privacy
simple procedure. While digitalisation has in the web-world, etc. A result of digitalisation
speeded up the processes of data mining and has been an increase in social networking.
data management, it has also led to various

SUMMARY

l Indian society has undergone many l Globalisation is basically an
changes. Sociologists have studied these economic process that has opened
changes and identified concepts to the markets to a global economy.
explain these changes.
l Digitalisation is a process of the
l Industrialisation is a process whereby impact of computers on various
human energy to produce was aspects of life.
replaced by mechanical process and
machines to enable higher production. l The impact of these processes are
far reaching and wide – on family,
l Urbanisation is the process of religion, traditions and customs,
migration of people from rural to lifestyle, occupations, understanding
urban areas. Louis Wirth refers to of gender, emergence of economic
‘Urbanism as a way of life’. disparity among classes.

l Modernisation is the process where
there is the use of scientific and
rational thinking that is deep seated.

EXERCISES

Q.1 (A) Complete the following statements (B) Correct the incorrect pair and
by choosing the correct alternative rewrite it.
given in the bracket and rewrite it.
(i) Copying western culture -
(1) The use of computers to streamline job Modernisation
applications is called ___ .
(ii) Growth of cities - Urbanisation
(industrialisation, globalisation,
digitalisation) (iii) Increase in production -
Industrialisation
(2) An urban way of life is characterised
by ___. (cohesiveness, uniformity, (iv) Radical transformative use of
impersonality) technology - Digitalisation

66

(C) Identify the appropriate term from (B) State whether the following
the given options in the box and statements are True or False with
rewrite it against the given statement. reasons.

Urbanism, Industrialisation, Digitalisation (1) The clothes one wears is indicative of
an individual’s level of modernisation.
(1) The FYJC On-line Admission process
in metropolitan cities. (2) Urbanisation can have negative effects
on our social relationships.
(2) Mechanisation of the process of
production. Q.6 Give your personal response.

(D) Correct the underlined words and (1) Shagufta Ranawat and her joint family
complete the statement. have been living in Nagpur city for
almost three generations. Their
(1) The Industrial Revolution took place grandchildren are uninclined to want
in the sixteenth century. to settle down in their grandparent’s
village. Give two possible reasons for
(2) The LPG Policy was started by Smt. the grandchildren’s views.
Indira Gandhi.

Q.2 Write short notes. (2) Some people feel insecure about
digitalisation processes, for example,
(1) Negative effects of digitalisation in banking or online purchasing. Why
do you think this is the case?
(2) Consequences of industrialisation

Q.3 Write differences. Q.7 Answer the following question in
detail. (About 150 words)
(1) Industrialisation and Urbanisation

(2) Modernisation and Globalisation ‘The World Wide Web is a source of
information and misinformation.’ Discuss this
Q.4 Explain the following concepts with statement with regard to the impact of internet on:
examples.

(1) Digitalisation (i) Parents

(2) Urbanisation (ii) Children

Q.5 (A) Complete the concept map. (iii) School

Activity

Negative effects of Hold a class discussion at the
Urbanisation end of each process of change, to
discuss the positive and negative
impact of each process. Develop a
flow chart or concept map for each
process of social change.

www

67

5. Social Movements in India

5.1 Meaning and Nature of Social It involves a collective action. A group
Movement collectivity has to be part of the movement.

5.2 Women’s Movement in India (2) Planned and deliberate action :
5.3 Workers’ Movement in India Social movements have to be preplanned to
5.4 Farmers’ Movement in India be executed effectively. Movements are deliberate
5.5 Environmental Movements in India initiatives and not spontaneous in nature.

5.1 MEANING AND NATURE OF (3) Ideology and objectives : A social
SOCIAL MOVEMENT movement is backed by an ideology. The
ideology guides the course of the movement.
Meaning and Definitions It has a set of objectives to fulfill.

The term Social Movement was (4) Social change : Social movements
introduced by the German Sociologist Lorenz are oriented towards bringing about a change.
Von Stein in the book, ‘History of the French It usually demands change in the already
Social Movement from 1789 to the Present’ established order or it resists change initiated
in the year 1850. It became popular in the by the authorities.
European discourse in the early 19th century.
There is no single definition of a social Types of Social Movements
movement. Different Sociologists have
highlighted varying constituents of social Collective actions like protests, agitations,
movements in varying contexts. rebellions, resistances and even riots are
understood as forms of social mobilisations.
Turner and Killian : “A collectivity However, these actions differ from social
acting with some continuity to promote or movements.
resist a change in the society or group of
which it is a part.” Social Movements can be classified in
various ways using different criteria. All the
Herbert Blumer : “Collective enterprises classifications are based on scope, objectives
to establish a new order of life.” and operations.

Sidney Tarrow : “Collective challenges (a) Cultural Anthropologist David Aberle
to authority, established cultural codes by people has identified four kinds of social
with common purposes and solidarity in sustained movements, based on two criteria :
interactions with elites, opponents and authorities.” what is the target group for change
and how much change is advocated.
Characteristics of Social Movements The types are: Alternative Social
Movements, Reformative Social
Social Movements are different in nature, Movements, Redemptive Social
features, pace and operations. The important Movements, and Revolutionary Social
characteristics of Social Movements are as Movements.
follows :
(b) Herbert Blumer has classified social
(1) Essentially collective in nature : movements into three major
Social movement is not an individual action. categories, namely General social
movements, Specific social movements
and Expressive social movements.

68

Social Reform Movement in India : remarriage and prohibition of child
Social reform has continued throughout our marriage. His wife, Savitribai Phule also
Indian history. However organised social worked alongside for the emancipation of
movements for reform started since the 19th women.
century. These movements were especially
driven by the intelligentsia of society and l Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj was
included stalwarts such as Raja Rammohan the ruler of the princely state of Kolhapur
Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Mahatma (1874-1922). He was a broad-minded
Jyotirao Phule, Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj, visionary and a dedicated social reformer.
Maharshi Karve, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, He vehemently attacked the caste system
Mahatma Gandhi and so on. and worked ceaselessly for the cause of
‘untouchables’.
These movements made efforts to
promote change in various ways. They l Maharshi Karve was known for
covered a wide range of areas such as his efforts to promote the education of
religion, caste, women’s empowerment, women. In 1907 he started the Mahila
untouchability, exploitation of the poor, Vidyalaya and in 1916, the Karve Women’s
farmers’ issues etc. We shall briefly examine University (now renamed SNDT University).
the significant contributions of some of
these reformers. l Dr. B. R. Ambedkar a jurist, an
economist and a reformer, worked against
l Raja Rammohan Roy in 1828, discrimination of the marginalised
through the Brahmo Samaj, took up categories. His slogan, “Educate, organise,
religious, social and educational reforms agitate” inspired millions of people. The
and began a crusade against the practice Depressed Classes Education Society was
of Sati. The abolition of Sati in 1829, is a established by him in 1928.
result of his efforts.
l Mahatma Gandhi was a lawyer
l Swami Dayanand Saraswati and political leader. He employed non-
through the Arya Samaj (1875) rejected violent resistance to lead the successful
caste system, idol worship and superstitions. campaign for India’s Independence. He led
He strived for the progress of women and a nationwide campaign for eradicating
eradication of illiteracy. poverty, expanding women’s rights and
building religious tolerance. His mission
l Mahatma Jyotirao Phule was to end untouchability and achieve
established the Satya Shodhak Samaj in swaraj (self-rule). He is regarded as ‘The
1873. He was deeply concerned with Father of the Nation’ and is affectionately
women’s issues - education, widow called Bapu.

Causes of Social Movements expectations in society. When the gap between
what is expected and what is accepted widens
The emergence of social movements may beyond the permissible range in a given
be due to various factors. Considering the fact society, conflict emerges, resulting in the
that society is a continuously growing organism; possibility of a social movement.
the emergence of a social movement can be
attributed to the following causal situations: (2) Social disorganisation : Different
processes of change like industrialisation,
(1) Cultural drift : A cultural drift may urbanisation etc. may lead to uneven and
imply rapid change in values, ideas and unequitable growth in society. New norms

69

can clash with the already established norms. specified cause and declines. Social change
Existence of old as well as new norms in does not follow any such sequence. Secondly,
the society at the same point of time can a social movement is an organised, planned
lead to a sense of confusion. activity, however social change is embedded
in society; also it may not always be a
(3) Perceived social injustice : When a deliberate and conscious struggle. Thirdly,
group of people develop a sense of though social movements are found in all
dissatisfaction and discontent towards certain societies, it cannot be said that they are
decisions taken by the authority, they feel universally present all the time in all societies.
frustrated and unhappy. Such a feeling can Social change is universal and inevitable in
result in a sense of social injustice, eventually society.
culminating into a movement.
5.2 WOMEN’S MOVEMENT
(4) Rigidity in the normative structure : IN INDIA
To ensure order and discipline, every society
lays down a set of norms suitable to its In the broad framework of social
members. Behaviour patterns have to match movements that India has witnessed,
with the normative structure of society. experienced and grown with; the Women’s
However in certain cases the norms lose their Movement continues to hold special
flexibility and thus do not match with significance. In terms of the scope and
expectations of the masses. spread, it spans over a long period and has
influenced majority of the population over
Activity 1 the globe. The Women’s Movement can be
studied with the help of the following phases:
Small group discussion: Form
groups of 5-7 students. Identify various
forms of social injustice that you have
observed in your village/town/locality.
Make a list of the same. Find out
names of various organisations that
work to remove such injustices or
which create awareness about the
injustices. (For example, the problems
faced by disabled persons, or migrants.)

Social Movements and Social Change Women’s movement

Social movements and social change are (1) Impact of Social Reformers : The
interconnected. This implies that every social roots of the Women’s Movement can roughly
movement aims to alter the society and thus be traced to the beginning of the 19th century,
is instrumental in bringing about change. when small groups of women and a few
However, it does not imply that every form enlightened (progressive) men addressed the
of social change is the result of social issue of unequal status of women in India.
movements. The two processes though are The then Women’s movement overlapped
strongly connected; it is important to with the Social Reform Movement in many
distinguish between social movement and ways. Mahila Mandals were formed by
social change. Firstly, a social movement has Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj. These
a life cycle - it emerges, operates for the

70

provided a platform to women, to exchange struggle. When men freedom fighters were
ideas and grow. Social reformers like Raja imprisoned; their women counterparts handled
Rammohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, the difficult and challenging circumstances.
Mahadev Govind Ranade, Behramji Malbari Women leaders who deserve mention in this
challenged the customary practices which context are Kasturba Gandhi, Vijayalakshmi
were discriminatory. The concerted efforts of Pandit, Annie Beasant and Sarojini Naidu.
reformers resulted in the British government Annie Besant led the famous Home Rule
intervening in the matters. The government Movement in which many women participated.
enacted laws like, The Sati Prohibition Act Sarojini Naidu worked for Women’s Suffrage
(1829), The Widow Remarriage Act (1856), (right to vote) and led the Congress wing in
The Female Infanticide (Prevention) Act (1870), the Civil Disobedience movement. In addition,
The Age of Consent at Marriage Act (1891). Muthulaxmi Reddy, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur,
Sarala Devi, Sucheta Kriplani, Aruna Asaf
Conscious efforts were made to educate Ali participated in the Non-violence
women in order to bring them on par with Movement. The Quit India Resolution passed
Indian men. The Irish born feminist, Margaret in the year 1942, addressed women as
Cousins was instrumental in establishing ‘Disciplined Soldiers of Indian Freedom
Women’s Indian Association in Madras Struggle’.
(today Chennai). It can be looked at as an
important development because it was almost (3) Post-Independence Era : The Post-
like India’s first feminist group. She organised Independence period witnessed a slowing
a conference in Pune in which delegates of down of the Women’s Movement because
different women’s groups pooled in their political independence overshadowed its focus
ideas about education for women. This and purpose. The Constitution of India
meeting crystallised ideas and inputs about incorporated several clauses highlighting
promoting women’s education in India. The equality and justice to the Indian citizens,
All India Women’s Conference was established men and women alike. Several issues like
in the year 1926. The impact of the British tribal unrest, economic crisis, student’s
on the general aim and philosophy of the agitation led to collective struggles and
Women’s movement cannot be denied. protests, thus taking away the singular focus
Liberalism in thoughts and approach had set of the women’s movement.
in, encouraging women to educate themselves.
Though most women beneficiaries belonged The decade 1975-85 was announced as
to the upper caste with an elite background; the International Women’s Decade and the
the British period did push the women’s year 1975 was declared as the International
cause for the welfare of humankind. Women Women’s Year by the United Nations (UNO).
became more aware of their status and A committee was formed to study the status
position in Indian society. of women in India. The committee published
its report in the year 1974. The report,
(2) Impact of Nationalist Movement : ‘Towards Equality’ addressed issues of
The Nationalist Movement witnessed increased invisibility of women, patriarchy and violence
participation of women. The impact of against women. The findings of the report
Gandhiji on the thought and participation of proved to be of pivotal importance because
women was manifold. Mobilisation of women it brought to the forefront the discriminatory
to fight for political independence implied and exploitative practices against women in
women becoming aware about their rights. post-independent India. It surveyed and
Women participated in large numbers in reviewed several issues pertaining to the
protests and agitations during the independence problems of women that were assumed to be

71

handled by then. activitists, enlightened men, voluntary non-
governmental organisations and government
This phase of Women’s movement itself. It continues to operate vehemently with
focussed more on violence against women, shifting paradigms and perspectives.
sex stereotyping, and further legislative
demands for equality of women. By the You should know !
1980s, women’s organisations were active in
Bombay (Mumbai), Pune and Delhi. The Vishaka Guidelines refer to
Newsletters like Baija, The Feminist Network, the problem of work-place related sexual
Manushi were published to bring women’s harassment. These were initially
issues to the forefront. By the end of the announced by the Supreme Court of
International Women’s Decade in 1985, the India in 1997, and further revised in
focus of the movement had shifted 2013. Such a legal provision ensures a
considerably. Cases that proved decisive in safe and healthy work environment for
determining the modern course of the women.
Women’s Movement are – Mathura Rape
case (1972), Roop Kanwar Sati case (1987), Activity 2
Nirbhaya Rape case (2012). Increasing
instances of crime against women like dowry Find out about women’s groups /
deaths, eve teasing, and domestic violence NGOs in your locality (e.g. anganwadi
were the reference points for feminists to women teachers, lesbian women, Dalit
sharpen the focus of the movement. women’s groups, Muslim women’s
organisations). Visit their organisation
Recently, a Dalit feminist movement has to find out about the work that they do.
also emerged, that addresses issues related You may interview the group members
specifically to this section. or their volunteers, to find out about the
nature of their work or outreach
(4) Towards Women’s empowerment : programmes, problems they face etc.
The movement continues to gather momentum Present your findings in class. Initiate a
by percolating into the rural and tribal parts discussion.
of India. It takes variety of forms ranging
from women as beneficiaries to women as 5.3 WORKERS’ MOVEMENT
participants. Women from different professions IN INDIA
like journalism, academics, medicines and
corporates have enthusiastically joined in the An appropriate starting point to
mission of empowering women. understand the workers’ movement in India
would be the process of industrialisation in
The Women’s Movement can said to be India. The advent of factory system and
the most prolific and pluralist movement. Its modern industry changed several of the
evolution and growth cannot be described in important features and patterns in Indian
a monolithic fashion, using a singular society. It transformed our economy and
criterion of chronology, ideology or geography. revised the division of labour with reference
It has gone through several phases. The basic to the new production system. There emerged
objectives of the movement can be summarised two classes in society namely, the industrialists
into three important points : (i) struggle for (factory owners) and the labourers (workers).
equal rights, (ii) elimination of discriminatory Since modern industry thrives on profit
practices, (iii) realisation and actualisation of maximisation, the exploitation of workers in
women’s potential to empower themselves. terms of extraction of work, minimisation of
The participants in the movement are: women

72

wages, long hours of work, delays in promotion, in this stage. Several philanthropists took a
reduced wages, poor work conditions, became conscious note of the dissatisfaction among
a feature of industrialising societies. Such workers and tried to bring in welfare measures
situations prompted workers to get together to remedy the situation. According to many
to protest against the system in India. scholars, it was more like a movement for
workers, than a movement by workers.
The course of industrial working class Moreover the movement was quite moderate
movement can broadly be divided into four in its approach.
stages:
(2) Rise of Pressure Groups (1918 to
Workers’ movement 1947) : After World War I, several changes
in the economy and industry took place.
(1) Emergence of the Workers’ Costs and profits went up. However, the
Movement (1850 to 1918) : The first phase wages and work conditions for workers did
was preliminary and revolved around not improve. This resulted in mass discontent
spontaneous, isolated incidents of protests by and unrest. Strike is a major power weapon
groups of workers without prior planning and in the hands of labour. Several strikes from
organisation. the period 1918 to 1920 made workers’
dissatisfaction palpable. There were upsurges
In March, 1875 Shapurji Bengalee from Textile mill workers from Bombay
revolted against the bad conditions of labour. (Mumbai), Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Madras
His efforts resulted in enactment of the First (Chennai), and the woollen mills of Kanpur,
Factories Act in 1881. Another important the jute mills of Calcutta (Kolkotta), the steel
activist who deserves mention is Narayan company of Jamshedpur, the Railway workers
Meghaji Lokhande. The first workers’ of Bombay (Mumbai) and Jabalpur and the
organisation in India, the ‘Bombay Mill Seafarers of Bombay (Mumbai). Most of
Hands Association’ was started on 23rd these strikes emerged spontaneously and in a
September 1884 under his guidance. He general sense, the causal factors were related
organised a conference of mill workers in to wages and remuneration.
Bombay Presidency to consolidate the
demands and problems of workers and passed The emergence of Trade Unions as a
resolutions to improve the conditions. Narayan pressure group can be said to be a very
Meghaji Lokhande is recongnised as the important development in the Workers’
Father of the Indian Workers’ Movement. movement. The industrial environment of
mass discontent led to the emergence of a
The second phase was marked by a more organised Trade Union Movement in
conscious understanding of the issues and India. In October 1920, a conference of the
problems faced by workers. The formation of representatives of 64 Trade Unions was
Trade Unions was an important development organised. It resulted in the establishment of
All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)
under the chairmanship of Lala Lajpatrai. In
1926, the government passed the Indian
Trade Union Act whereby all registered
unions were granted constitutional recognition.
The Bombay Textile Labour Union which
operated under the leadership of N. M. Joshi,
was the first union to get its recognition
under the Act in 1926.

73

The period also witnessed the emergence were pertaining to wages, bonus, overtime -
of the Leftist ideology with a prominent which consequently changed to suspension
influence of Marxian thought in the Workers’ from work, unfair dismissal, and workers’
Movement. This culminated into training the rights. As industry advanced, grievances
working class to mobilise themselves against changed further to include lack of opportunities
the capitalist structure with the aim of for promotion, scope to experiment, workers’
overthrowing the exploitative system. dignity etc. Every established political party
developed its own Trade Union wing with
The world economic crisis known as the the purpose of having an element of control
‘Great Depression’ adversely affected the on workers and expanding its vote bank.
Workers’ Movement in India. The number of This consequently implied that the bigger the
strikes increased and leaders like Muzaffer political party, more powerful was its hold
Ahmed and Shripad Amrut Dange played an on workers. Similarly, a split in a party
important role in intensifying workers’ resulted in division of unions. For example,
struggle. The Trade Unions diversified when the Communist wing split into CPI and
according to different ideological orientations. CPM, the Union was taken over by CPI and
In order to bring in coordination, the National the latter established a separate body called
Trade Union Federation (NTUF) was the Centre for Indian Trade Unions (CITU).
established. The united efforts of AITUC and
NTUF did not bring in much relief; the (4) Consolidation and Diversification
tension and enmity among different unions of the Movement (after 1960) : Up to the
continued. early 1950s, Workers’ Movement successfully
fought the battle of workers marked with
(3) Role of INTUC (1948 to 1960) : In considerable gains with regard to
the year 1947, the Indian National Trade remuneration, work conditions etc. The 1960s
Union Congress (INTUC) was formed. In witnessed a lull in economic growth and
1948 a separate organisation, independent of expansion. The managements started resisting
political affiliation, to safeguard and promote demands of the workers due to economic
rights of workers was established. It was slow down. The Industrial Disputes Act 1947,
known as Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS). was passed to ensure industrial peace and
Those who did not agree with the principles harmony by providing a mechanism and
of HMS consequently established a parallel procedure for the investigation and settlement
body called United Trade Union Congress of industrial disputes. It allowed the usage of
(UTUC) in 1949. The Bharatiya Mazdoor mechanisms like conciliation, arbitration and
Sangh (BMS) was established in the year adjudication to mitigate the conflict between
1955. When Congress came to power in workers and management.
1947 the activities of Trade Unions were
scrutinised and even criticised. The most Even in adverse conditions, up till 1970s
important criticism being that the workers’ the movement did a promising job of representing
unions and their activities were now monitored the interests and problems of workers.
by the government itself.
The Workers’ Movement lost its
Besides these four major central workers momentum after 1970s. The Textile industry
organisations, several other trade unions strike which lasted roughly for eight years,
continued to play an important role in the proved to be the last strike of its kind. The
workers’ movement. In the subsequent years historical Great Bombay Textile Strike started
strike continued to be used as a mechanism in January 1982, by the mill workers in
by workers, against industrialists. In the Mumbai, under the Union leader Datta
1960s the grievances among the workers

74

Samant. In all 65 Textile Mills, which the union leaders emerged as a category, (iv)
implied 250,000 workers, stopped working. the significant role played by the government.
The main aim of the strike was a demand With globalisation the role of the government
for hike in wages and bonus related matters. is altered as well, (v) Politicisation of unions.
Along with the demand for a wage hike,
Datta Samant also demanded scrapping of Activity 3
the Bombay Industrial Act of 1947. The then
government firmly rejected the demand of the Form groups of 6 students. Identify a
workers’ unions. The strike continued for workers’ movement in your locality or
years, resulting in major loss for industry and region. Make a PPT of 12 slides. The
extreme pauperisation among workers. Many content should provide information on how
workers had to sell off their subsistent, they were established, the significant
meagre assets and move to suburban parts persons associated with the movement,
of Mumbai. The strike left quite a negative their major output or successes, the
impact on the industrial relations between the challenges they faced. Make your
labour, industry and the government. presentation in class. All group members
should discuss a minimum of 2-3 points.
As per the Report of Labour Bureau of The presentation may be followed by a
the Ministry of Labour, Government of India, Q&A session.
2012, there were approximately 16,154 Trade
Unions in India. Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh 5.4 FARMERS’ MOVEMENT
continues to be the largest Trade Union in IN INDIA
India. The movement is largely divided along
political lines. Given the current situation in Farmer’s movement
industry, the role of the government is
significantly altered. Certain prominent India is predominantly an agricultural
Central Trade Union Organisations recognised country. A majority of the Indian population
by the Ministry of Labour, Government of follow agricutlure-related occupations. A
India are AITUC (All India Trade Union range of groups are associated with farming
Congress), INTUC (Indian National Trade in India, the most predominant of which may
Union Congress) and SEWA (Self Employed be said to be the farmers. Farmers are a
Womens’ Association). The trade unions are geographically scattered category. However
often affiliated to larger federations. Trade instances of the consolidation of their power
Union Federations like The All Indian Bank as a response to unrest and suppression are
Employee Association and Railway Trade documented in Indian history. The Farmers’
Unions continue to operate. One of the struggle in India is documented with reference
prominent federations in the country which to the following important phases:
represents labour at a national level is the
Central Trade Union Organisation (CTUO)

The Workers’ Movement has come a
long way. Certain remarkable changes that
deserve mention are: (i) workers’ issues for
which the movement had fought, (ii) the
leadership under which it was shaped. It
began with philanthropists working for the
betterment of workers, (iii) workers themselves
who started fighting for the cause, from here

75

(1) Early Agitations (1857 to 1921) : leadership of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati,
Kathleen Gough has described the British with the purpose of raising voices against the
period highlighting the changes that impacted Zamindari system. The representatives of the
the rural pockets of India. Firstly, the early Kisan Sabhas from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh,
part of the British rule was marked by an presented a memorandum in the All Party
exploitative revenue system. The farmers and Conference, covering the major demands.
peasants had to rely on money-lenders to pay Two struggles of the peasantry of Bardoli
lagaan (Taxes) to the British authorities. district (Gujarat) broke out in succession; the
During this phase the Zamindari system first in 1928-29 and the second in 1930-31.
became prevalent, through which landlords
could snatch away land from poor farmers The movement gathered momentum in
when the farmers were unable to pay taxes. the 1930s. In 1935, the first Kisan Congress
Many small cultivators lost their rights over was held which was successful in putting
their hereditary land and resources. The forth the unrest and agony of farmers. This
problem was further compounded by famines resulted in the formation of the All India
and natural calamities during this period. Kisan Sabha (ALKS) at the Lucknow session
Indebtedness increased and exploitation of the Indian National Congress in April
multiplied. This led to massive discontent 1936. The struggle spread to the other parts
among farmers. of India as well. In Punjab, the farmers’
movement erupted under the leadership of
Several revolts took place during this Raja Mahendra Pratap. The Ghadar party
period. Several sociologists like A. R. Desai, played a very important role in mobilising
D. N. Dhanagare have documented the series farmers and peasants of Punjab together. In
of struggles by peasants and farmers against Gujarat, Mahatma Gandhi led the struggle of
the British government. To name a few, the poor farmers against the British government
Deccan riots against money lenders, the in Kheda. In the Southern belt (e.g. in
upsurge by Bengal tenants against Zamindari, Andhra Pradesh), the struggle erupted against
the Punjab Kisan struggles against money the Forest Law. This phase is also
lenders etc. During 1917-18 two peasant characterised by worsening of peasant
struggles led by the National Congress are position, consequently culminating into a
important, namely, the Champaran Struggle in series of revolts and rebellious actions.
Bihar against Indigo planters and the
Satyagraha movement of the peasants in Kaira (3) Post-Independence period : Political
against collection of land revenue in a situation independence did not translate into
of crop failure. The Congress formed Peasant improvement of the conditions for peasants
Committees to take note of the unrest and and farmers. The emergence of farmers’
demands of peasant grievances. movement in the Post-Independence era can
be located somewhere in the 1970s.
(2) Emergence of Kisan Sabhas (1922 Understandably the unrest was felt in the
to 1946) : The initiative by the Congress States that were agriculturally, commercially
party to support the interests of landlords and developed States, in their economic orientation.
Zamindars triggered a backlash. The Congress e.g. Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
supporting the capitalists did not go down Gujarat, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. New
well with a section of struggling farmers. In ideological perspectives influenced the course
1926-27 many Kisan Sabhas were organised of the movement in the Post-Independence era.
in Bengal, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh with
revolutionary plans in mind. The Kisan In the 1960s and 70s the movement
Sabha movement started in Bihar under the became more organised. Charansingh became
a very important name in the farmers’

76

struggle. He opposed heavy mechanisation 5.5 ENVIRONMENTAL
and industrialisation; and championed low MOVEMENT IN INDIA
capital investment in agriculture. He formed
the Bharatiya Kranti Dal (BKD) and the Gadgil and Guha have defined
Bhartiya Lok Dal (BLD) in 1974. By the Environmental Movement as, “An organised
1970s farmers started forming their groups, social activity consciously directed towards
without the backing of any political promoting sustainable use of natural resource,
organisation. In 1973 a convention of farmers halting environmental degradation or bringing
was held in New Delhi, it was followed by about environmental restoration.” The terms
yet another convention in 1978. It presented Green Movement, Conservation Movement
a 20-point charter of demands to the are also used alternatively to refer to the
government. Demands like representation of Environmental Movement.
farmers on decision-making bodies, bridging
the imbalance between agriculture and Environmentalism is a broad philosophy.
industry etc. were included. During this time It is centred around a genuine concern for the
Tamil Nadu and Punjab witnessed emergence conservation and improvement of the habitat
of strong farmers’ organisations. In 1980, the around us, more specifically the environment
formation of the Shetkari Sangatana under the and civilisation. Several direct and indirect
leadership of Sharad Joshi and Karnataka threats to the well-being of human life are
Rajya Ryot Sangh under the leadership of perceived as an inevitable consequence of
M. D. Nanjundaswamy are milestones in the modernisation and industrialisation. The
Farmers’ movement in India. erratic demographic, social and cultural
inconsistencies in lifestyle are posing serious
With the processes of industrialisation problems to ecological balance.
and globalisation, conditions have changed
rapidly for farmers. With seasonal fluctuations, (1) Emergence of the Environmental
apathy of the government and negligence by Movement in India : Modern environmentalism
masses, farmers continue to suffer in India. began in the 1960s. Increased awareness and
Abysmal work conditions are drawing farmers mass consciousness about environmental
to a state of despair. Farmers’ suicide has degradation led to the organisation of many
become a common affair. In March 2018, activities, programmes and publications.
thousands of farmers from different parts of President Richard Nixon signed the US
Maharashtra got together to march to Azad Environmental Policy Act in the year 1970.
Maidan (Mumbai), to convey to the Since then, 22nd April is celebrated as ‘Earth
government their grievances and frustrations. Day’ all over the world. In 1972, the United
For the first time ever, the term ‘Farmers’ Nations Conference on Human Environment
Strike’ was used by media personnel, when held at Stockholm triggered the interest of
farmers ignored the market in disgust, many environmentalists. The Green Movement
throwing agricultural produce on roads. A in Germany and North America in the early
radically new chapter was added to the 1980s played a significant role in spreading
farmers’ movement in India. awareness about the importance of protecting,
preserving and harnessing the Earth.
Activity 4 Consequently the movement spread to other
parts of the globe as well.
Collect newspaper and journal
reports on farmer suicides in the past Indian society like most developing
year. Display this information on your countries is characterised by an almost
class bulletin board. insensitive and unrestricted exploitation of

77

resources. The Environmental Movement in reliance on modern science and technology,
India can be said to be unique in its and viewing environmental degradation as
orientation and objectives than other social rooted in the inequalities in society. Thus, the
movements for the following reasons: causes of the environmental movement are
more than mere ecological; these are more
The movement aims at the collective economic and social.
goodness of humankind as against most of
the other movements where the target group (3) Significant Environmental Movements
is specific and defined. in India : The environmental movement does
not have a monolithic profile. It has a broad
The scope of the movement is wide scope. It encompasses issues related to
and inclusive in the sense it has incorporated ecology, health, human rights, tribal rights,
within its folds, categories that are eco-feminism etc. To appreciate the broad
marginalised for different reasons, like tribal, spectrum of the movement it is important to
farmers and women. note that the movement is more like a series
of independent but constituent revolts,
The movement has utilised non–violent insurgencies and rebellion. Harsh Sethi has
yet assertive means to present its agenda of presented five prominent categories of
preservation of environment. struggles associated with environmentalism,
namely, (i) forest and forest resources, (ii)
The movement has constantly land use, (iii) water, (iv) anti-dam and (v)
compelled authorities to factor in the collective against different types of pollution and
goodness of ecology while making policies marine resources. Some significant
and implementing laws. environmental movements are mentioned
below:
(2) Causal Issues : Environmental
movements have emerged as a reaction to Chipko movement
several threats to ecological balance. The
causes are interconnected and inevitable. Chipko Movement : It was started by
Rapid environmental degradation due to Amrita Devi. It is a unique movement. From
industrialisation, urbanisation and excessive
use of technology is a prime cause of
concern. Rapid population growth has led to
indiscriminate use of natural resources. Major
issues pertaining to land, water and
biodiversity are adversely affecting the
ecological balance of society. Problems like
deforestation, air pollution, marine and
coastal problems, soil pollution have become
common manifestations of ecological imbalance.

Scholars insist that the environmental
movement in India is the product of the
conflict between different ideological views.
The theme of the interface between humans
and nature is central to the movement.
Gandhiji’s idea of Gram Swarajya is based
on rationalism and self-sufficiency rooted in
the indigenous soil with the aim of harnessing
and sustaining our own sources, as against
the model of Radical Marxism with a heavy

78

its very inception and throughout the course; Narmada Bachao Andolan : Jawaharlal
it is marked by the Gandhian principle of Nehru referred to dams as ‘Temples of
non-violence and is known for the active Modern India’. In the post-Independence
participation of women in it. Chipko stands period several large scale dam projects were
for ‘hug-the-tree’. The movement was started sanctioned. Though the purpose of building
in March 1973, in Chamoli district in the dams can never be contested, the inevitable
Himalayan region under the leadership of impact of building dams in most cases is
Sunderlal Bahuguna. Most of the Chamoli displacement. Displacement leads to loss of
district is covered by forests. The livelihood livelihood for tribals and local people.
of inhabitants residing there is closely linked
to the forests. The subsistence economy was Medha Patkar and demonstrators
primarily based on agriculture and forests
produce. With the predominance of agrarian, Sardar Sarovar Dam
food-gathering and pastoral economy, there was
heavy reliance on forests produce. Narmada is the largest West-flowing
river supporting the habitat, which includes
However, demographic and economic tribal and rural pockets also. The construction
factors led to indiscriminate use of forests and of the Sardar Sarovar Dam on the river
led to deforestation. Processes of Narmada would have benefited three States,
industrialisation and development led to namely, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya
improvement in the means of transport and Pradesh. This most promising multi-crore
communication. People involved in project would have generated huge revenue
developmental projects challenged the for the government. The supporters claimed
established claim of local people on forests. that it would have been a source of power
Loss of means of livelihood affected and (electricity) and drinking water to the
angered people leading to the emergence of neighbouring settlement, villages and towns.
the movement. In April 1973, when the
contractors along with the workers reached
Mandal village to cut trees and to clear
jungles spaces allotted to them by the State
government, the inhabitants hugged the trees,
to resist and to mark their protest. The action
happened at a mass level, as a result of which
the authorities had to retreat. The women of
the village also participated in the protest.
This incident boosted the morale of several
other groups facing similar problems to get
together and to protest against deforestation.

Environmentalist - Sunderlal Bahuguna

79

The need to mobilise and protest against The environmental movement continues
such a venture was perceived when the to gather new dimensions as a modernising
building of a dam implied taking away the society revises its demands and requirements
livelihood of local inhabitants and displacing to ensure the well-being of all people.
them. In 1985, the Narmada Bachao Andolan
(NBA) emerged as one of the powerful In this Unit we have learned about the
resistance movements under the leadership of difference between social change and social
Medha Patkar. It became an international movement. Social movements lead to social
movement and thousands of activists from changes. The focus has been on the women’s
India and abroad joined hands against the movement, farmers’ movements, workers’
construction of this dam. In October 1994, movements and environmental movements.
Medha Patkar went on an indefinite dharna All these movements continue to be relevant
to pressurise the three State governments. even in the present times.
The movement suggested the use of alternative
methods for generation of electricity and Activity 5
adequate rehabilitation of the displaced.
(A) Have you heard of Greta Thunberg?
The Narmada Bachao Andolan has Discuss the effect of her activism.
brought issues of sustainable development to
the forefront. It has questioned the validity (B) View the film 'Lakir ke is Taraf' by
of policy decisions about development and Shilpa Ballal. Then have a class
the utility of the same. discussion.

SUMMARY

l This unit explains the meaning of l The Women’s Movement started in
social movement as an effort of the British period with social
human beings to bring about or reforms, bringing about changes for
resist change. women. In the post-Independence
phase several women’s issues for
l There are different types of social their empowerment have come to the
movements – reformative, fore.
revolutionary, expressive, general,
alternative social movements. l The Workers’ Movement focuses on
their rights, in an industrialising
l The characteristics of all social society. It sees the emergence of
movements are – they are collective trade unions with varying affiliation,
efforts, planned and deliberate, under significant leaders.
driven by an ideology and objectives,
and they bring about social change. l The Farmers’ Movement focuses
Social movements lead to social on the lives of farmers, their
change but all social changes are livelihoods, land rights and farmers’
not necessarily social movements. issues.

l Different kinds of movements l The Environmental Movement has
include: Women’s Movement, concentrated on the various issues
Workers’ Movements, Farmers’ affecting the environment – from
Movements and Environmental protecting our forests, water
Movements. resources, impact of climate change
and global warming, sustainable
development issues and the like.

80

EXERCISES

Q.1 (A) Complete the following statements (2) Environmental Movement
by choosing the correct alternative Q.5 Complete the concept map.
given in the bracket and rewrite it.
Significant concerns
(1) The Chipko Movement is for ___. of 19th century
Indian Women’s
(women’s empowerment, labour rights, Movement
saving the environment)
Q.6 Give your personal response.
(2) The Bhartiya Lok Dal was started in
the year ___. (1) Has the study of Environmental
Education had any effect on your
(1954, 1964, 1974) behaviour?

(B) Correct the incorrect pair and (2) Why is it important to raise social
rewrite it. concerns through social movements?

(1) (i) Women’s Movement – Gender Q.7 Answer the following question in
equality detail. (About 150 words)

(ii) International Decade of Women – ‘Social movements play an important role in
From 1991-2001 bringing about changes in society.’ With reference
to this statement, choose any two different social
(iii) Towards Equality – Report on the movements that you have studied and comment
Status of Women in India on:

(iv) Feminist Movements – India after
Independence

(C) Identify the appropriate term from
the given option in the box and
rewrite it against the given statement.

S. A. Dange, Sarala Devi, Medha Patkar

(1) Leader of Narmada Bachao Andolan

(2) Significant role in the Trade Union
Movement

(D) Correct underlined words and (i) the issues related to the movement, and
complete the statement.

(1) The first Kisan Congress held in 1935 (ii) how the movement has brought about
led to the establishment of the United changes in Indian society.
Trade Union Congress.
ACTIVITY
(2) The Women’s Indian Association was
formed in Bombay. • Identify any 5 conservation/
environmental initiatives (e.g. Go
Q.2 Write short notes. Green, Save the Forests, Save
Aarey, Eco-friendly Ganpati)
(1) Farmers’ Movement
• Make group presentations in class
(2) Characteristics of social movement about their aims, objectives and
activities.
Q.3 Write differences.
• This may be followed by a class
(1) Pre-Independence and Post- discussion or home assignment.
Independence periods of the Women’s
Movement in India

Q.4 Explain the following concepts with
examples.

(1) Social Movement www

81

6. Social Problems In India

6.1 Meaning and Nature of Social Problem characteristics etc. The cause of the problem
6.2 Ageing may be located in one’s group or the larger
6.3 Unemployment society. For example, lack of job opportunities
6.4 Farmers’ Suicide matching one’s education or skills,
6.5 Domestic Violence conventional mindsets of a community, lack
6.6 Addiction (Substance, Internet, Mobile) of political will etc.

6.1 MEANING AND NATURE OF (3) It is the individual who must make
SOCIAL PROBLEM an effort to solve one’s problem. So for
example, if as a student you are scoring low
In the previous unit you learnt about marks, and if you realise that this is due to
social movements in Indian society. You minimal or no effort on your part to study,
have realised that several social movements then you can solve this personal problem by
emerged to solve social problems which were consciously deciding to tackle it. You need
commonly felt by a large number of people the self-motivation and will to overcome the
in society. problem.

Before we try to understand the meaning (4) Solving or tackling an individual
of ‘social problem’, let us examine the problem is easier said than done. While some
meaning of ‘individual problem’. We must individuals may have the motivation to
however bear in mind that individuals don’t resolve their problem, others may need help,
live in isolation but are part of a larger encouragement and support from others like
group. Hence it is necessary to appreciate family members, friends, teachers, religious
that problems are a two-way process. For leaders, counsellors etc. Sometimes it is
example, an individual may have a personal necessary to solve the problem with
problem of loneliness. This could be rooted professional help.
in the fact that the people around her/him
have isolated her/him due to some reason. What does the term ‘social problem’
On the other hand, this same individual may mean? Let us examine few definitions.
feel lonely because of one’s own peculiar
personality traits which the larger group Fuller and Myers : A social problem
disapproves of. For example, having excess
pride due to one’s self-image. is “a condition which is defined by a

What characterises an individual considerable number of persons as a deviation
problem?
from some social norms which they cherish”.
(1) It is a problem experienced by an
individual. This means, the problem is not Broom and Selznick : A social
felt by others. problem is “a problem in human relationships
which seriously threatens society or impedes
(2) The cause of the problem may rest the important aspirations of many people’.
with the individual. For example, one’s own
habit, lethargy, inertia, personality Horton and Leslie : A social problem
“is a condition affecting a significant number
of people in ways considered undesirable,
about which it is felt that something can be
done through collective social action”.

All the above definitions point out to
certain common characteristics of social

82

problems: disease.

Types of behaviour seen as (2) Ageing is progressive; it is a
unacceptable by several persons and continuous process.
groups.
(3) Ageing is intrinsic to the organism.
Such behaviour is problematic as it
goes against existing social norms (4) Ageing is degenerative.
or the aspirations of people.
The commonest criterion for measuring
People feel the need for collective the process of ageing in an individual is one’s
action to solve the problem. chronological age. Chronological age implies
defining age on the basis of the number of
This unit will focus on specific social years a person has lived since her/his birth.
problems which are widespread in 21st century It is a specific and countable measure. In
India. India, the age of 60 has been adopted by the
Census of India for classifying and categorising
6.2 AGEING this population.

All of us have family members and In India the size of ageing population is
relatives who are very senior in age. We have continuously increasing. Higher longevity and
probably seen or experienced the problems lower mortality have resulted in the increase
that arise from having to care for them. Their in the number of ageing population in India.
needs are different and demand our attention.
You might have come across reports of Activity 1
children and younger adults who abandon or
neglect their ageing parents. We have read Hold a class discussion to share
about crimes being committed against them about the problems faced by the ageing
for sheer greed, especially with regard to population. Speak to your family
matters dealing with family property. What members and share inputs. If you can,
is ageing? Ageing is a natural and inevitable speak to the elderly/ageing people in
process. Ageing, on a simpler note, implies your neighbourhood, informally, and
changes in the body and mind of a person share these insights too.
along with its gradual impact on social life
and life style. The Problems of Ageing :

Definitions : The problems of the ageing population
include the following:
Hess : “An inevitable and irreversible
biological process of life.” (1) Health concerns : Health includes
physical, mental and emotional wellness. As
Birren and Renner : “Ageing refers one ages, there is a tendency for various parts
to the regular changes that occur in mature of the physical body to begin deteriorating.
genetically representative organisms living Problems can relate to any physiological/
under representative environmental conditions biological problem, such as dental, bones,
as they advance in chronological age. stomach, heart, hearing, vision etc. In addition
to physical problems, there are mental health
Characteristics of Ageing issues revolving around feelings of alienation,
conflict, dissatisfaction, disappointment,
Strehler has given four characteristics of anxiety, loneliness. Health also includes the
ageing, as follows : emotional well-being of people.

(1) Ageing is universal, it occurs in all (2) Loneliness : This is a psychological
members of the population, unlike

83

problem but it could well be rooted in the stigma of consulting clinical psychologists,
real life experiences of the elderly. Loneliness psychiatrists or counsellers is changing very
is particularly relevant when dealing with slowly.
people who are single, without child, isolated,
living in homes or remote areas. Loss of a (7) Absence of adequate health care :
spouse or loved one can cause much The aged may not have access to health care
loneliness. Inability to do things which one of any kind – for physical or psychological
was capable of previously can add to the ailments. Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s
sense of loneliness. There are instances of disease, Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS),
the aged being literally thrown out of one’s incontinence, invalidity, and mental health
own home or the homes of their children. concerns like Schizophrenia, Bipolarity,
There is a sense of being neglected by others Depression, boredom, loss of self-esteem – for
in the family, or even in the neighbourhood. all these treatments and more, there may not
be facilities, nor access.
(3) Abuse : One comes across reports of
the elderly and aged who are forced to do (8) Lack of Old Age Homes : Old Age
all kinds of work and also of those who are Homes or Homes for the Elderly are woefully
subjected to cruelty, abuse, mockery, inadequate. Even if they exist, they may not
harassment – from within the family as well be affordable by the masses. Many homes or
as from outside. There are instances of shelters for the aged lack basic amenities or
physical abuse and domestic violence. We are impersonal in their care of the inhabitants.
observe the aged begging for alms, food, One cannot rule out the reality of commercial
clothing or assistance. greed.

(4) Economic insecurity : Many aged (9) Weaker Sections : This includes
persons are fully or partially dependent for elderly/aged who particularly belong to the
financial support on their families. In a weaker sections of society, for example,
patriarchal society, this financial dependence women, LGBT persons, disabled persons. The
more often than not falls on the son/s. Not identity of being a single woman, physically,
all elderly/aged persons have pension to take mentally or emotionally disabled, becomes a
care of their daily and medical needs. huge barrier, especially when care givers are
no longer available.
(5) Lack of empathy : In a world where
one is living amidst tight schedules, mechanical (10) Exploitation : Elderly/Aged persons
life styles, materialistic comforts there is often may become victims of exploitation especially
the lack of willingness to pay heed to the when they become increasingly dependent on
needs of aged. Family members and relatives others for all kinds of services – for personal
too tend to address the problems of the aged hygiene, signing bank and legal documentation
in their homes, from their own vested etc.
perspectives. The youth, younger adults and
care givers may also fail to understand the Measures to tackle the problems of
problems of the aged. They may use coercive ageing :
methods in dealing with the aged/elderly.
(1) Role of Government : The Ministry
(6) Mental health issues : Anxiety and of Social Justice and Empowerment has the
depression are significant among the aged. responsibility to formulate policies and
This may be accompanied by a sense of guilt; implement programmes for the care of the
a tendency to feel that one is a burden to aged. They do this through collaborative
one’s family, friends and relatives. The social efforts with State governments, NGOs, and
civil society.

84

(2) Policy : The National Policy on Older Activity 2
Persons (NPOP) was announced in January
1999 to look into the matter of well-being of Form groups of 10 students. Each
older persons. This policy envisages support group collect data from 10 persons in
from the State government towards their care your neighbourhood. Prepare a tool for
through the provisions of shelters, support, data collection and use a personal
sensitisation programmes, healthcare facilities, interview technique or questionnaire to
protection for the vulnerable sections etc. find out about their families: size of
family, educational level of each
(3) Action Plan : The Inter-Ministerial member, whether they are employed or
Committee on Older Persons is a mechanism not. Write a group report of about 10-
for effective implementation of NPOP through 15 pages. Present your findings in class.
ministries and departments that work under
the Ministry at the Centre. 6.3 UNEMPLOYMENT

(4) Role of organisations/NGOs : Non- Look at the statistics given below.
Governmental Organisations have contributed
significantly towards helping the problem of Department Jobs No. of
the aged in India. For example, HelpAge
India, Harmony India, Dada Dadi, Dignity available applicants
Foundation, Nightingales Medical Trust,
Seenagers etc. Today there are online Animal Husbandry 729 3.3 lakhs
communities which can lend support.
Finance 932 1.7 lakhs
(5) Role of Education : Schools can
through Community Service Projects, Outreach Forest 951 4.02 lakhs
Programmes, Socially Useful Productive Work Revenue 1,802 5.64 lakhs
(SUPW) and NSS, create awareness about Total 4,414 14.66 lakhs
the problems of the elderly, aged and senior
citizens. Such programmes can inculcate It does not require much effort to figure
values of caring for them and becoming out from the above data that the number of
sensitive to their changing needs – physical, applicants have far exceeded the number of
emotional, economic, psychological, and vacancies. Can you imagine what could
medical. happen to the majority who will not get
selected for the job? Some may get jobs that
(6) Role of Family : Parents and don’t match their training, others may
relatives have a major role to play in creating become entrepreneurs, but the majority will
a suitable atmosphere within the home; one remain unemployed. This is the gravity of
that is enriching; one that is enabling; one the problem of unemployment.
that instills respect and value of the elderly,
regard for their wisdom, involving them in Meaning of unemployment
activities within the home, neighbourhood and
community at large. When one refers to people who are
unemployed, it is almost always in the
Check your progress context of who is employed. Also, the
1. State any three problems faced by convention is to focus on the age group
between 15-59 years. The term unemployment
the ageing population. is used to refer to “people who are jobless,
actively seeking work and available to take
2. Suggest three measures for the a job”. According to The Periodic Labour
problems faced by senior citizens. Force Survey (PLFS) of the National Sample

85

Survey Office (NSSO), unemployment in great, there is a boom in employment.
rural India was 5.3% and urban unemployment (4) Seasonal shift : In the same way as
was 7.8%. On the whole, unemployment in
the Financial Year 2018 stood at 6.1%. seasons come and go, seasonal periods of
According to NSSO, an unemployed person employment are common in certain sectors.
is one who puts in less than 14 hours of This is seen for example in agriculture,
paid work in a week. Disturbances in banking sector, and shipping industry.
global economy, like periodic industrial Seasonal migration of people from rural to
recessions is one of the causes of urban areas has an effect on urban
unemployment. For example, tourism, unemployment too. In India, agricultural
shipping, information technology, education, activity is dependent on the monsoons, and
construction, textile industry etc. is thus seasonal in nature.

Factors responsible for unemployment (5) Gap in demand and supply : The
number of individuals who fit a job are far
The causes of unemployment may be higher than the openings available. Many
attributed to several factors. They are as educated youth aspire for white collar jobs
follows: and are unwilling to accept work that does
not fit their needs.
(1) Inadequate skills : Sometimes skill
sets of an individual do not match the Unemployment crisis
requirements of the industrial and corporate
world. Such people are likely to be unemployed Consequences of unemployment :
or underemployed. Also, advances in Ordinarily, individuals would like to be
technology has rendered numerous workers employed for the most obvious reason that
unemployed as their skill-sets have become the monetary benefits earned through a stable
redundant today. For example, the Government source of income will provide them a capacity
Typing Examination has now become an on- to spend and perhaps even manage some
line examination in Maharashtra. Typing savings for future. However, the fact is that
skills on the age-old manual typewriter has many people in the “productive age group”
very limited use in present times. are unemployed. As per the Census of India
definition, the productive age category refers
(2) Frequent shift in jobs : When to people within the ages of 15-59 years. If
individuals are temporarily unemployed or you examine a typical Indian scenario, most
when they are switching jobs, there is period of you who are studying in Std.XII, belong
of no employment between one job and the to the age group of 16-17, you are not
next. For example, a farmer who is able to employed and have no regular earnings. Also,
work during the monsoons, may remain you are dependent on your family for your
unemployed after the harvest season and may basic needs and more. Your dependency is
have to search for other odd jobs in urban
areas. This leads to an influx of people in
urban areas.

(3) Changing economy : The world
economy has its ups and downs. For example,
the construction and real estate sector, is well
known for periods of huge economic activity
and lull periods. In the lull periods there are
greater chances of workers losing their jobs;
and when the economy seems to be doing

86

likely to continue for few more years until negative outlook on life; and even feel
you get employed. As far as girls are lonely, depressed and suicidal.
concerned, families are only slowly beginning
to recognise the need for female education. (6) Adverse impact on national
Yet there are many homes where adult development : Have you wondered what are
women are not expected to work, or are the long-term implications on national
prevented from working outside the home for development if the scale of unemployment,
an income. So what are the effects of especially that of the youth, is on the rise?
remaining unemployed? They are: Youth and young adults make up the future
of our society. Unemployment among them
(1) Unutilised human resources : All can have a negative effect on national
individuals are valuable human resources, development.
whether they are skilled or unskilled. To
have an adult population which is unemployed You should know !
is a sorry state, as these human resources are
unable to add value to the economy but STARTUPS!
become dependent on others for satisfaction
of their needs. They become a burden on the What are they? A startup is a young
working population. company founded by one or more
entrepreneurs to develop a unique product
(2) Educational Stagnation : There are or service and bring it to the market. It
many individuals who receive formal training can get its funding from incubators (they
and who continue to remain unemployed. help startups get started and running)!
Perhaps their training has failed to equip
them adequately for the world of work. It The field of IT has given a
is true that many educational programmes significant boost to startups in India.
are out of touch with the needs of the
outside world. The government spends crores Startups that you may be familiar
of rupees on education and yet the educated with are : OLA, Flipkart, Make My
output is largely skill-deficient or Trip, ShopClues, Trazoo, Zomato.
unemployable.
Measures to tackle the problem of
(3) Underemployment : There are unemployment
copious examples of persons who are trained
in one field but who work in a totally (1) Educational change : Changes need
unrelated area. Take the case of a person to be made in the content of educational
with a professional degree or PhD, who courses as well as the overall curricular
works as a clerk. experience. Academics need to develop mind
sets that are open to change. The educational
(4) Anti-social activities : Lack of programmes on offer must become choice-
opportunities may drive people to engage in based, need-based and learner-centred. If
anti-social activities. Several children who educational programmes are relevant to
drop out from the school system could find community needs, local needs, industrial
themselves engaged in various anti-social or needs, they will help to develop useful human
undesirable activities to make quick money. resources for needs in a changing world.

(5) Impact on mental health : There (2) Skill Development : Much of what
are those who end up being disappointed is learnt is knowledge-centric. While the role
with life, studies or trapped in boredom. of knowledge is invaluable, there is a
They may become frustrated, develop a desperate need to also cultivate skills,

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especially those which are employment- You should know!
worthy or those which can promote self-
employment, and develop entrepreneurial Find out about the following schemes
potential of the learners. For example, started by the Government of India:
Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan
(RUSA), the salient feature of which is to l Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
enable institutions of higher education for Employment Guarantee Scheme
capacity building in different fields of (MGNREGS) - 2009
employment.
l Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana
(3) Vocational Training : The need for (PMKVY) - 2015
vocationalisation has been a long standing
need. This will provide options for learners l Startup India Initiative - 2016
to branch into vocational programmes of
study. The Draft New Educational Policy Activity 3
2019 has laid emphasis on vocational training
from the Secondary stage upwards. Interview 5 working adults in the
age group 22-30, in your local area.
(4) Industry-Education symbiosis : The Find out about their educational
encouragement of industry-university background, work life and aspirations
endeavours has been talked about, discussed in life. Do you see any pattern in the
and implemented in several institutions- responses that you receive? Discuss
especially in areas of science, engineering, these in class.
pharmacy, medicine, technology, media
studies, fashion designing and management. 6.4 FARMERS’ SUICIDE

(5) Entrepreneurship and Self India is described as an agrarian society,
Employment : The government has been where over 70% of the total Indian population
encouraging Start Ups in various fields. This works in primary and secondary sector
is a boost to those who are willing to take occupations. Farmers are a significant
up challenges and risks, based on their percentage of the agrarian work force. The
personal strengths and training. Self- past decade has witnessed an increasing
employment is one measure to minimise the number of farmer suicides. Farmer suicide is
extent of unemployment. a serious social problem. Let us examine the
factors that have led to the problem of
Check your progress farmers’ suicide.
1. In your opinion what do you think
Causes of farmers’ suicide
our educational system needs to do
to solve the problem of unemployment (1) Impact of environmental
among youth and young adults? deterioration : Over the past several years,
there has emerged much concern for the
2. Give two reasons why unemployment safegaurd of natural environment. Human
is unhealthy for a democratic society. beings have always endeavoured to maximise
returns from nature. It has ended up in
3. Is there a connection between deterioration of natural environment because
of deforestation, over exploitation of natural
population growth and resources, destruction of natural spaces in the
name of ‘development’. Human intervention
unemployment? Discuss in brief. has led to increased pollution and the

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emission of greenhouse gases that has caused (4) Ignorance : Farmers may not be
depletion of the ozone layer, consequential aware of new technologies and farming
melting of polar caps and unforeseen climate methods. This lack of awareness becomes an
change. Thus in India we have in recent impediment to their progress.
times seen instances of flooding and drought
simultaneously in different parts of the (5) Disparity of land holdings : Farmers
country and also in Maharashtra. Under in India’s villages belong to various categories
such situations, crops get completely destroyed such as large farmer, medium farmer, small
and it creates adverse conditions wherein farmer and landless labourers. The zamindars
farmers find it extremely difficult to engage are farmers with large land holdings. However
in gainful agricultural activity. the majority of land holdings of most farmers
are medium to small. Zamindars have greater
(2) Impact of globalisation : It is true economic security than farmers with small
that we live in a globalised world. Thus, the land-holdings. Landless agricultural labourers
impact of globalisation has led to increase in are the largest section of farmers who depend
marketisation and the resultant rise in on others’ land for survival.
consumerism. Dumping of agricultural
produce in India due to free-trade policy has (6) Dowry system : The custom of
adversely affected pricing of local products. dowry has wrecked havoc with farmers in
rural India. Often, they end up borrowing
(3) Indebtedness : Farmers who take money from institutions or money lenders on
loans from government agencies, private the pretext of agricultural needs, but end up
individuals or organisations, are often unable utilising the loans for personal purposes such
to repay loans and its interest, if the crops as giving in to dowry demands. This social
fail for one or more seasons. The impoverished evil continues despite the law which treats
farmers live a life steeped in debt. This its practice as a criminal offence. This has
weighs heavily on farmers, many of whom been seen in the case of suicides in the
are men and sole earning members of their Vidarbha and Marathwada regions of
families. The psychological burden of being Maharashtra.
indebted passes on to the next generation. In
situations of despair, many farmers are known
to end their lives. By having to purchase Consequences of farmers’ suicides
expensive seeds every year from the market,
the farmer is forced to seek additional loans. When farmers commit suicide there are
This pushes several farmers to bankruptcy. several consequences. They are:

You should know! (1) Impact on farmers’ families : If the
farmer who commits suicide is the main
In the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra earning member, it obviously proves to be a
many farmers switched to using BT cotton life-long economic and emotional trauma for
seeds to gain higher yield. BT cotton the rest of the members of the family,
seeds are more expensive. especially for the wife and children. They

However, BT cotton seeds require
good irrigational facilities, which are not
always available, especially with irregular
monsoons. It leads to crop failure. Besides,
the seeds obtained from BT crops cannot
be used for the next sowing.

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are left without any financial and emotional (2) Insurance : Life insurance for
support. distressed farmers and their families as well
as crop insurance against crop failure, failure
(2) Impact on spouse : The wife may of monsoons, destruction of agricultural
have to resume the responsibility of the sole produce by locusts or viruses etc. should
bread winner. She may not have previous be provided to farmers.
experience nor the necessary skills, thus
leaving her with no option but to accept hard (3) Provision for direct sales from
physical labour. farmers to buyers : Farmers work in rural
areas but their crop must reach various parts
(3) Impact on children : The children of India. This brings in many middlemen
may also have to assume new responsibilities who operate between the farmer and markets
prematurely. Many children are forced to located faraway. Middlemen and agents are
abandon their education, thus adding to the known to grab a large share of the profits
statistics of school ‘drop outs’. The leaving a meagre sum for especially small
psychological scars of losing a parent has and marginal farmers. Removal of the need
several effects on the child. for the systems of middlemen will be a step
towards eliminating such forms of exploitation.
(4) Impact on economy : A farmer
committing suicide, even an isolated instance, (4) Water harvesting : Since water is
is enough to create an atmosphere of despair an essential requirement for farming, and
in the entire village. The resultant negative there prevails a repeated pattern of floods
effect can deter youth from taking up and droughts in various parts of the country,
agriculture as their livelihood. Thus, many of effective measures for water harvesting and
them may then prefer to migrate to urban water management, is necessary. It will help
areas in search of employment. Can you to channelise and use water resources with
imagine the long-term impact on the economy great discretion. The responsibility of water
if farming becomes an unattractive career harvesting cannot rest only with the
option? government but with various organisations
and the efforts of all people.
(5) Impact on social environment : The
psychological effect of death of farmers due (5) Role of Banks : Banks and
to suicide, or even an attempt to end one’s Cooperative Credit Societies need to set up
life, creates an atmosphere of helplessness, their systems in farmer-friendly ways when
fear and doom in the minds of fellow it comes to the disbursement of loans to
villagers. It can dampen the spirit of the farmers and also to encourage a ‘saving’
farming and/or village community. It can habit among farmers. Farmers have to resort
create a sense of guilt, shame or inferiority to private money lenders due to procedural
among fellow farmers of the village. This is difficulties in obtaining loans from banks,
especially true when the statistics of farmers’ and other established financial organisations.
suicide are on the rise - in certain regions Under such circumstances, debt-waiver
of a State or within the State as a whole. schemes declared by the government have
little or no value. They remain in a
Measures to tackle the problem of perpetual state of indebtedness and at the
farmer suicides mercy of private money-lenders.

(1) Support to farmers in distress : It (6) Multi-cropping : This would be an
is necessary for farmers to have support alternative to monoculture. There needs to be
systems in place, to help them tide over a strong support system from the government
various crises caused by failed monsoons,
crop failure, indebtedness etc.

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to provide training to farmers as well as especially of men can lead to feelings of
supply good quality seeds, fertilisers and suspicion, threat to one’s ego, one’s authority,
pesticides at subsidised and affordable rates. notions of infidelity etc. These are reasons
enough to cause violence and abuse within
You should know! the domestic sphere.

Multicropping is the practice of growing (3) Dysfunctional relationships : There
two or more crops on the same piece of land are various factors responsible for strains in
in the same growing season. It is a form of a spousal relationship or relationships between
polyculture. different members within the family. These
could include personal insecurities, suspicion,
Check your progress age differences, cultural differences and
1. Discuss how multicropping will help incompatibility. These can trigger snide
remarks, bickering, labelling, verbal spats
farmers. and physical assault.
2. Why do you think there is a problem
(4) Traditional and religious outlook :
of irrigation? Give two reasons. Conventional and traditional mind-sets,
3. Discuss the role of counselling in especially in institutions like marriage, family,
religion, stipulate the supremacy of men over
tackling the problem of farmers’ women in almost every sphere of life. Within
suicide. such a scenario, gender socialisation trains
the younger generation to conform to the
6.5 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE social expectations based on sex, age,
experience, authority etc. Such an outlook
Domestic violence refers to abuse within has the danger of ‘normalising’ violence
the family. Violence implies psychological, within the home.
emotional, verbal and physical torture. There
are at least two types of persons involved (5) Heteronormativity :
in cases of domestic violence the one who
perpetrates violence and those who are at the You should know!
receiving end, the victims. More often than
not, violence within the family goes unreported Heteronormativity refers to the social
as it is treated as a personal matter, and is expectation (norm) that human behaviour
perceived to be ‘normal’ in the patriarchal must necessarily fit into a gender binary
system. It is important to note that victims (that is, there are only two ways to
of domestic violence could be anyone within identify and behave - female and male,
the family or extended family; domestic feminine and masculine). Heteronormativity
violence cuts across all classes, age categories, is a social construct that is often linked
sexes and genders. to heterosexism (i.e. the assumption that
heterosexuality is the norm).
Causes of domestic violence
Non-conformity to heterosexist
(1) Patriarchy : Indian society is largely expectations and stereotypical gender roles is
patriarchal. This means that there is a huge usually discouraged in patriarchal families.
imbalance of power between men and others The control exerted by adults in the family,
in our society. The status of women is on the young people during their puberty to
gradually improving but the status of adulthood years, becomes increasingly rigid.
transgender persons and children is even There are numerous instances of gender
lower. In a patriarchal context, there is the
unwritten acceptance of male authority.

(2) Insecurity : Insecurity of one partner,

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