Business, Accounting and Finance BSBINS603 Manage applied research activities Learner Materials and Assessment Tasks
Table of Contents About BSBINS603 Initiate and lead applied research.....................................................4 Clarify and confirm applied research purpose and needs of the target group.......9 Activity 1..............................................................................................................17 Activity 2..............................................................................................................21 Activity 3..............................................................................................................29 Determine policies and procedures in relation to conducting applied research...58 Activity 4..............................................................................................................65 Establish mechanisms for collecting and maintaining data in a systematic manner................................................................................................................67 Activity 5..............................................................................................................79 Analyse factors affecting the reliability and validity of data................................82 Activity 6..............................................................................................................93 Review relevant research ethics and codes of conduct.......................................96 Activity 7............................................................................................................101 Activity 8............................................................................................................107 Activity 9............................................................................................................110 Prepare applied research strategy and hypothesis............................................112 Activity 10..........................................................................................................121 Frame a research strategy in consideration of available tools and resources....125 Review and evaluate a range of applied research methods, theories and data collection techniques.........................................................................................131 Activity 11..........................................................................................................136 Activity 12..........................................................................................................140 Select appropriate methods to gather and analyse data...................................143 Activity 13..........................................................................................................150 Use suitable technology and technology services to support data collection and analysis..............................................................................................................153 Activity 14..........................................................................................................158 Activity 15..........................................................................................................164 Access appropriate sources of information and contributors relevant to the research.............................................................................................................166 Optimise relevance of the research through integrity of the data collected and analysis tools used............................................................................................171 Activity 16..........................................................................................................177 Activity 17..........................................................................................................182 Evaluate how research findings such as trends and changes will impact on learning strategy...............................................................................................185 2 | P a g e
Activity 18..........................................................................................................191 Review data and research findings for accuracy of details and adherence to any legal requirements.............................................................................................194 Collate and analyse data for relevance against the original applied research strategy.............................................................................................................195 Activity 19..........................................................................................................200 Activity 20..........................................................................................................203 Document and present research findings in a clear and logical manner consistent with audience needs..........................................................................................205 Activity 21..........................................................................................................212 Identify the need for and an appropriate approach to, further research............214 Attachment 1 – Australian Market and Social Research Society Code of Professional Behaviour......................................................................................216 ASSESSMENT.....................................................................................................237 Assessment Outcome record.............................................................................257 3 | P a g e
About BSBINS603 Manage applied research activities Application This unit describes the skills and knowledge required to plan, conduct and report on applied research to influence strategic practices and outcomes within an organisational context. The unit also covers constructing an applied research strategy, using a range of applied research techniques, and analysing and presenting findings. It applies to leaders or managers using applied research to ensure learning can enhance individual, team and organisational performance. The intended purpose and approach to applied research may vary across a range of contexts and organisations. In this unit, the focus is on applied research to attain improved organisational outcomes. No licensing, legislation or certification requirements apply to this unit at the time of publication. Unit Sector Knowledge Management – Research Elements and Performance Criteria ELEMENT PERFORMANCE CRITERIA Elements describe the essential outcomes. Performance criteria describe the performance needed to demonstrate achievement of the element. 1. Construct an applied research strategy 1.1 Clarify and confirm applied research purpose and needs of the target group 1.2 Determine policies and procedures in relation to conducting applied research 1.3 Establish mechanisms for collecting and maintaining data in a systematic manner 1.4 Analyse factors affecting the reliability and validity of data 1.5 Review relevant research ethics and codes of conduct 4 | P a g e
1.6 Prepare applied research strategy and hypothesis 1.7 Frame a research strategy in consideration of available tools and resources 2. Use a range of applied research techniques 2.1 Review and evaluate a range of applied research methods, theories and data collection techniques 2.2 Select appropriate methods to gather and analyse data 2.3 Use suitable technology and technology services to support data collection and analysis 2.4 Access appropriate sources of information and contributors relevant to the research 2.5 Optimise relevance of the research through integrity of the data collected and analysis tools used 3. Analyse and present findings 3.1 Evaluate how research findings such as trends and changes will impact on learning strategy 3.2 Review data and research findings for accuracy of details and adherence to any legal requirements 3.3 Collate and analyse data for relevance against the original applied research strategy 3.4 Document and present research findings in a clear and logical manner consistent with audience needs 3.5 Identify the need for and an appropriate approach to, further research Foundation Skills This section describes language, literacy, numeracy and employment skills incorporated in the performance criteria that are required for competent performance. Skill Performance Criteria Description Learning 3.5 Evaluates and reflects on the need for further research to contribute to ongoing organisational improvement 5 | P a g e
Reading 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 2.4, 3.1, 3.2 Collects, analyses, compares and evaluates textual information from a range of resources to inform research strategies Writing 1.6, 3.3, 3.4 Develops texts dealing with complex ideas and concepts Uses specialised and detailed language to convey explicit information, requirements and recommendations in accordance with legal, ethical and organisational requirements Oral Communicat ion 1.1, 3.4 Uses specialised vocabulary appropriate to context and audience to discuss and confirm research requirements Applies listening and questioning techniques to check or confirm understanding Numeracy 3.2, 3.3 Applies knowledge of mathematical information to statistically analyse data and identify possible trends and confirm reliability Navigate the world of work 1.2, 1.5, 3.2 Is highly autonomous, taking responsibility for determining applicable organisational policies and procedures and considering legal and ethical obligations Monitors adherence to legal and regulatory rights and responsibilities for self and possibly for others Interact with others 3.4 Demonstrates sophisticated control over oral, visual and/or written formats, drawing on a diverse range of communication practices to achieve goals Get the work done 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.7, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 3.3 Develops plans for complex activities, regularly reviewing priorities and performance during implementation, identifying and addressing issues as they arise 6 | P a g e
Considers the strategic and operational potential of digital trends to achieve work goals, enhance work processes, create opportunities and enhance or reduce risks Uses formal analytical thinking to make informed decisions about research strategies and techniques, seeking input, advice and feedback as required Unit Mapping Information Code and title current version Code and title previous version Comments Equivalence status BSBINS603 Manage applied research activities BSBRES801A Initiate and lead applied research Updated to meet Standards for Training Packages Equivalent unit Assessment requirements Modification History Release Comments Release 1 This version first released with BSB Business Services Training Package Version 1.0. Performance Evidence Evidence of the ability to: plan, conduct and report on applied research relevant to organisational strategic practices and outcomes formulate a research proposal or plan which includes: specific research questions or hypotheses valid population or sample size description of the geographical, cultural, social or institutional context within which the research will be carried out full description of the data collection methods analysis of the limitations to research design including the reliability and validity of data design an applied research project using applied research tools and techniques 7 | P a g e
document and present research findings including analysis of data, valid and reliable findings and recommendations for further research. Note: If a specific volume or frequency is not stated, then evidence must be provided at least once. Knowledge Evidence To complete the unit requirements safely and effectively, the individual must: describe communication processes and methods explain data collection and analysis methods including the use of technology and technology services explain legal requirements, policies, procedures and guidelines relating to research including handling and storing data, privacy and freedom of information describe presentation techniques describe reporting methods explain research ethics and codes of conduct give examples of applied research tools and methods and how they are applied. 8 | P a g e
Clarify and confirm applied research purpose and needs of the target group Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, and develop innovative technologies. Psychologists working in human factors or industrial/organizational fields often do this type of research1 . Examples of Applied Research A few examples of applied research in psychology include: Investigating which treatment approach is the most effective for reducing anxiety Researching which strategies work best to motivate workers Studying different keyboard designs to determine which is the most efficient and ergonomic Analyzing what type of prompts will inspire people to volunteer their time to charities As you may notice, all of these examples explore topics that will address a realworld issues. This immediate and practical application of the findings is what distinguished applied research from basic research, which instead focuses on theoretical concerns. However, researchers also suggest that basic research and applied research are actually closely intertwined. Basic research often informs applied research, and applied research often helps basic researchers refine their own theories. How Does Applied Research Work? Applied research usually start by identifying a problem that exists in the real world. Applied psychologists then conduct research in order to identify a solution. The type of research that is used can depend upon a variety of factors include unique characteristics of the situation and the kind of problem psychologists are trying to solve. Researchers might opt to use naturalistic observation to see the problem as it occurs in a real-world setting. They might then conduct experiments to help determine why the problem occurs and to explore different solutions that might solve it. Potential Challenges in Applied Research 1 Source: Very Well Mind, as at https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-applied-research-2794820, as on 12th March, 2018. 9 | P a g e
As with any other types of research, challenges can arise when conducting applied research in psychology. Some potential problems that researchers might face when performing this type of research include: Ethical challenges. When conducting applied research in a naturalistic setting, researchers may come across concerns about privacy and informed consent. In some cases, such as in workplace studies conducted by industrial-organizational psychologists, participants may feel pressured or even coerced into participating as a condition of their employment. Problems with validity. Since applied research often takes place in the field, it can be difficult to researchers to maintain complete control over all of the variables. Extraneous variables can also exert a subtle influence that the experimenters may not even consider or realize are having an effect on the results. In many cases, researchers are forced to strike a balance between a study's ecological validity (which is usually quite high in applied research) and the study's internal validity. Since applied research focuses on taking the results of scientific research and utilizing it directly in real world situations, those who work in this line of research tend to be more concerned with the external validity of their work. External validity refers to the extent that scientific findings can be generalized to other populations. Researchers don't just want to know if the results of their experiments apply to the participants in their studies. They want these results to also apply to larger populations outside of the lab. "Because applied research investigates realistic problems, applied researchers are often concerned with the external validity of their studies. This means that they attempt to observe behaviours that can be applied to reallife situations," explains Dawn M. McBride in The Process of Research in Psychology. "This is important because these researchers want to be able to apply their results to a problem that applies to individuals who are not participants in their study (as well as to those individuals who were observed in the study. External validity is also a consideration in basic research but in some cases can be less important that it is in applied research." How Is Applied Research Used in the Real-World? What are some examples of how applied research is used to solve real-world problems? A hospital might conduct applied research on how to prepare patients for certain types of surgical procedures. A business might hire an applied psychologist to assess how to design a workplace console to maximize efficiency and productivity while minimizing worker fatigue and error. 10 | P a g e
An organization might hire an applied researcher to determine how to select employees that are best suited for certain positions within the company. Low-cost computing and the rapid development of technology have created new environments for conducting survey research. Like all research methods, online survey research has benefits and drawbacks; the method works well for some research projects but is by no means appropriate for all research objectives. This book provides practical information for researchers who are considering using the Internet, mobile devices, and other technologies to conduct surveys. We will evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using digital surveys and offer guidelines for the creation and implementation of these surveys. The topics covered herein will be of interest to survey researchers in a wide variety of academic and professional settings who wish to evaluate their options for data collection and analysis2 . In this section, we begin by setting the context within which digital surveys are conducted. We review the research process generally, discuss concepts common to all surveys, and evaluate the conditions under which online surveys are optimal. Applied research is a methodology used to solve a specific, practical problem of an individual or group. The study and research is used in business, medicine and education in order to find solutions that may cure diseases, solve scientific problems or develop technology3 . Applied Research Topic Examples Persuasion of individuals Interventions for specific child behaviours Ways to manage schizophrenia How to cure Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Ways to market products The effectiveness of abstinence programs Should pilots be armed? Has U.S. policy contributed to terrorism? How to abolish hate crime How can bullying be prevented? How to reverse or manage global warming Is mercury poisoning affecting intellectual disorders? Should vaccinations be avoided to prevent autism? What methods can be used to prevent criminals from acting again? What is causing increased poverty? How can the achievement gap of students from various socio-economic 2 Source: Sage Publications, as at https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/44129_1.pdf, as on 12th March, 2018. 3 Source: Your Dictionary, as at http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-applied-research.html, as on 12th March, 2018. 11 | P a g e
backgrounds be bridged in education? How can cyber security be improved? What types of additives are acceptable and healthy for manufacturers to use in human food products? Is irradiation of beef healthy for consumers? Is genetically modified food hurting health? How does immigration affect the economy? Is technology use for children helpful or harmful? Is violence in the media and in video games damaging children’s mental health? Are there ways to prevent juvenile offenders from becoming lifelong criminals? How is the media affecting females’ body perceptions? Would a change in welfare policy spur an increase in individuals seeking work? What changes are necessary to create jobs? How does the consumption of oil in the United States affect its economy? How would the legalization of some drugs affect various groups within society? What type of anti-smoking campaigns can reduce smoking among youth or adults? How can obesity be prevented? What effect does fast food have on overall health? How can social anxiety be overcome? How does social media change individual’s perception of society and themselves? Does marriage prevent certain mental or physical illnesses? In what ways can depression be managed without medication? Do government enforced regulations help or stigmatize those in “oppressed” groups (such as affirmative action or Title IX in women’s sports)? Is there a wage gap between men and women in the United States, and if so, why? Is multi-tasking helpful or hurtful? Are children of working mothers at any long term disadvantage as opposed to children of stay at home mothers? What are ways to improve school readiness for children? How can graduation rates be improved in urban school environments that are currently not producing as many graduates as their suburban counterparts? What can be done to increase the amount of graduating high school students choosing to attend college? Is college tuition becoming prohibitive to young adults being successful and able to support themselves? 12 | P a g e
Is technology creating a “dumbing down” of individuals? How does tobacco use in various forms affect humans? Does marijuana pose a greater or smaller health risk than tobacco, when smoked? Can marijuana cause the kind of impairment requiring it to be regulated like alcohol? Applied research topics can cover a wide variety of subjects, all addressing practical problems. The Research Process The research process typically begins with a question that needs an answer or a problem that must be solved. In the case of commissioned research, the questions will be provided to you at the start of the project. Researcher-initiated studies allow investigators more discretion in terms of the specification of the research goals and objectives. Before framing the goals and objectives of a particular project, it is useful to identify the purpose of the research. Social research projects can be classified into three categories: exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory research. An individual study can have multiple purposes or may be part of a program of research that spans two or all three purposes. Exploratory Research The goal of exploratory research is to formulate problems, clarify concepts, and form hypotheses. Exploration can begin with a literature search, a focus group discussion, or case studies. If a survey is conducted for exploratory purposes, no attempt is made to examine a random sample of a population; rather, researchers conducting exploratory research usually look for individuals who are knowledgeable about a topic or process. Exploratory research typically seeks to create hypotheses rather than test them. Data from exploratory studies tends to be qualitative. Examples include brain-storming sessions, interviews with experts, and posting a short survey to a social networking website. Descriptive Research Descriptive studies have more guidelines. They describe people, products, and situations. Descriptive studies usually have one or more guiding research questions but generally are not driven by structured research hypotheses. Because this type of research frequently aims to describe characteristics of populations based on data collected from samples, it often requires the use of a probability sampling technique, such as simple random sampling. Data from descriptive research may be qualitative or quantitative, and quantitative data presentations are normally limited to frequency distributions and summary statistics, such as averages. Customer satisfaction surveys, presidential approval polls, and class evaluation surveys are examples of descriptive projects. Explanatory Research The primary purpose of explanatory research is to explain why phenomena occur and to predict future occurrences. Explanatory studies are characterized by research hypotheses that specify the nature and direction of the relationships between or among variables being studied. Probability sampling is normally a 13 | P a g e
requirement in explanatory research because the goal is often to generalize the results to the population from which the sample is selected. The data are quantitative and almost always require the use of a statistical test to establish the validity of the relationships. For example, explanatory survey research may investigate the factors that contribute to customer satisfaction and determine the relative weight of each factor, or seek to model the variables that lead to shopping cart abandonment. An exploratory survey posted to a social networking website may uncover the fact that an organization’s customers are unhappy. A descriptive study consisting of an e-mail survey sent to a random selection of customers who made a purchase in the past year might report the type and degree of dissatisfaction. The explanatory research would attempt to understand how different factors are contributing to customer dissatisfaction. What Is a Survey? A survey is a system for collecting information. Often, in discussions about conducting surveys, emphasis is incorrectly placed on questionnaires. To employ surveys most effectively, it is important to understand that a questionnaire is one element of a process that begins with defining objectives and ends with data analysis and reporting of results (Dillman, 2000). In explicating total survey design, Fowler (2002) emphasized that taking a view of the entire survey process is critical to the success of a research project. Total survey design requires that researchers take a holistic approach by considering all aspects of the survey process. In doing so, one increases the likelihood of collecting data that adequately address the study’s objectives while balancing time and cost constraints. The basic steps in the survey process (see Figure 1.1) are the same for all types of surveys. The process begins with defining the study’s goals and objectives and continues with a literature review and consultation with experts. Many researchers also choose to conduct preliminary research, such as focus group discussions or personal interviews with members of a target audience. Results of this type of investigation are used as a basis for deciding on the survey type to employ (or if a survey is even appropriate). Focus group transcripts also can be a useful starting point for developing the survey questionnaire. Selecting a sample of participants can be challenging and sometimes represents the point in the process when the survey project is abandoned in favor of a different research method. If a sample cannot be identified or reached, a survey will not be possible. The period between the launch of a survey and the downloading of data is typically spent monitoring the survey responses and preparing for data analysis. Finally, all survey studies, like most research projects, culminate with some sort of report and/or presentation of findings. The methods for administering surveys include telephone interviewing, self-administered mail questionnaires, and face-to-face interviewing. Added to these methods are a host of new techniques made available by the development of technology—notably e-mail, web-based, and mobile surveys. In e-mail surveys, the questionnaire is accessed by a link in a survey invitation. In most cases, the respondent completes the questionnaire by clicking on the link, responding to the questions, and submitting the completed questionnaire by using a submit button on the final page of the questionnaire. In web-based surveys, the questionnaire resides on a website. Respondents visit the site and 14 | P a g e
access the survey either by clicking on a hyperlink located somewhere on the page or by responding to a popup invitation to complete the questionnaire. Mobile surveys take advantage of the pervasiveness of cell phones by inviting respondents to participate in SMS (short message service) surveys or those designed to be answered using smartphone applications. 15 | P a g e
Online surveys provide a wealth of opportunities and challenges for researchers. It is important that researchers recognize these opportunities and limitations so that they may make informed decisions when selecting a data collection method (see Table 1.1). It is doubtful that digital surveys will replace other modes of data collection; rather, these methods most likely will be used to complement existing techniques. Research Goals and Objectives After identifying the purpose of the research project and deciding that an online survey is an appropriate mode of data collection, it is next necessary to define the study’s goals and objectives. What are you trying to find out by conducting a 16 | P a g e
survey? The objectives of the project determine whom you will survey and what you will ask them. If your objectives are unclear, the results probably will be unclear. Commit to these objectives in writing to help keep the survey focused. Make sure that you can tie in every questionnaire item to one or more of the survey’s objectives. A research goal is more broadly defined than the objectives. Goals are distinguished from objectives in that they are not necessarily measurable. For example, Goals: (A) Establish a solid foundation for Acme’s economic future. (B) Investigate the need for local networking between our industrial and service sectors. Objectives: To conduct a needs assessment survey of our suppliers to determine (A) current use of resources, (B) resource gaps, and the (C) need for outsourcing. Goals: (A) Determine the current state of breast cancer screening among AsianAmerican women. (B) Understand the psychological, economic, and cultural barriers to breast cancer screening among Asian-American women. (C) Create culturally appropriate, persuasive messages encouraging breast cancer screening among Asian-American women. Objectives: (A) to describe the incidence of breast cancer screening among Asian-American women in the Tri-Valley area; (B) to identify the psychological, economic, and cultural barriers preventing Asian-American women from getting screened for breast cancer; and (C) to test three messages designed to persuade Asian-American women to get screened for breast cancer. 17 | P a g e
Activity 1 Identify and describe the three main purposes for conducting social research. Describe how an online survey may serve each purpose. 18 | P a g e
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Activity 1 Guidelines for Writing Survey Objectives 1. Make objectives specific. To write specific objectives, it is useful to start with a general goal statement that begins with the word to followed by an action verb, 23 | P a g e
such as describe, explain, explore, identify, investigate, gauge, measure, assess, or test—for example, “To investigate customer satisfaction levels.” A list of specific objectives can then be generated from this goal statement. Example 1.1 shows a general research goal followed by a list of objectives. The level of specificity in the objectives will guide the researcher when writing questionnaire items. Example 1.1 Goal: To assess credit union members’ satisfaction with the current services Objectives: To assess credit union members’ satisfaction regarding the following: A. The waiting time to speak to a customer service representative B. The loan application process C. Membership fees D. Telephone banking services E. Checking account services F. Savings account services G. Bilingual services Be sure that the survey objectives are in alignment with the format you choose to administer the survey; e-mail, website, and mobile surveys have innate coverage biases. For example, if your objective is to determine the satisfaction level of residents of the XYZ Retirement Village, then placing that survey on the village’s website may not target the correct set of respondents. Evidence indicates that people aged 65 and older access the Internet less often than younger people. The website of a retirement village may be viewed more often by family members of the residents than by the residents themselves. 2. Write measurable objectives. Whether an objective is measurable should be evaluated in light of the proposed survey format. Some objectives, such as those involving physiological variables, may very well be measurable but not in an e-mail or mobile survey. Example 1.2 presents some measurable digital survey objectives. Example 1.2 A. To assess students’ opinions about the proposed mascot B. To determine the percentage of citizens who are likely to vote for Candidate A C. To determine employees’ attitudes about the new delivery system D. To collect members’ ratings of the workshop 24 | P a g e
3. Have your objectives reviewed by experts. There are two types of experts to consider: (a) subject-matter experts and (b) methodologists. Subject-matter experts have in-depth knowledge in specific areas. For example, if you are conducting an election study, you might seek out political scientists or sociologists with expertise in voting behaviour. These individuals can offer advice about the topic of the survey and provide a context for the research. Methodologists, on the other hand, are experts in the survey process. They can help you create specific and measurable objectives and offer advice about the feasibility of achieving your objectives with an online survey. 4. Review the literature related to your topic. A literature review is a basic component of most academic and many applied research papers. Even if your project does not require a formal literature review, it is valuable to conduct one anyway. In doing so, you can learn from the work of others; specifically, you will see how others have formulated their research objectives and approached specific problems in the research process. In addition, you may find that the data you are seeking to collect already exist. Numerous research consortiums and institutes routinely collect a host of social data (e.g., the General Social Survey conducted by researchers at the University of Chicago) and make it available to member institutions and their constituents. Activity 2 Imagine you were assigned to conduct a customer satisfaction survey for a local credit union. a. What sort of preliminary research would you conduct in preparation for designing the survey? 25 | P a g e
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Activity 2 b. Whom would you contact for information and advice on your survey questionnaire? 27 | P a g e
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Activity 2 c. Would you recommend an online survey for this project? Why or why not? 30 | P a g e
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Activity 2 d. Write one goal and one objective for this survey project. 33 | P a g e
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Activity 2 Forming Research Questions and Identifying Key Concepts4 After you have chosen a research paper topic, developing research questions and identifying key concepts helps you write a strong thesis statement and conduct structured research. Jumping into your topic without asking the right questions and developing a plan hurts the overall strength of your paper. In addition, by developing questions and identifying concepts, you make it easier to determine what information you need and how that information pertains to the scope of your research paper. Forming research questions to shape your thesis statement Forming research questions is essential in writing an effective thesis statement. To develop research questions, you start with forming statements about the information you need about your chosen topic. Identifying your information needs helps keep your research focused on your topic as you work to clarify and support the thesis statement. Below are a few examples of statements developed to identify the type of information needed for example research paper topics: I need to locate information about the types of homeopathic stress relievers. 4 Source: Write, as at http://www.write.com/writing-guides/research-writing/research-process/formingresearch-questions-and-identifying-key-concepts/, as on 12th March, 2018. 36 | P a g e
I need to locate information about the effects of video game violence on children aged 7-10. I need to locate information about the causes of childhood obesity. I need to locate information about childhood immunizations. From these statements, you can develop research questions that keep your research focused on finding the answers. For example, you might develop the following questions from the previous statements: What are the most common types of homeopathic stress relievers? Does video game violence have any affect on children aged 7-10? What are the main causes of childhood obesity? What are the major childhood immunizations given in the United States? You can further shape your research and the formation of your thesis statement by including a point of view in any research questions you develop: Are common homeopathic stress relievers effective in treating high levels of stress? Are children between the ages of 7-10 negatively affected by video game violence? Are parents to blame as one of the contributing factors to childhood obesity? Are the childhood immunizations given in the United States harmful in any way? With research questions developed, you can start researching more in-depth to clarify your thesis statement by looking for the answers to your questions. Sometimes, to conduct your research effectively, you might need to read for information in order to identify key concepts to serve as a guide for your research. However, in most cases, the key concepts are easily pulled from the research questions you develop. Identifying key concepts and synonyms to shape further research With research questions created, you want to identify the key concepts within each question. Additionally, you want to develop a list of synonyms for those concepts. You identify key concepts by looking at the words and phrases that make up each research question. Using those terms, you develop alternative terms that help you find more information by broadening your search terms when using the internet, specialized databases and the invisible web to locate sources of information. Using one of the example research questions from above, the example below demonstrates identifying key concepts and synonyms that help with the research process. 37 | P a g e
1. Research question: Are common homeopathic stress relievers effective in treating high levels of stress? 2. Key concepts: homeopathic stress relievers, high levels of stress 3. Alternative words and/ or synonyms for search terms: home remedies for stress, high stress, home stress treatments, at-home stress relievers, ways to reduce stress naturally, increased levels of stress By identify the key concepts in your research questions and finding alternative ways to express those concepts, you can find relevant information more easily. Plus, alternative search terms created from synonyms allows you to find information you may not have found by searching only for the key concepts in their original wording. As you prepare to clarify your thesis statement, both developing research questions and identifying key concepts influence the shape and scope of your research. Just like reading for information or note-taking strategies help you write a stronger paper, conducting research that yields the right information is vital to writing an effective research paper. The specification of research questions or hypotheses (i.e., what is to be studied) and research strategy (i.e., how to conduct the study) is an extremely important part of any research project (Yin, 1989:19). Research questions or hypotheses influence the strategy that is employed in order to either provide answers to the questions or verify/falsify hypotheses. What research strategy to use ought to depend on the nature of the problem domain (i.e., sociology, biology, physics, mathematics, etc.) and exact formulation of research questions5 . Formulation of precise research questions requires deep insights into the domain of study: Do the questions that are to be answered "fit" the research domain? Are they the ones most worthy of investigation? To which degree will answering the questions contribute to any progress within the research area? Do practitioners perceive the research questions to concern real problems? In this particular research project, the preunderstanding of enterprise modelling practice was not considered to be sufficient to formulate precise research questions in advance. Instead, studies of the problem area were expected to result in more sophisticated understanding of dominant concepts, so that the research questions could be adjusted accordingly. This research approach will be argued further for in section . Hence, the research questions presented in section are a result of iteration through problem formulation and actual research. They are not just "snatched out of thin air" -- they have evolved as a part of the research process. The research questions and objectives The overall quest of the research project can be formulated as follows: 5 Source: Norwegian University of Science and Technology, as at http://www.idi.ntnu.no/grupper/su/publ/html/totland/ch012.htm, as on 12th March, 2018. 38 | P a g e
Main Research Question How is and should enterprise modelling be performed when the main purpose of modelling is to support human sensemaking and communication? Two important foci here are purpose and context of enterprise modelling. Purpose is enterprise modelling as a means to support human sense-making and communication. The purpose is not compromised in the sense that a range of different purposes of modelling are sought supported. However, other purposes are discussed in the course of the research. Context is enterprise modelling in real world organizations. Any claims, propositions and conclusions are based on empirical studies and not on more or less plausible and idealized assumptions. An immediate question concerns the purpose of improved understanding and communication: Is not the mission to change something? Certainly, understanding is not sought as an ends in itself, but the transition from understanding aspects of an organization to reaping the benefits of this understanding is outside the scope of the current investigation (although changing people's perception of reality may manifest itself in action). In order to narrow the aspects of enterprise modelling that are investigated, four partial questions are formulated: Partial Research Questions RQ1: What are the purposes of developing and using enterprise models, and how are enterprise models actually used? RQ2: What activities are most important in an enterprise modelling process? RQ3: What are the most important properties of enterprise models, i.e., the artifacts or manifestations of the modelling process? RQ4: What are the most prominent relationships between purposes, modelling processes, models, modelers and the enterprise that is modelled? Note that the focus is on enterprise modelling and not merely on enterprise models. The process through which enterprise models are created and used is a primary target to study. 39 | P a g e
The research objectives pursued in order to answer the research questions are: Research Objectives RO1: Based on empirical studies of real enterprise modelling projects, formulate a set of assertions concerning enterprise modelling practice when the purpose of modelling is human sense-making and communication. RO2: Develop a methodological framework based on the above-mentioned assertions to guide practitioners in their enterprise modelling efforts. RO1 focuses on current enterprise modelling practice (the is part of the main research question). RO2 seeks to answer the should part of the main research question, based on the practice observed and summarized as a part of meeting RO1. The research questions presented above cannot be given an exhaustive answer, at least not within the limited scope of a doctoral study. Narrowing of the questions question is required. Most of the focus in this thesis is on RQ1 and RQ2: The purposes, use and process of enterprise modelling. These are the aspects perceived to be least developed in current literature on the topic of enterprise modelling. Some limitations of the study are also pointed out in chapter 10. Central terms and their meaning Some of the central terms used in the formulation of research questions and objectives deserve a closer look to clarify their intended meaning in this thesis. The meaning of the terms become more sophisticated in chapter 3 after the introduction of additional theory, but a brief and informal outline is given here. Enterprise modelling can be thought of as describing selected aspects of an organization, e.g., their business processes, products, objectives, actors, threats and opportunities. There are no restrictions on how the description is given, although a graphical layout in terms of a diagram or a drawing is considered typical. Sense-making subsumes understanding, but has some connotations: Sensemaking stresses that the focus is on the process of understanding, not on a final state of knowing. Further, sense-making is an active term, indicating the creation of meaning and not merely passive interpretation. Sense-making is as much a matter of invention as it is of discovery, according to Weick (1995:13). Finally, sense-making implies not only attribution of meaning, but also incorporation of this meaning into a coherent whole. 40 | P a g e
Communication is taken to mean the exchange of information between actors, relying on a more or less common language. Communication serves a purpose in informing other actors of how an actor makes sense of reality and is to be interpreted in a broad sense (i.e., communication does not only rely on speech, but also action). The notion of enterprise modelling as a means to support human sense-making and communication is to see enterprise modelling as a process that may influence how actors make sense of and communicate about the modelled enterprise. At the same time, sense-making and communication are central activities in enterprise modelling. Consequently, sense-making and communication are both parts of and purposes of enterprise modelling. Finally, that an activity or property is important or prominent is indicated by repeated observations of the same issue, outstanding performance, assigned priority by actors in the projects that are studied, etc. Hence, there is an element of subjectivity involved in assessment of importance. Activity 3 The question, "Should we do research?" is often stimulated by data from a(n) _____. (a) data warehouse (b) business intelligence system (c) decision support system (d) intranet (e) both B and C 41 | P a g e
Activity 3 A SEARCH STRATEGY FOR EXPLORATION6 Exploration is particularly useful when researchers lack a clear idea of the problems they will meet during the study. o Exploration is the phase through 6 Source: The Hashemite University, as at https://eis.hu.edu.jo/ACUploads/10643/Chapter%205.pdf, as on 12th march, 2018. 42 | P a g e
which researchers develop concepts more clearly, establish priorities, develop operational definitions, and improve the final research design. Exploration may save time and money. Exploration is needed when studying new phenomena or situations. Exploration is often, however, given less attention than it deserves. The exploratory phase search strategy usually comprises one or more of the following: – Discovery analysis of secondary sources such as published studies, document analysis, and retrieval of information from organizations' databases. – Interviews with those knowledgeable about the problem or its possible solutions (called expert interviews). – Interviews with individuals involved with the problem (called individual depth interviews (IDIs)—a type of interview that encourages the participant to talk extensively, sharing as much information as possible). – Group discussion with individuals involved with the problem or its possible solutions (including informal groups, as well as formal techniques such as focus groups or brainstorming). A review of secondary sources is considered critical to moving from management question to research question. The objective of the exploratory research phase: 1. Expand your understanding of the management dilemma by looking for ways others have addressed and/or solved problems similar to your management dilemma or management question. 2. Gather background information on your topic to refine the research question. 3. Identify information that should be gathered to formulate investigative questions. 4. Identify sources for and actual questions that might be used as measurement questions. 5. Identify sources for and actual sample frames (lists of potential participants) that might be used in sample design. In most cases, the exploration phase will begin with a literature search—a review of books, articles, research studies, or Web-published materials related to the proposed study. In general, a literature search has five steps: 1. Define your management dilemma or management question. 2. Consult encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, and textbooks to identify key terms, people, or events relevant to the management dilemma or management question. 43 | P a g e
3. Apply these key terms, names of people, or events in searching indexes, bibliographies, and the Web to identify specific secondary sources. 4. Locate and review specific secondary sources for relevance to your management dilemma. 5. Evaluate the value of each source and its content. Often the literature search leads to the research proposal. – This proposal covers at minimum a statement of the research question and a brief description of the proposed research methodology. – The proposal summarizes the findings of the exploratory phase of the research, usually with a bibliography of secondary sources that have led to the decision to propose a formal research study. Levels of Information: Information sources are generally categorized into three levels: o Primary sources are original works of research or raw data without interpretation or pronouncements that represent an official opinion or position. – Primary sources are always the most authoritative because the information has not been filtered or interpreted by a second party. o Secondary sources are interpretations of primary data. – Nearly all reference materials fall into this category. – A firm searching for secondary sources can search either internally or externally. o Tertiary sources are aids to discover primary or secondary sources or an interpretation of a secondary source. – These sources are generally represented by indexes, bibliographies, or Internet search engines. It is important to remember that all information is not of equal value. – Primary sources are the most valuable. Types of Information Sources. Indexes and Bibliographies. – An index is a secondary data source that helps identify and locate a single book, journal article, author, et cetera, from among a large set. – A bibliography is an information source that helps locate a single book, article, photograph, et cetera. – Today, the most important bibliography in any library is its online catalog. – Skill in searching bibliographic databases is essential for any business researcher. 44 | P a g e
Dictionaries. – Dictionaries are secondary sources that define works, terms or jargon unique to a discipline; may include information on people, events, or organizations that shape the discipline; an excellent source of acronyms. – There are many specialized dictionaries that are field specific (e.g., business concepts dictionaries). – A growing number of dictionaries are found on the Web. Encyclopedias. – An encyclopedia is a secondary source that provides background or historical information on a topic. – In addition to finding facts, encyclopedias are useful in identifying experts in a field or in finding key writings on any topic. Handbooks. – A handbook is a secondary source used to identify key terms, people, or events relevant to the management dilemma or management question. – Handbooks often include statistics, directory information, a glossary of terms, and other data such as laws and regulations essential to a field. – The best handbooks include source references for the facts they present. – One of the most important handbooks for business-to-business organizations is the North American Industry Classification System, United States (NAICS). Directories. – A directory is a reference source used to identify contact information. – Today, many directories are available at no charge via the Internet. – Most comprehensive directories are proprietary. Evaluating Information Sources. Researchers should evaluate and select information sources based on five factors that can be applied to any type of source, these are: – Purpose—the explicit or hidden agenda of the information source. – Scope—the breadth and depth of topic coverage, including time period, geographic limitations, and the criteria for information inclusion. – Authority—the level of the data (primary, secondary, tertiary) and the credentials of the source author(s). – Audience—the characteristics and background of the people or groups for whom the source was created. – Format—how the information is presented and the degree of ease of locating specific information within the source. MINING INTERNAL SOURCES The term data mining describes the process of discovering knowledge from databases stored in data marts or data warehouses. 45 | P a g e
The purpose of data mining is to identify valid, novel, useful, and ultimately understandable patterns in data. Data mining is an approach that combines exploration and discovery with confirmatory analysis. An organization's own internal historical data is an often under-utilized source of information in the exploratory phase. The researcher may lack knowledge that such historical data exist; or, The researcher may choose to ignore such data due to time or budget constraints, and the lack of an organized archive. Digging through data archives can be as simplistic as sorting through a file of patient records or inventory shipping manifests, or rereading company reports and management authored memos A data warehouse is an electronic repository for databases that organizes large volumes of data into categories, to facilitate retrieval, interpretation, and sorting by end users. The data warehouse provides an accessible archive to support dynamic organizational intelligence applications. The key words here are dynamically accessible. Data in a data warehouse must be continually updated to ensure that managers have access to data appropriate for real-time decisions. The more accessible the databases that comprise the data warehouse, the more likely a researcher will use such databases to reveal patterns. Thus, researchers are more likely to mine electronic databases than paper ones. Remember that data in a data warehouse were once primary data, collected for a specific purpose. When researchers data-mine a company's data warehouse, all the data contained within that database have become secondary data. The patterns revealed will be used for purposes other than those originally intended. – Example: An archive of sales invoices provides a wealth of data about what was sold, at what price, and to whom, where, when, and how the products were shipped. But the company initially generated the sales invoice to facilitate the process of getting paid for the items shipped. – When a researcher mines the sales invoice archive, the search is for patterns of sales, by product, category, region, price, shipping methods, etc. Data mining forms a bridge between primary and secondary data. 46 | P a g e
Pattern Discovery Data-mining tools can be programmed to sweep regularly through databases and identify previously hidden patterns. An example of pattern discovery is the detection of stolen credit cards based on analysis of credit card transaction records. Other uses include: – Technical pattern in FOREX and stock markets. – Finding retail purchase patterns (used for inventory management) – Identifying call centre volume fluctuations (used for staffing) – Locating anomalous data that could represent data entry errors (used to evaluate training, employee evaluation, or security needs) Predicting Trends and Behaviours Data mining is used to predict problems: o A typical example of a predictive problem is targeted marketing. o Forecasting bankruptcy and loan default o Finding population segments with similar responses to a given stimulus. o Build risk models for a specific market, such as discovering the top 10 most significant buying trends each week. Data-Mining Process Sample The researcher must decide whether to use the entire data set (census) or a sample of the data. If the data set in question is not large, if processing power is high, or if it is important to understand patterns for every record in the database, sampling should not be done. If the data warehouse is very large, processing power is limited, or speed is more important than complete analysis, it is wise to draw a sample. If general patterns exist in the data as a whole, these patterns will be found in a sample. Explore Identify relationships within the data. After the data are sampled, the next step is to explore them visually or numerically for trends or groups. Both visual and statistical exploration (data visualization) can be used to identify trends. The researcher also looks for outliers to see if the data need to be cleaned, cases need to be dropped, or a larger sample needs to be drawn. Modify Based on the discoveries in the exploration phase, the data may require modification. 47 | P a g e
Clustering, fractal-based transformation, and the application of fuzzy logic are completed during this phase as appropriate. A data reduction program, such as factor analysis, correspondence analysis, or clustering, may be used. If important constructs are discovered, new factors may be introduced to categorize the data into these groups. In addition, variables based on combinations of existing variables may be added, recoded, transformed, or dropped. At times, descriptive segmentation of the data is all that is required to answer the investigative question. If a complex predictive model is needed, the researcher will move to the next step of the process. Model Once the data are prepared, construction of a model begins. The model should explain the data relationships. Modelling techniques include: neural networks, decision trees, sequence-based classification and estimation, and generic-based models. Assess The final step in data mining is to assess the model to estimate how well it performs. Test the model's accuracy. A common method of assessment involves applying the model to a portion of data that was not used during the sampling stage. If the model is valid, it will work for this "holdout" sample. Another way to test a model is to run the model against known data. Example: If you know which customers in a file have high loyalty and your model predicts loyalty, you can check to see whether the model has selected these customers accurately. 48 | P a g e
The process we call the management-research question hierarchy is designed to move the researcher through various levels of questions, each with a specific function within the overall business research process. The management question is seen as the management dilemma restated in question format. A research question(s) is the objective of the research study. – It is a more specific management question that must be answered. – Incorrectly defining the research question is the fundamental weakness in the business research process. 49 | P a g e
Fine-Tuning the Research Question. – Fine-tuning the question is precisely what a skillful practitioner must do after the exploration is complete. – At this point the research project begins to crystallize in one of two ways: It is apparent the question has been answered and the process is finished. A question different from the one originally addressed has appeared. 50 | P a g e