BBC Science Focus 02.2021

WHAT YOUR BRAIN DOES TO CREATE REALITY

Why people think How to beat How to teach

THEY CAN HEAR THE DEAD COVID-19 BY 2022 A MACHINE TO TELL A STORY

SCIENCEFOCUS.COM

How a string of strange discoveries #360 FEBRUARY 2021
could reveal a cosmos hidden just out of view
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Health Nature Environment

The truth about gene-edited food Are climbing plants conscious? Genius zero-waste inventions



COVER: ANDY POTTS THIS PAGE: GETTY IMAGES X3 FROM THE Could we farm
EDITOR thunderstorms
for power?
Forgive us if we indulge in a little escapism this month. –›p79
After a soggy, concrete-grey January cooped up inside, we
decided to go with something otherworldly for this issue: CONTRIBUTORS
ghost stars. If you’ve subscribed to us for a while, you’ll
know that scientists are on the hunt for dark matter, an LOIS KING
elusive but all-pervasive material that seems to hold our
Universe together. Though we can’t see it, interact with it, or Lois is a researcher at the
– most crucially – detect it with our most sensitive instruments, we can Global Health Unit on
see that something is holding galaxies together, keeping the stars inside Respiratory Health in Asia at
from spinning further out into space. This might seem inconsequential, the University of Edinburgh.
but our best calculations estimate that this dark material seems to She looks at how we could beat
outweigh normal matter by a factor of six to one. COVID in 2022. –›p36
It’s clear to see why scientists have become increasingly desperate to
find a way to detect and measure dark matter, and why a series of strange DR LISA FELDMAN
new signals in a handful of experiments dotted around the globe has got BARRETT
researchers excited. To get to the bottom of this mystery and the
incredible ideas underlying it, head to p70 where astronomy writer Colin Lisa is one of the most cited
Stuart reveals all. In the meantime, if you want to listen to interviews neuroscientists on the planet.
that explore the ideas covered in the magazine in greater depth, please do She explores how brains create
check out our podcast, which you can find at sciencefocus.com/podcast. reality, and what happens
Enjoy the issue! when things go wrong. –›p54

Daniel Bennett, Editor DR LARA MARTIN

WANT MORE? FOLLOW SCIENCEFOCUS ON FACEBOOK TWITTER PINTEREST INSTAGRAM Wouldn’t it be nice if you could
just speak naturally to your
ON THE BBC THIS MONTH... smart speaker to get it do
what you want? That’s exactly
the problem Lara is
attempting to solve. –›p66

COLIN STUART

Colin has an asteroid named
after him in recognition of his
popularisation of astronomy.
Who better to help us
understand the mysterious
world of dark bosons? –›p70

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CONTENTS 15 32

DISCOVERIES REALITY CHECK

REGULARS

06 EYE OPENER 40 INNOVATIONS Scientists use satellite imagery Is gene-editing safe, and
and artificial intelligence to track how does it differ to
Incredible images from The latest news from the endangered elephants. genetic modification?
around the planet. world of technology.
PLUS: take a peek at 70
12 CONVERSATION the new Urban Air Port
pilot scheme. A UNIVERSE FULL OF SEE-THROUGH STARS
Your emails and letters.
63 MICHAEL MOSLEY Discoveries from around the world hint at the possibility that
15 DISCOVERIES our Universe might be full of stars that are invisible to our most
It’s important to get a sensitive detectors.
All the biggest science news. good night’s rest, but
This month: elephants don’t become obsessed
tracked with artificial with what your sleep
intelligence; megalodon tracker says.
embryos ate their siblings in
the womb; IBS mechanism 64 ALEKS KROTOSKI
deciphered; retinal cell
transplants could help with Intrusive social media and
blindness; Virgin’s online shouting matches
LauncherOne rocket have sent many people
successfully launched. running into the internet’s
secret sanctuaries.
32 REALITY CHECK
79 Q&A
The science behind the
headlines. Do plants show Our experts answer your
consciousness? Should we questions. This month:
allow gene-editing? COVID How do we know the Milky
in 2022: is there hope on Way is a spiral galaxy? Is
the horizon? there such a thing as
maximum temperature?
38 Why can we pee without
pooing, but we can’t poo
SUBSCRIBE TODAY! without peeing? Is there
any goodness in salad
leaves? Why does porridge
go so hard when it dries?

88 CROSSWORD

Try this tricky puzzle!

Get 50% off the shop price 88 NEXT MONTH
when you subscribe to
BBC Science Focus today! What’s in store next issue.

90 A SCIENTIST’S
GUIDE TO LIFE

How to get fit at home,
with Matt Cocks and
Katie Hesketh.

4

F E AT UR E S 54 WANT MORE?

46 WASTE NOT, HOW YOUR BRAIN CREATES REALITY Don’t forget that BBC Science
WANT NOT Focus is also available on all major

Meet the people who are digital platforms. We have
creating valuable resources versions for Android, Kindle Fire
from waste. and Kindle e-reader, as well as an
iOS app for the iPad and iPhone.
54 HOW YOUR BRAIN
CREATES REALITY Can’t wait until next month to get
your fix of science and tech? Our
That blancmange-like
squiggly stuff inside your website is packed with news,
skull somehow creates the articles and Q&As to keep your
world that you know.
brain satisfied.
66 ALEXA, TELL sciencefocus.com
ME A STORY
64 LUNCHTIME
We talk to Lara Martin, a GENIUS
computer innovation fellow ALEKS KROTOSKI
who wants to teach A DAILY DOSE OF
computers how to tell stories MENTAL REFRESHMENT
(and maybe play a spot of DELIVERED STRAIGHT
Dungeons & Dragons, too).
TO YOUR INBOX
70 A UNIVERSE FULL OF
SEE-THROUGH STARS Sign up to discover the latest news,
views and breakthroughs from
Dark matter outnumbers the BBC Science Focus team
normal matter in the www.sciencefocus.com/
Universe. The problem is, we newsletter/
haven’t found it. But some
scientists think that a whole
cosmos of dark stars could be
lurking out there…

44

IDEAS WE LIKE

Our pick of this month’s best gadgets. We’re
rather keen on this telescope…

“IN THE TIME BEFORE PLUS, A FREE MINI-
FACEBOOK, THE WEB GUIDE EVERY WEEK
WAS THE PLACE YOU
COULD ESCAPE TO A collection of the most important
WHEN THE OFFLINE ideas in science and technology
WORLD WAS TOO today. Discover the fundamentals
OPPRESSIVE” of science, alongside some of the
most exciting research
in the world.

5

EYE OPENER

EYE OPENER

Future
farm

SAN FRANCISCO, US

San Francisco agricultural
start-up, Plenty, hopes to
tackle rising food demands
at its innovative vertical
farm. As it is indoors,
pesticides can be limited
and the crops are not
damaged by weather
extremes. Artificial
intelligence controls
planting, temperature,
moisture and light, and
learns how to improve
crop production. Plenty
claims it uses 99 per cent
less land than typical farms.

LettUs Grow in Bristol,
UK, also uses software in
its indoor vertical farms.
“Looking ahead, vertical
farming will enable us to
control the shape and
fragrance of crops,
creating opportunities to
engineer and cultivate
biopharmaceuticals like
vaccines in plants,” says Dr
Antony Dodd, a scientist at
LettUs Grow.

Currently, temperature
and lighting systems limit
the environmental
credentials of vertical
farms. However, both
Plenty and LettUs Grow
aim to integrate renewable
energy to ‘close the loop’ in
their vertical farms.

COVER IMAGES

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6





EYE OPENER

EYE OPENER

All
aboard!

LEIDEN,
THE NETHERLANDS

Researchers at Leiden
University 3D-printed this
boat that’s invisible to the
naked eye. At 30 microns,
the tiny vessel is close in
size to a human skin cell.

The team studies
‘microswimmers’, which
are biological or synthetic
particles that move
through fluids. They built
microswimmers of various
designs and observed
their movements using an
electron microscope,
noting that spiral shapes
made faster swimmers.

After 3D-printing the
boat, a layer of platinum
was applied. “It works as a
catalyst and breaks down
hydrogen peroxide or
water [in the fluid it travels
through] as a fuel to propel
itself,” says researcher Dr
Rachel Doherty.

Microswimmers could
one day be used in
diagnostics or drug
delivery. “Understanding
the influence of shape on
motion will help in future
applications,” says Doherty.
“The idea is to create a
vehicle to transport a drug
to a targeted location in
the body.”

LEIDEN UNIVERSITY

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9

EYE OPENER

EYE OPENER

Put your
face on

TOKYO, JAPAN

Shuhei Okawara has taken
face masks to the next
level by creating these
hyper-realistic, 3D-printed
designs. While they’re not
medically approved, these
masks will reach a niche
market when they go on
sale this year. They are set
to sell for 98,000 yen
(almost £700) each in
Okawara’s Tokyo store
Kamenya Omote.

Inspired by fantasy
stories, Okawara used
advanced 3D-printing
technology to create the
masks from models’
photos. When he launched
the project last year, more
than 100 applicants sent
him headshots, expressing
their interest in modelling
for the masks. He plans to
expand the range of faces
after the initial launch, so
there will be a choice of
which mask to wear.

We are yet to learn more
about the engineering
behind this specific project,
but Okawara is working
closely with an unnamed
printing engineer and
claims that they’ll be able
to create up to 100
identical masks a month.

REUTERS

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LETTER OF THE MONTH Out with a bang

The December issue was my favourite for some
months, because it contained more physics
than usual. However, I had a question regarding
the Big Bang. In any explosion, all the exploding
material, mass and energy, travels outwards
from the origin, leaving a continuously
expanding vacuum at the centre, which by now
would add up to a mind-bogglingly enormous
empty volume in interstellar space. So where is
it? Unlike the Higgs boson, it shouldn’t be hard
to spot, surely?

Mark Farren

The Big Bang is often likened to an explosion,
in the sense that a lot of stuff moved apart
quickly. But it wasn’t literally an explosion,
and the metaphor rapidly falls apart. In an
explosion, you have a centre where the
combustion happens, and things move away
from that centre at high speeds. But with the
Big Bang, there is no literal ‘bang’, and there’s
also no centre: the Big Bang happened
everywhere at once. It’s hard for us to
picture, but a metaphor that cosmologist

Tim Saviour creep back up. Reading Prof Tim
Spector’s article about diet myths
I KNEW IT! I used to be able to eat (November, p56) gave me a sign of
and drink anything, but since relief... I am not going mad, I am just
becoming menopausal I have getting older and my body doesn’t
struggled with my weight. process food the way it used to!
Thank you, Tim, for giving me my
So, I exercised like a maniac for sanity back!
four years (all differing types) and I
watched what I ate. I would lose Shamsi Pearson
weight at first but then it would

WRITE IN AND WIN! WORTH
£69.99
The writer of next issue’s Letter Of The Month wins a Let’s
Explore Oceans mega pack. It comes with a set of VR/AR Fruit cake: a surprisingly
goggles, powered by your smartphone, to take you on an good (and tasty) analogy for
immersive journey through the sea. Learn about the anatomy the Big Bang
of great whites and humpback whales, before practising your
underwater photography skills. letsexplore.com

12

LETTERS MAY BE EDITED FOR PUBLICATION

“HAVING AN AI ACTUALLY PLAY THE TEAM
DUNGEONS & DRAGONS IS AN
ASPIRATIONAL GOAL, SOMETHING EDITORIAL
I’D LIKE TO SEE THE COMMUNITY Editor Daniel Bennett
Managing editor Alice Lipscombe-Southwell
COME TOGETHER TO TACKLE” Commissioning editor Jason Goodyer
Staff writer Thomas Ling
DR LARA MARTIN, P66 Editorial assistant Amy Barrett
Online assistant Sara Rigby
Cats are more discerning Intern Frankie MacPherson
than Science Focus experts,
says Emily Johnston ART
Art editor Joe Eden
ALAMY, GETTY IMAGES X2 Marcus Chown uses is raisins in a fruit cake. extraterrestrial life existing purely Picture editor James Cutmore
As the cake rises in the oven, all the raisins underwater (December, p58) got me thinking
move away from all the other raisins – they about what kind of intelligent life could CONTRIBUTORS
don’t radiate out from the centre of the cake. evolve in a world that was fully submerged. Rob Banino, Abigail Beall, Hayley Bennett, Peter
Sure, there could be fish-like and crab-like Bentley, Dan Bright, Steve Brusatte, Marcus Chown,
Sara Rigby, online assistant creatures, but could intelligence ever go much Susan D’Agostino, Emma Davies, Lisa Feldman Barrett,
further than that? Would an underwater Cat Finnie, Alexandra Franklin-Cheung, Alastair Gunn,
The cat’s wet whiskers world ever warrant the use of tools? Fire Brenna Hassett, Ben Holder, Adam Hylands, Christian
seemed necessary for many of our Jarrett, Lois King, Aleks Krotoski, Pete Lawrence, Nish
Maybe Tim Spector can’t tell the difference accomplishments, and this would be out of Manek, Michael Mosley, Avalon Nuovo, Stephanie Organ,
between tap water and bottled water the question. Even simple things, like a wheel, Helen Pilcher, Andy Potts, Jason Raish, Efraín Rivera-
(November, p61) but my cat can, and he will led to the invention of complex mechanical Serrano, Jeremy Rossman, Helen Scales, Kyle Smart,
absolutely not touch the tap water. I buy systems. However, there would be little use Holly Spanner, Colin Stuart, Jocelyn Timperley, Valentin
gallon jugs of spring water to put in his water for a wheel in the ocean, so that entire line of Tkach, Luis Villazon.
dish. I have a good nose and I can pick up the innovation would be obsolete. The shark has
smell of chlorine in the water, which is why I changed very little in hundreds of millions of ADVERTISING & MARKETING
assume he won’t drink it. He was raised on years, so it’s possible that this is the best we Group advertising manager Tom Drew
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13

ADVERTISEMENT FEATURE

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MARTIAN ICE TUMMY TALK BITING BACK TREATING BLINDNESS

The Red Planet had Scientists unravel How some snakes resist the Retinal cell transplants may
multiple ice ages p17 mechanism behind IBS p18 venom of other snakes p19 one day restore sight p22

DISCOVERIES

ENDANGERED ELEPHANTS
TRACKED FROM SPACE BY
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

The world-first study
opens the door to more
effective methods of
monitoring the
movements of
endangered
species

5

GETTY IMAGES

Powerful friends Electric eels will join forces to zap their prey p23 Virgin flight On its first successful flight, Virgin’s LauncherOne craft
takes 10 tiny CubeSats into orbit p26 Down the rabbit hole Primordial black holes could contain baby universes p28

DISCOVERIES

A n international team Satellites are able to
of scientists from the cover large areas, and
University of Bath, the
University of Oxford can monitor regions
and the University of that are inaccessible
Twente in the Netherlands
have successfully used satellite-based from the ground
cameras coupled with deep-learning
algorithms to track the movements of The AI system
African elephants. identified African

The population of African elephants elephants from
has plummeted over the last few images obtained by
decades, thanks to poaching and loss the WorldView-3 and
of habitat. The species is now classified WorldView-4 satellites
as endangered, with just 50,000
individuals left in the wild.

Currently, conservationists monitor
the populations of endangered and
under-threat animals such as elephants
by counting them one-by-one from
low-flying aeroplanes. But in this
study, the team used an automated
artificial intelligence system created
by Dr Olga Isupova, a computer
scientist at the University of Bath,
to analyse high-resolution images of
the elephants as they moved through
forests and grasslands. The images had
been captured by the commercially
run WorldView-3 and WorldView-4
observation satellites. They found that
their system was able to examine the
images and identify the animals with
the same accuracy as humans analysts.

Although the combination of satellite
imagery and deep-learning has
previously been used to identify marine
animals, this study marks the first time

“Accurate the technique has been used to monitor therefore the easiest to spot. However,
animals moving through a mixed the researchers are hopeful that the
monitoring is landscape that includes areas of open technology will be successful in
grassland, woodland and scrub. observing other species in the future.
essential if we’re
“This type of work has been done “Satellite imagery resolution increases
to save the before with whales, but of course the every couple of years, and with
ocean is all blue, so counting is a lot every increase we will be able to see
species. We need less challenging. As you can imagine, smaller things in greater detail. Other
to know where a heterogeneous [diverse] landscape researchers have managed to detect
the animals are” makes it much harder to identify black albatross nests against snow. No
animals,” said Isupova. “Accurate doubt the contrast of black and white
monitoring is essential if we’re to save made it easier, but that doesn’t change
the species. We need to know where the fact that an albatross nest is one-
the animals are and how many there eleventh the size of an elephant,” said
are,” she added. Isupova. “We need to find new state-
of-the-art systems to help researchers
The team chose to run their pilot gather the data they need to save
study using African elephants, as species under threat.”
they are the largest land animals and

16

MARS DISCOVERIES

Glaciers on Mars at random. They also found that the In numbers
rocks were distributed in clear bands
reveal the planet of debris across the glaciers’ surfaces, 40
with each marking the limit of separate
went through and distinct flows of ice, indicating that billion
each formed during a separate ice age.
multiple ice ages The number of base pairs in
“These glaciers are little time the genome of the Australian
The discovery could help capsules, capturing snapshots of what NWPIƂUJ OCMKPI KV VJG NQPIGUV
establish how the Martian was blowing around in the Martian
climate has changed over time atmosphere,” said Dr Joe Levy, a ever to be sequenced. The
planetary geologist and assistant human genome has just three
Glaciers that have remained on the professor of geology at
surface of Mars for hundreds of Colgate University. billion base pairs.
millions of years are revealing secrets
of the planet’s unique geological past. “Now we know that we have access to 8
hundreds of millions of years of Martian
By analysing the patterns and history without having to drill down per cent
structures of rocks in 45 of the Red deep through the crust – we can just
Planet’s glaciers, researchers at Colgate take a hike along the surface.” The percentage of dangerous
University, New York, have found that PM10 particles in Milan that
Mars underwent between 6 and 20 Further examination of the glaciers
separate ice ages over the last 300 to could help scientists to figure out how are generated by cigarette
800 million years. the climate of Mars has changed over smoke. The city has now
time – as well as what kind of rocks, introduced a ban on smoking
The team made the discovery after gases, or even microbes might be within 10 metres of another
painstakingly poring over a series of trapped inside the ice.
high-resolution images collected by the person.
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter satellite, The researchers have now begun to
and measuring the size of around map the rest of the glaciers on the Red 96
60,000 rocks in the photos. Planet’s surface and hope to use an
artificial intelligence system to count per cent
If there was a single, long ice age and analyse the rocks, to piece together
event, they would’ve expected to find a a complete planetary history of Mars. The amount saved on the
steady progression of larger to smaller carbon footprint generated
rocks as they gradually eroded over “There’s a lot of work to be done by a web-conferencing call if
time. However, they found that rocks figuring out the details of Martian video-streaming is turned off,
of different sizes were distributed climate history, including when and as calculated by researchers at
where it was warm enough and wet Purdue University, Indiana.
enough for there to be brines and liquid
water,” said Levy.

These images of glaciers on Mars show the

distribution of boulders in the ice

MAXAR TECHNOLOGIES/DIGITAL GLOBE X2, JOE LEVY/COLGATE UNIVERSITY

17

DISCOVERIES

HEALTH

Scientists begin to untangle
mechanism that causes IBS

Early work shows how antihistamines could be used to treat the condition

There are thought to be millions of of a small group of 12 human patients “Unlike an
people in the UK with irritable bowel with IBS and saw a localised release of allergic reaction,
syndrome (IBS), yet despite the large histamine in the intestine, just as they did with IBS the
number of sufferers, little is known about with the mice. The researchers have now production of
the condition. According to the NHS, IBS begun a larger clinical trial to investigate histamine was
is usually a lifelong problem and has no the effect of treating sufferers of IBS using localised within
known cure, though changes in diet and antihistamines. the intestine”
some medicines can alleviate symptoms.
“This is further proof that the
Now, a team of researchers at KU mechanism we have unravelled has
Leuven in Belgium have uncovered a clinical relevance. But knowing the
mechanism behind the stomach pain mechanism that leads to mast cell
and discomfort felt by IBS sufferers that activation is crucial, and will lead to
could lead to potential new treatments novel therapies for these patients,” said
using antihistamines. Boeckxstaens. “Mast cells release many
more compounds and mediators than
The team’s previous research just histamine, so if you can block the
demonstrated that blocking histamine – the activation of these cells, I believe you will
compound that’s produced by the body’s JCXG C OWEJ OQTG GHƂEKGPV VJGTCR[ q
immune system in response to an allergen
– seemed to improve IBS symptoms. SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, GETTY IMAGES

It’s been established that people who
have suffered with an gastrointestinal
infection (GI) in the past, such as food
poisoning, seem to be more likely to go
on to suffer from IBS symptoms. The
team hypothesised that this could be
the consequence of the immune system
becoming sensitive to any foods present in
the gut when the infection was present. In
other words, if some bad oysters gave you
food poisoning once, they could then be a
trigger for IBS in the future.

To test this, they took a group of mice
and gave half of them a GI infection and
then fed them all with an egg protein
called ovalbumin. A few weeks after the
infected mice had recovered, the team
once again presented the whole group
with the protein. The mice that were
previously infected with the bug released
histamine in their gut, while those
that had not been infected showed no
response. The scientists also noticed the
activation of mast cells, which produce
histamine. The infection had therefore
triggered an immune response to the
ovalbumin.

The team then went on to inject gluten,
wheat, soy and cow’s milk – which are
known triggers for IBS – into the intestines

18

DISCOVERIES

ZOOLOGY

Genetic mutation gives
snakes resistance to the
venom of other snakes

Snake venom can pack a serious are both preyed upon by other snakes, The team made the discovery by
punch. In some species it contains have genetic mutations that mean their FGXGNQRKPI CTVKƂEKCN PGTXGU YKVJ CPF
toxic substances that affect the nerves target nerve receptors are positively rather YKVJQWV VJGUG URGEKƂE OWVCVKQPU CPF
(neurotoxins), which can kill small than negatively charged. As a result, their then observing their interactions with
mammals in minutes and in some cases neurons repel the venom. venoms using cutting-edge biosensors
can even dispatch other snakes. at the Australian Biomolecular
“It’s an inventive genetic mutation and Interaction Facility (ABIF).
However, certain snake species are it’s been completely missed until now.
able to survive snake bites that would We’ve shown this trait has evolved at least “There’s some incredible technology
be deadly to others. A new study 10 times in different species of snakes,” at the ABIF allowing us to screen
said Dr Bryan Fry, an associate professor thousands of samples a day,” Fry said.
“It’s an inventive at the university’s Toxin Evolution Lab. “That facility means we can do the
mutation that’s kinds of tests that would have just been
been completely UEKGPEG ƂEVKQP DGHQTG VJG[ YQWNF JCXG
missed until been completely impossible.”
now”
Burmese pythons, which are
native to Southeast Asia,
have evolved resistance to
cobra venom

by researchers at the University of
Queensland, Australia, has discovered
that this phenomenon is down to
genetic mutations that allow their nerve
receptors to repel the neurotoxins,
similarly to the way the two positive
sides of a magnet repel each other.

Snakes such as cobras (Naja species)
and kraits (Bungarus species) that prey
on other snakes possess neurotoxins
with positively charged sites on their
molecular surfaces. Such sites allow the
venom to bind with target nerves that
have negatively charged receptors, and
therefore paralyse the snakes’ prey.

However, the team found that some
species, such as the Burmese python and
the South African mole snake, which

19

DISCOVERIES

BIOENGINEERING with enzymes that can perform a variety
of functions.
Engineers create
‘living materials’ Dubbed Syn-SCOBY, the material
inspired by was made by combining a strain of
kombucha microbes laboratory yeast called Saccharomyces
cerevisiae with a type of bacteria called
Kombucha – the trendy fermented drink Komagataeibacter that the team had
beloved by health freaks and hipsters isolated from a kombucha mother. The
alike – has inspired researchers to grow Komagataeibacter bacteria in the culture
a ‘living material’ capable of carrying produced large quantities of tough
out a range of tasks, such as detecting cellulose that served as a scaffold to
pollutants or purifying water. house the yeast and any enzymes
it produced.
Engineers from MIT and Imperial
College London made the material #U VJG [GCUV KU GCUKN[ OQFKƂGF VJG
using a SCOBY, or symbiotic culture researchers were able to engineer it to do
of bacteria and yeast. Usually used as various things, such as produce enzymes
a mother culture for making fermented that glow in the dark, or sense pollutants
kombucha tea, in this instance it was or pathogens in the environment.
used to produce cellulose embedded
“We foresee a future where diverse
materials could be grown at home or
in local production facilities, using
biology rather than resource-intensive
centralised manufacturing,” said Dr
Timothy Lu, an associate professor
in MIT’s electrical engineering and
computer science department.

The team is now looking into using
Syn-SCOBY for biomedical or food
applications, such as engineering the
yeast cells to produce antimicrobials, or
proteins that could be eaten by humans.

ABOVE The bacteria
in the Syn-SCOBY

produce large amounts
of strong cellulose that

serves as a scaffold
RIGHT Tzu-Chieh
Tang, one of the MIT
researchers who helped
develop the Syn-SCOBY

20

Scientist preparing
small doses of LSD in

a laboratory

PHARMACEUTICALS similar to those seen in people with
social anxiety disorders or autism.
Mechanism behind LSD’s
therapeutic potential They then hope to eventually explore
uncovered whether microdoses of LSD might have
a similar effect in humans, and whether
A new study has identified why the drug causes sociable it could also be a viable and safe
behaviour, which could lead to treatments for mental disorders therapeutic option.

CHENFU HSING, BRYCE VICKMAN, ZIJAY TANG, GETTY IMAGES X2 It has long been noted that small doses The researchers administered a low “Social interaction is a fundamental
of LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), dose of LSD to a group of mice over a characteristic of human behaviour,”
can promote empathy and produce a period of seven days and noticed that said co-lead researcher Dr Gabriella
feeling of a greater connection to the it led to an increase in their social Gobbi, a professor in the department of
world in those who take it. But until interactions. Then, using optogenetics psychiatry at McGill University.
now, the reason why this happened – a cutting-edge technique that allows
was unknown. URGEKƂE CTGCU QH VJG DTCKP VQ DG CEVKXCVGF “These hallucinogenic compounds,
and deactivated using light signals – which, at low doses, are able to
Now, researchers from McGill they found that the increased sociability increase sociability, may help us to
University in Canada have discovered QEEWTTGF DGECWUG .5& CEVKXCVGU URGEKƂE better understand the pharmacology
one of the possible mechanisms areas of the brain’s prefrontal cortex and neurobiology of social behaviour
that contributes to the drug’s called the serotonin 5-HT2A receptors and, ultimately, to develop and
ability to produce these effects. The and AMPA receptors. discover novel and safer drugs for
breakthrough could pave the way mental disorders,” she added.
towards using the drug to treat mental Now, the researchers are keen to test
health problems such as anxiety and the effectiveness of LSD in treating mice WARNING: LSD is a Class A drug according to
alcohol-use disorder. selectively bred to display behaviours UK law. Anyone caught in possession of such
substances will face up to seven years in prison,
an unlimited fine, or both. More information and
support for those affected by substance abuse
problems can be found at bit.ly/drug_support

21

DISCOVERIES

MEDICINE

Transplants of retinal cells
could treat blindness

Experiments showed that the transplants survived for three months and started to function

Researchers have successfully transplanted retinal cells rescuing vision in patients with retina diseases,” said
into monkeys’ eyes, giving hope for this method as a Dr Timothy Blenkinsop, assistant professor in cell,
treatment for blindness. developmental and regenerative biology at the Icahn
School of Medicine, New York. “The results of this study
Over 200 million people worldwide are affected by suggest human adult donor RPE is safe to transplant,
vision loss due to degeneration of a layer of cells in the eye strengthening the argument for human clinical trials for
called the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). treating retina disease.”

In this proof-of-concept study, an international group of Using stem cells could provide an unlimited source of
scientists took stem cells from the donated eyes of human transplants, and could ensure that the transplants are
adults and turned them into retinal cells. They then matched to the recipients, the researchers say.
transplanted these cells into the eyes of monkeys, where
they survived for three months with no serious side effects, This study shows that it is feasible that RPE transplants
such as attack from the immune system or light sensitivity. derived from stem cells could be a viable treatment for
visual impairment. However, further experiments are
What’s more, the cells started to take over some of needed before this treatment will become available.
the function of the monkeys’ RPE, and didn’t cause any
retinal scarring. The researchers say that next, they need to give the
transplants to diseased monkeys and test whether it
“Human cadaver donor-derived cells can be safely actually restores their sight. Following that, this method
transplanted underneath the retina and replace host will then be tested in human patients.
function, and therefore may be a promising source for

“The results of this
study strengthen
the argument for
human clinical
trials for treating
retina disease”

Retinal pigment epithelial XINYI SU, L SOUSA ILLUSTRATIONS: KYLE SMART
cell implant (yellow section)
transplanted beneath the
retina of a monkey

22

NATURE Electric eels ONLINE DATERS
have been Swiss researchers have found that couples
Electric eels will team up recorded who met through dating apps were more
hunting in likely to move in together, and more likely to
to zap their prey groups for the want to have children, than couples who
first time
It’s not just the Avengers who work best as a team: it turns out hooked up in more traditional ways.
that electric eels also assemble to defeat their foes. Or at least NASA, ALAMY ILLUSTRATIONS: CATHAL DUANE THE SUPERFIT
catch their next meal.
We all know we should be moving a bit more
While monitoring wildlife in the Amazon River, scientists to improve our health. Now, a study at the
from the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History University of Oxford has found that the
discovered groups of up to 10 eels may form a pack to attack benefits for the cardiovascular system keep
VGVTCU #HVGT JGTFKPI VJG UOCNN ƂUJ KPVQ C VKIJVN[ RCEMGF DCNN VJG piling up the more activity we get, with the
eels then deliver a synchronised high-voltage strike. most active people reaping the most gains.

“This is an extraordinary discovery,” said Dr David de Good month
Santana, lead author of the new study. “Nothing like this has Bad month
ever been documented in electric eels. Hunting in groups is
pretty common among mammals, but it’s actually quite rare in ANGRY GAMERS
ƂUJGU 6JGTG CTG QPN[ PKPG QVJGT URGEKGU QH ƂUJ MPQYP VQ FQ Prone to rage-quitting when gaming? Maybe
VJKU YJKEJ OCMGU VJKU ƂPFKPI TGCNN[ URGEKCN q rethink your approach. FIFA 19 players that

'NGEVTKE GGNU s YJKEJ CTG CEVWCNN[ C V[RG QH MPKHGƂUJ PQV were shown positive video clips before
actual eels – are capable of discharging up to 860 volts of playing scored more goals than those shown
electricity. They produce this charge through a specialised
organ made up of cells known as electrocytes. These cells negative, angry clips, Stanford University
(each carrying less than 100 millivolts), link together to form a researchers have found.
biological battery. NAUGHTY CHILDREN

“In theory, if 10 eels discharged at the same time, they Kids who are impulsive, aggressive and
could be producing up to 8,600 volts of electricity,” said de inattentive have poorer health in later life. A
Santana. “That’s around the same voltage needed to power 100 study at Duke University followed 1,000 New
light bulbs.” Zealanders from birth to age 45. Those rated

But what would happen if an eel shocked a human? As de as having more self-control as children
5CPVCPC MPQYU ƂTUV JCPF CNVJQWIJ VJG KPKVKCN UJQEM NCUVU HQT C showed slower signs of ageing in their organs,
mere two-thousandths of a second, it can still prompt a muscle
spasm capable of knocking you off your feet. and had younger-looking faces.

It was previously believed that there was only one species of 23
electric eel, but de Santana and his colleagues have unearthed
an extra two varieties – alongside 85 new species of other
GNGEVTKECN ƂUJ

But while only recently discovered, de Santana fears these
eels may soon come under threat due to deforestation and
climate change. “Electric eels aren’t in immediate danger, but
their habitats and ecosystems are under immense pressure,”
he explained. “This paper is an example of how much we still
don’t know, how many organisms whose life histories we don’t
yet understand.”

DISCOVERIES

DR ADAM POWELL
Research associate in religion and medical humanities

Horizons

Why some people say
they can ‘hear the dead’

According to new research, spiritualist mediums might be more
prone to immersive mental activities and unusual auditory
experiences early in life

YOUR WORK FOCUSES ON A QUALITY CALLED them. Somewhat surprisingly, existing “Depending
‘ABSORPTION’. WHAT EXACTLY IS IT? work doesn’t go into detail about what on the survey,
it’s like to hear the dead, although anywhere
Absorption has to do with a tendency there are discussions around whether from 5 to 15
to get lost in your own thoughts, it’s real, related to parapsychology, or per cent of the
become immersed in mental imagery, whether it’s similar to hallucinations population
or become lost in an altered state of among psychiatric patients. hears voices in
consciousness. It’s been found that high their lifetime”
absorption rates predict things like WHAT WERE YOUR KEY FINDINGS?
mystical experiences among those who We found that spiritualists did score GETTY IMAGES
use psychedelics. So, among a group higher on levels of absorption and
of people who took MDMA, those who proneness to auditory hallucinations,
scored higher on absorption would more compared to a control group. Many of
likely report a mystical experience. And the spiritualists had early experiences,
it’s correlated with a lot of things, like about 20 per cent for as long as they
measures of dissociation and openness can remember, while over 70 per cent
to experiences. had unexplained experiences before
encountering spiritualism that they
WHAT MADE YOU THINK THAT ABSORPTION now deem spiritual. Also, spiritualists
MIGHT INFLUENCE SPIRITUALISM? YGTG ƂIWTCVKXGN[ URGCMKPI QHH VJG
charts in terms of personal identity
Academics have spent years trying to and really didn’t care much about how
understand why people have religious people saw them, which corresponds
experiences. Why do some say, “I well with spirituality being a
heard God’s voice” or “I heard the spirit subjective, personal issue.
speak to me”? Anthropologist Tanya
Luhrmann has really championed the DID YOU FIND OUT WHAT IT’S LIKE TO
idea that absorption, and the scale used EXPERIENCE ONE OF THESE EVENTS?
to measure it, helps identify those who
have the most vivid, frequent religious We’re still engaged in one-on-one
experiences. We wanted to discover interviews with spiritualists, but for
whether clairaudient mediums – instance, 65 per cent reported these
mediums who said they had received experiences occur inside their head. So
auditory communications from spirits – even though it’s reported as auditory,
have a proclivity for these experiences. the vast majority don’t mean it’s heard
And also, how they’re experiencing

24

DISCOVERIES

meant for someone else, you needn’t
be concerned about the content, tone
or temperament of the spirit. Most
spiritualists say as soon as they relay
the message, they forget it. And often,
they can’t recall the bulk of their
experiences as a practising medium, as
they weren’t meant for them. Compare
that to someone with schizophrenia.
Schizophrenics rarely, if ever, say those
voices are directed at someone else;
they’re absolutely directed at them.
This could be disconcerting in itself.

outside their head. About 30 per cent CAN SPIRITUALISTS LEARN TO CONTROL WHAT KIND OF POSSIBILITIES DOES YOUR
reported the experiences both inside THESE AUDITORY EXPERIENCES? RESEARCH OPEN UP?
and outside the head.
Generally speaking, yes. Spiritualists We’re taking it into conversations
We also found these communications call it an ability, a muscle [they can] about mental health, but don’t want to
– and this is important if you’re train to grow stronger. But it’s a muscle claim these experiences are the same
comparing them with the VJG[ CNTGCF[ JCXG 5QOG ECP KPƃWGPEG as other hallucinatory experiences.
complex hallucinations reported things by talking back to the voice, Instead, we’re addressing questions
by schizophrenic patients – are saying, “I’m busy, come back later”, like: why do spiritualists who have
GZRGTKGPEGF KP C URGEKƂE CPF UKORNG and the voice will obey, but also these experiences feel comforted by the
way. So, it may be just an image or a KPƃWGPEG VJG HTGSWGPE[ QH GZRGTKGPEGU voices, when roughly 60 per cent of
YQTF VJG[ UGG MKPF QH ƃCUJKPI CNOQUV Some would say, “I’ve honed my skills them initially experience the voices in
like it’s a neon light. and now I have daily experiences, but a traumatic situation? That’s obviously
only when I want them”. very different from people with severe
SO, IS IT SEPARATE TO SOMETHING LIKE mental illness who hear voices. We also
SCHIZOPHRENIA? OR POTENTIALLY PART OF DOES BEING ABLE TO CONTROL THE VOICE have a cognitive neuroscience study
THE SAME SPECTRUM? MAKE IT A MORE POSITIVE EXPERIENCE, AS coming out that used fMRI brain scans
OPPOSED TO SOMETHING MORE DISTRESSING and a study of similar experiences that
Most of our research is corroborating AND NON-CONTROLLABLE? occur as you’re falling asleep or waking
the idea that voice-hearing is on a up; quite a few spiritualists reported
spectrum. Depending on the survey, That’s a really good question and their earliest experiences taking place
anywhere from 5 to 15 per cent of one theory we’re working with in the borders of sleep.
the general population hears voices is precisely that. If something is
in their lifetime, and if you broaden perceived as within your control, COULD THAT BE LINKED TO SOMETHING LIKE
that to any kind of hallucinatory it’s less threatening. It may be that SLEEP PARALYSIS?
experience, it increases to 30 to 60 per in Western societies that have
cent. There are scenarios in which this historically emphasised individual Absolutely. Generally, we’d call that
is well accepted and not viewed as a agency and choice, it’s a threatening hypnagogia, when someone’s in that
pathological problem. For instance, realisation, if these experiences are liminal state of consciousness. People
hearing the voice of a deceased relative viewed as intrusive and undesired. have more hallucinatory experiences
while grieving is common, but it’s The other theory is that once someone in that state and you can increase
more accepted, socially and culturally. GODTCEGU URKTKVWCNKUO CPF KFGPVKƂGU frequency through sleep deprivation
They’re in the grieving period, that as a medium, they view these or changing sleep schedules. It’s even
frame of mind. And somewhere on communications as not intended for being reported now because of the
there, spiritualists fall alongside people them, but a third party. One researcher pandemic. People aren’t releasing as
who hear God’s voice, for instance. postulated that, if these experiences are much energy during the day and their
sleep is more disrupted, so we’re seeing
an increase in these experiences. But
in mental health research and with
the religious experience side of things,
no one is really talking about cases of
hypnagogia that end up being deemed
URKTKVWCNN[ UKIPKƂECPV

DR ADAM POWELL
Adam is the lead researcher in Durham University’s
Hearing the Voice project, and is the COFUND junior
research fellow in the department of theology and
religion. Interviewed by freelance science writer
Holly Spanner.

25

DISCOVERIES

Mojave Air and Space Port, California

1 2

SPACE VIRGIN ORBIT X4 3

Virgin air-
launched rocket
successfully carries
10 tiny ‘CubeSat’
satellites into orbit

On the morning of 17 January, Virgin
1TDKVoU .CWPEJGT1PG TQEMGV OCFG KVU ƂTUV
successful voyage into orbit. The rocket
was launched from under the wing of a jet
aircraft, rather than a traditional launch
pad on the ground, from Mojave Air and
5RCEG 2QTV KP %CNKHQTPKC +V KU VJG ƂTUV
orbital class, air-launched, liquid-fuelled
rocket to reach space.

26

1. The satellites customised

were selected by Boeing 747-400

NASA’s Launch dubbed

Services Program ‘Cosmic Girl’.

as part of the

CubeSat Launch 3. After a smooth

Initiative. Nine release from the

out of 10 of the aircraft at a

CubeSats were height of about

designed, built 10,000m, the

and tested by rocket ignited

universities and powered

across the US. itself into orbit.

The CubeSats will

carry out studies 4. Once in its

such as weather target orbit, the

readings, debris rocket deployed

analysis and the CubeSats.

effects of The satellites are

radiation. fitted with

cameras,

2. LauncherOne allowing them to

was taken beam back

into the air by pictures as they

Virgin Orbit’s travel around

4 carrier aircraft, a the Earth.

27

Our Universe may contain many They did what?
other universes, hidden within
black holes Baboons’
accents
SPACE VJCV VJG[ CTG OQTG QT NGUU UVCDNG DWV NKMG C analysed
HQQVDCNN DCNCPEGF CV VJG VQR QH C JKNN C UOCNN
Black holes and MKEM ECP MPQEM VJGO KPVQ C OQTG UVCDNG WHAT DID THEY DO?
NQYGT GPGTI[ UVCVG
the multiverse Researchers at the German Primate
6JGTG KU C ETKVKECN UK\G VJCV FGVGTOKPGU Center listened in on the low
could account for YJCV DGEQOGU QH VJGUG HCNUG XCEWWO DWDDNGU frequency grunts that male Guinea
+H YJGP VJG[ RQR KPVQ GZKUVGPEG VJG[ CTG baboons use to communicate with
all dark matter UOCNNGT VJCP VJKU UK\G VJG[ YKNN EQNNCRUG one another and studied their acoustic
6JG GPGTI[ VJG[ TGNGCUG KP UWEJ C UOCNN structure.
Black holes that formed in the early moments XQNWOG YKNN VJGP VTKIIGT VJG HQTOCVKQP QH C
QH VJG 7PKXGTUG|EQWNF GZRNCKP FCTM OCVVGT RTKOQTFKCN DNCEM JQNG +H VJG HCNUG XCEWWO WHY DID THEY DO THAT?
RJ[UKEKUVU ENCKO 6JG[ CNUQ UC[ VJCV UQOG DWDDNG KU DKIIGT VJCP VJG ETKVKECN UK\G VJG
QH VJGUG DNCEM JQNGU EQWNF EQPVCKP nDCD[ TGUGCTEJGTU UC[ VJG DWDDNG YKNN TCRKFN[ They wanted to study the evolution of
WPKXGTUGUo VJCV YKNN PGXGT MPQY YG GZKUV GZRCPF VJGP UWFFGPN[ EQPVTCEV CPF EQNNCRUG vocal learning; essentially, the ability to
KPVQ C FKHHGTGPV V[RG QH RTKOQTFKCN DNCEM JQNG imitate sounds that allows humans to
+P VJG DGIKPPKPI VJG 7PKXGTUG YCU *QYGXGT VJQWIJ KV YQWNF CRRGCT VQ DG C learn new languages even into old age.
KPETGFKDN[ JQV CPF FGPUG s UQ OWEJ UQ VJCV DNCEM JQNG VQ WU CP QDUGTXGT QP VJG|KPUKFG|QH
C TCPFQO NQECN ƃWEVWCVKQP VJCV KPETGCUGF VJG VJG DNCEM JQNG YQWNF UGG VJGOUGNXGU KP CP WHAT DID THEY FIND?
FGPUKV[ QH CP CTGC D[ QPN[ RGT EGPV YQWNF GZRCPFKPI nDCD[ WPKXGTUGo
DG GPQWIJ VQ URCTM ITCXKVCVKQPCN EQNNCRUG KPVQ Baboons in different social groups
C DNCEM JQNG 7PNKMG VJG DNCEM JQNGU YG UGG 5KPEG PQ NKIJV ECP GUECRG HTQO C DNCEM shared similarities in their grunts,
KP QWT OQFGTP 7PKXGTUG VJG J[RQVJGVKECN JQNG CP[VJKPI KPUKFG VJKU DCD[ WPKXGTUG much like accents in human languages,
nRTKOQTFKCNo DNCEM JQNGU ETGCVGF CV VJKU VKOG YQWNF PGXGT MPQY VJCV QWT 7PKXGTUG GZKUVU suggesting a degree of a phenomenon
FKFPoV HQTO HTQO C EQNNCRUKPI UVCT YJKEJ 6JKU YQWNF OGCP VJCV QWT EQUOQU GZKUVGF CU known as ‘vocal accommodation’.
OGCPU VJG[ EQWNF JCXG C YKFG TCPIG QH RCTV QH C OWNVKXGTUG CPF FCTM OCVVGT s VJG
OCUUGU KPENWFKPI GZVTGOGN[ UOCNN QPGU O[UVGTKQWU OCVGTKCN VJCV OCMGU WR CDQWV “People do this also: they often
RGT EGPV QH CNN OCVVGT KP VJG 7PKXGTUG s KU VJG involuntarily adjust the tempo or their
5JQTVN[ CHVGT VJG $KI $CPI VJG GZRCPUKQP QH TGUWNV QH VJG ITCXKV[ QH VJGUG DCD[ WPKXGTUGU pitch to be more similar to that of the
VJG 7PKXGTUG CEEGNGTCVGF 6JKU RJCUG QH HCUVGT person you are talking to,” said lead
VJCP NKIJV GZRCPUKQP KU MPQYP CU KPƃCVKQP 6JG TGUGCTEJGTU UC[ VJCV VJG *[RGT researcher Prof Julia Fischer. “Such
&WTKPI VJKU RGTKQF KV KU VJGQTGVKECNN[ RQUUKDNG 5WRTKOG %CO QP VJG 5WDCTW 6GNGUEQRG KP effects seem to be shared between
HQT DWDDNGU QH nHCNUG XCEWWOo VQ HQTO s VJCV *CYCKK YJKNG QDUGTXKPI VJG #PFTQOGFC non-human primates and humans.
KU DWDDNGU QH URCEG VJCV JCXG C JKIJGT GPGTI[ )CNCZ[ URQVVGF CP GXGPV EQPUKUVGPV YKVJ But it is a far cry from learning to say
VJCP VJG URCEG VJCV UWTTQWPFU VJGO (CNUG YJCV VJG[ YQWNF GZRGEV RTKOQTFKCN DNCEM the first word – or master an entire
XCEWWO DWDDNGU CTG nOGVCUVCDNGo OGCPKPI JQNGU VQ NQQM NKMG 6JG VGCO JCU DGIWP C language.”
FGGRGT UGCTEJ HQT RTKOQTFKCN DNCEM JQNGU VQ
RTQXG YJGVJGT QT PQV VJKU OWNVKXGTUG VJGQT[ ALAMY X2, GETTY IMAGES
EQWNF UQNXG VJG RTQDNGO QH FCTM OCVVGT

28

DISCOVERIES

At 15 to 18 metres in length,
megalodon is thought to be the
largest shark to ever exist

PALAEONTOLOGY

Megalodon sharks ate their
siblings in the womb

The extinct sharks gave birth to huge babies that were bigger than humans

Just when you thought megalodon Not only did the megalodon’s growth is critical to understanding the role
sharks couldn’t get any more terrifying, bands suggest that the nine-metre large carnivores play in the context of
new research suggests they practised predator died aged 46, but they also the evolution of marine ecosystems,”
pre-birth cannibalism. revealed the shark was a massive UCKF|2TQH -GPUJW 5JKOCFC NGCF CWVJQT
two metres in length at birth. That’s a of the study.
According to a study on the extinct baby bigger than Dwayne ‘The Rock’
animals by palaeobiologists at Johnson. The gigantic size of the shark Megalodon sharks, which lived
Chicago’s DePaul University, it’s likely at birth indicated to scientists that, just worldwide roughly 15 to 3.6 million
VJCV|GODT[QPKE OGICNQFQP UJCTMU HGF like present-day lamniform sharks (a years ago, reached at least 15 metres in
QP WPJCVEJGF GIIU|KP VJGKT OQVJGToU large group that includes great white length – at least three times the length
womb. In short, even before preying on sharks and mako sharks), embryonic of today’s average great white shark.
other species in the ocean, megalodons megalodons fed on eggs in the womb.
HGCUVGF QP VJGKT WPDQTP UKDNKPIU ƂTUV The researchers believe this form of Positioned at the top of its food
cannibalism, known as oophagy, was chain, it’s estimated that the megalodon
6JKU ƂPFKPI YCU RCTV QH C NCTIGT needed to produce sharks that were had a jaw measuring 2.7 x 3.4 metres –
piece of research examining the already big enough to compete with DKI GPQWIJ VQ ƂV VYQ CFWNV JWOCPU
reproductive biology and growth of the fellow predators fresh out of the womb.
shark. Using CT scanning techniques The sharks are now extinct, and are
on vertebrae fossils of a megalodon, “As one of the largest carnivores that theorised to have been killed off when
scientists were able to identify ‘growth ever existed on Earth, deciphering such Earth entered a phase of global cooling.
bands’, similar to tree rings, to reveal growth parameters of the megalodon However, the exact reason behind the
how much the shark grew each year. megalodon’s demise is yet to
DG EQPƂTOGF

29





REALITY CHECK REVIEW

REALITY CHECK
SCIENCE BEHIND THE HEADLINES
Plant consciousness | Gene editing | COVID in 2022

REVIEW

PLANTS: ARE THEY CONSCIOUS?

The idea of plants being capable of making conscious decisions is a controversial one,
but a new study involving climbing French beans suggests the concept may be
beginning to take root

32

REVIEW REALITY CHECK

“If we separate our biases away from thinking that some
features only belong to us, then we can move the field
forward much faster”

Visit the BBC’s Reality Check WHERE COULD PLANT CONSCIOUSNESS ARISE FROM? BELOW According to
website at bit.ly/reality_check_ 2NCPV PGWTQDKQNQI[ YCU QHƂEKCNN[ GUVCDNKUJGF CU the new study, plants
or follow them on Twitter an area of research in 2006. Its proponents draw
@BBCRealityCheck parallels between the pathways of electrical may have more
signalling found in plants and the nervous complex behaviours
WHAT WAS THE EXPERIMENT? system found in animals, to argue that plants than we’ve previously
Researchers based at the Minimal Intelligence are capable of acting in a purposeful manner. given them credit for
Lab at the University of Murcia, Spain, and Plants use electrical signals in two ways.
the Rotman Institute of Philosophy in London, First, to regulate the distribution of charged
Canada, placed 20 potted French bean plants in particles (ions) across their various membranes.
the centre of cylindrical booths. The plants were For example, a plant’s leaf might curl up
either alone, or accompanied by a garden cane because a movement of ions triggered the
planted into the ground 30 centimetres away. transport of water out of its cells, which caused
The scientists then used time-lapse it to change shape. Second, to relay long-
photography to track the movements of the plants distance messages from one part of the plant
until the tip of the shoots made contact with the to another. For example, an insect bite on one
canes. They found that the shoots would grow leaf might trigger defence responses in distant
along more predictable paths in the presence of leaves. Both actions can appear like a plant is
the canes, almost as if they could sense them in choosing to react to a stimulus.
their vicinity and adjust their growth patterns as “Only in the last decade is when we have
a response. been associating animals with sentience,
answering these questions takes time. If we
DOES THIS DEMONSTRATE CONSCIOUS INTENT? separate our biases away from thinking that
Some plants respond to their environments some features only belong to us, then we can
by, for example, curling their leaves up when OQXG VJG ƂGNF HQTYCTF OWEJ HCUVGT q UC[U &T
touched, or enclosing and digesting their Paco Calvo, director of the Minimal Intelligence
prey in their leaves. The basic mechanisms of Lab at the University of Murcia and co-author 5
these responses have been well studied, but
GETTY IMAGES X2 addressing the more philosophical questions,
such as whether or not the plants ‘intelligently
choose’ to execute such actions, is a much more
recent idea.
While not claiming that the experiment proves
once and for all that plants can and do act
with conscious intent, the Rotman Institute of
Philosophy’s Dr Vicente Raja, one of the authors
of the study, says it does show that the beans in
the experiment were doing more than simply
responding to external stimuli.
“It is one thing to react to a stimulus, such as
light, it is another thing to perceive an object,”
he says. “If the movement of plants is controlled
and affected by objects in their vicinity, then
we are talking about more complex behaviours,
not reactions, and we should be able to identify
similar cognitive signatures to those we observe
in humans and some animals.”

33

REALITY CHECK REVIEW

“There’s absolutely ANALYSIS
no advantage to
the plant to have a GENE EDITING: SHOULD
highly developed LIVESTOCK AND CROPS
nervous system” BE GENETICALLY
ENGINEERED IN THE UK?
5 of the study. “I am happy to be disproved, but
we need to be open to possibilities.” The genetically modified food debate has been
reignited after the UK government announced plans to
WHAT DO THE CRITICS SAY? consider loosening regulation on GM crops and animals
Some researchers argue that these responses
are merely genetically encoded and have been T his year, in early January, a consultation
ƂPG VWPGF VQ IKXG VJG CRRGCTCPEG QH KPVGPVKQPCN was launched that asks whether organisms
action, thanks to countless generations of natural produced by genetic engineering should
selection. continue to be classified as genetically
In a paper titled ‘Plants neither possess nor
require consciousness’, published in 2019, Prof modified, if the organisms could have been
Lincoln Taiz, a botanist at the University of
California, Santa Cruz, dismissed the idea of developed using traditional breeding methods.
plants having features such as consciousness and
cognition on the grounds that they simply don’t
have the necessary structural, organisational and
functional complexity that the animal brain had
to evolve before consciousness could emerge.
“The biggest danger of anthropomorphising
plants in research is that it undermines the
objectivity of the researcher,” Taiz says. “What
we’ve seen is that plants and animals evolved
very different life strategies. The brain is a very
expensive organ, and there’s absolutely no
advantage to the plant to have a highly developed
nervous system.”

by EFRAÍN RIVERA SERRANO
Efraín is a science writer with a background in virology
and cell biology.

34

ANALYSIS RE ALIT Y CHECK

The consultation is especially focused on gene ABOVE The Prof Katherine Denby from the University of York,
editing, also known as genome editing, a technology differences between who works on new ways to improve crops using tools
that allows scientists to add, remove or alter an gene editing and such as gene editing.
organism’s DNA. Unlike older types of ‘transgenic’ gene modification
genetic modification, this process doesn’t introduce are at the heart of The first camp argues that as gene-edited crops or
foreign DNA into the gene. In a speech launching the potential changes livestock could have arisen through traditional breeding
consultation, Environment Secretary George Eustice to regulation processes, they should not be classed as genetically
said gene editing raises “far fewer ethical or biological modified organisms, meaning they wouldn’t be subject
GETTY IMAGES concerns” than transgenic modification and “respects to genetic modification regulations.
the rules of nature”.
The second camp holds that any organism made
In 2018, the European Court of Justice ruled that through gene editing should be regulated as a genetically
gene-edited crops should be considered the same modified organism, regardless of whether the final
as other genetically modified crops under EU law, product could have been made using traditional
a ruling Eustice called “flawed and stifling to breeding. Countries such as the US, Australia and
scientific progress”. Japan have taken the former, more relaxed, approach,
while the EU has taken the latter, more stringent one.
Prime Minister Boris Johnson shares a similar view.
In 2019 he pledged to “liberate the UK’s extraordinary GENE MACHINE
bioscience sector from anti-genetic-modification rules”. Current UK regulations mean gene-edited crops can
technically come to market, but the regulatory process
Gene editing is a relatively new and fast-evolving is both lengthy and extremely costly, says Denby.
technology. The first type of gene editing, using
CRISPR/Cas9, was only developed in 2012 (the two “It’s really prohibiting the development of products,
women that developed it won last year’s Nobel Prize both crops and genome-edited livestock, just because
in Chemistry). Views on regulating the use of gene of that cost,” she says. This, in turn, is prohibiting the
editing in producing genetically modified animals development of traits that are for public good, such
or crops have generally fallen into two camps, says as disease resistance, she says.

For example, her own work aims to replicate the
disease resistance found in older and wild relatives
of lettuce in more modern varieties, a process that
will go many times faster using gene editing rather
than traditional breeding.

But other scientists are more sceptical about the
benefits that gene editing can bring and are concerned
about its potential dangers.

“This technology comes with innate risks to alter the
genetic composition, the patterns of gene function,”
says Dr Michael Antoniou, head of the gene expression
and therapy group at King’s College London. “In doing
so you change the plant’s biochemistry.”

Antoniou says gene editing is not as highly
precise as is often claimed and can bring about
unintended mutations. “Worryingly, those who are
developing gene-edited crops and foods are ignoring
the risks,” he says.

For instance, gene editing could run the risk of
producing novel toxins or allergens, or increasing the
levels of pre-existing toxins and allergens, especially
in plants, he says.

“Without strict safety checks, it’s possible that
crops that are potentially harmful could enter the 5

35

REALITY CHECK ANALYSIS

COMMENT

COVID-19 IN 2022:
IS THERE HOPE FOR A
BETTER TOMORROW?

Despite the doom and gloom of the pandemic,
light remains at the end of the tunnel. But
what can we realistically hope for in 2022?

T he year 2020 is likely to live in our memories
as the year COVID-19 brought the world to
a standstill. Many are hesitant to hope for a
more normal 2021, choosing to tentatively

A farmer holds gene-edited corn that was produced on a farm in take life one day at a time as our future
Minnesota. Regulations on gene-edited crops are less stringent in
the US than in the EU remains uncertain. But how does the world appear

5 marketplace unlabelled and would therefore also if we cast our eyes forward to 2022?
be difficult to trace if any adverse outcomes were to
be found,” he adds. Although the world has experienced pandemics in

In Antoniou’s view, gene editing is “unquestionably” the past, the closest example we have to a blueprint
a genetic modification procedure and should continue
being regulated in the UK as it is in the EU. would be the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

But many scientists argue that gene editing is crucial epidemic. This was a coronavirus that cost over 770
to supporting a more sustainable food system.
lives, largely in eastern Asia, during the early 2000s.
“Genome editing is already used in medicine and
has immense potential for tackling major agricultural But after complications cropped up in animal trials
challenges related to food security, climate change
and sustainability,” says Prof Denis Murphy from the for a SARS vaccine and the virus died out in humans,
University of South Wales.
research funding dried up. Little progress was made
Denby agrees and says gene editing can play a part
in making the UK’s food system more sustainable, into coronavirus vaccine research.
healthy and affordable, while admitting it’s “not going
to be a magic bullet”. Now, with multiple COVID-19 vaccines available

But for Antoniou the focus really needs to be on the and more on the horizon, life post-vaccine is
agricultural system as a whole, rather than improving
individual crops and seeds. imminent for those in countries that can afford it.

Gareth Morgan, head of farming and land use policy But the dangers of vaccine nationalism may mean
at the Soil Association, has called gene editing a
“sticking plaster” that diverts vital investment and that poorer countries will go unvaccinated until
attention from other more effective solutions.
2022, 2023 or beyond, by which time the threat
“The focus needs to be on how to restore exhausted
soils, improve diversity in cropping, integrate livestock of new variants – given the opportunity to spread
into rotations and reduce dependence on synthetic
nitrogen and pesticides,” he says. “We want to and potentially be resistant to current vaccines – is
see immediate progress in these areas rather than
using Brexit to pursue a deregulatory agenda for likely to grow.
genetic modification.”
Although Moderna has confirmed its vaccine is still
by JOCELYN TIMPERLEY
Jocelyn is a freelance climate journalist. effective against the new variants that have emerged

36 so far, this news will make little immediate difference

to the Global South, as all Moderna’s vaccines for

2021 have been bought by richer countries. Despite

the vaccines preventing severe disease, it’s still left

to be seen if they reduce transmission and how long

immunity will last; some experts believe annual

vaccinations may be necessary. So for those who can’t

be vaccinated and who exhibit different responses to

illness, ongoing research into multiple therapeutics,

such as antivirals and antibodies, could be life-saving.

LONG ROAD GETTY IMAGES X2
While our bodies are capable of some immune response
to the virus, assuming that we’ll eventually ‘get used’
to COVID-19 is a deadly gamble – not dissimilar to

COMMENT REALITY CHECK

“The danger of vaccine nationalism may mean that poorer
countries will go unvaccinated until 2022, 2023 or beyond”

the ‘herd immunity without Our next challenge becomes one of logistics, careful ABOVE Global
vaccination’ suggestions that planning, and whether equitable access for countries access to COVID-19
prevailed early in the pandemic unable to afford the vaccine for their most vulnerable vaccines is
and proved to be harmful. will be championed. But the progress we’ve made imperative to
Likewise, while there are in one year since the World Health Organization’s reduce the chances
other human coronaviruses declaration of COVID-19 as a Public Health Emergency of outbreaks of
that cause colds, a comparison of International Concern has been remarkable. Rapid new variants
with COVID-19 seems unhelpful genome sequencing, scientific investigation and
as research has shown COVID- multiple vaccine candidates mean elimination is
19 infects both the upper and possible. So what state will the world be in a year from
lower respiratory tract. Also, now? That’s up to us: as individuals, as government
whereas life often returns to leaders and as a global society.
normal after recovering from a
cold or the flu, the ‘long-COVID’ by LOIS KING
phenomenon has seen many Lois is a PhD candidate in global health governance at the
continue to suffer with multiple University of Edinburgh.
organ damage, fatigue, muscle
aches and difficulty breathing,
for months after the initial
infection. Even 15 years after
the SARS outbreak, a follow-up
study found that many are still
experiencing reduced lung-
diffusion capacity.

To reduce the number of strains emerging, a zero-
COVID strategy is the best course of action: by limiting
community transmission. Even if a more harmful
strain were to evolve, it would eventually die out as
SARS did. This can be achieved through a cocktail
of interventions, like maintaining hand hygiene,
wearing masks, a functioning test-trace-isolate system,
government support (such as financial remittance
during quarantine) and restrictive measures that hinder
social gatherings. While each intervention doesn’t
provide complete protection, the more interventions
there are, the better the protection is.

It may be that as the situation becomes more
controlled, there will slowly be a re-introduction
into shared indoor spaces, such as offices. How much
we limit community spread is what will determine
if COVID-19 continues to circulate, like colds and
tummy bugs – only more dangerous.

37

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INNOVATIONS INNOVATIONS PREPARE
YOURSELF
Clearly, this is one FOR
stylish speaker p44 TOMORROW

Currently, electric
cars take a lot longer
to ‘fill up’ than petrol
or diesel cars, which
can put people off

40

LEADING THE CHARGE INNOVATIONS

SLOW CHARGE FAST & RAPID CHARGE WIRELESS
CHARGING
Typically what you Fast chargers, often found
get for charging an in shopping centres, come Charging plates in
electric or plug-in in 7kW or 22kW varieties. A the road top up the
hybrid vehicle at full charge with 7kW unit battery when the
home. Depending needs three to five hours; a car’s stationary.
on the charger and the size of the vehicle’s 22kW unit gets the job done in two. Rapid Advances promise to provide charge while
battery, charging up can take between 6 and chargers, found at motorway service stations, vehicles are moving. Trials of the tech are
12 hours. need 20 to 60 minutes to fill your battery. expected to start in Nottingham this spring.

CARS

New fast-charging they require a special type of rapid-charging station to attain
battery promises these quick charging speeds. Meanwhile, filling a petrol or
a full ‘tank’ in five diesel car’s tank takes between three and five minutes.
minutes
The recharge speed of StoreDot’s ‘extreme-fast-charging’
Re-engineered lithium-ion battery lets lithium-ion battery technology has previously been
you fill up electric cars almost as fast as demonstrated in mobile phones, drones and electric scooters
those that run on fossil fuels but the company has now adapted it for use in cars. The
batteries differ in construction to conventional lithium-ion
Petrol- and diesel-engined cars have batteries in a number of ways, most notably by substituting
graphite components for germanium. Germanium has a lower
forever had one major advantage over resistance than graphite, allowing faster rates of charge with
less heat generation. It also reduces the gradual degradation
electric vehicles: refuelling speed. of a lithium-ion battery – a process known as ‘plating’ – that
fast charging would otherwise accelerate.
But that looks set to change with the
StoreDot hopes to make further improvements by switching
release of a new fast-charging battery. germanium for silicon, a cheaper alternative, in its second-
generation battery, prototypes of which are expected to see
In January, Israeli firm StoreDot the light of day later in 2021.

unveiled its new lithium-ion car Faster charging batteries are a welcome development,
but they aren’t the only barrier to widespread adoption of
battery, which it claims can be fully electric vehicles. Charging infrastructure is also a concern
of motorists considering the switch. Despite this, 2020 was
recharged from empty in just five the best year ever for sales of electric vehicles, with battery
and plug-in hybrid cars accounting for 1 in 10 registrations,
minutes, a development that could according to figures from the Society of Motor Manufacturers
and Traders (SMMT). In 2019, that figure was 1 in 30.
eliminate range anxiety. Said to be the
It may take longer, however, before we see manufacturers
main hurdle stopping more drivers adopt the new technology in their cars. A review published
in the eTransportation journal, by Anna Tomaszewska and
from adopting colleagues, suggested that longer, real-world testing would
be needed to ensure the new fast-charging batteries could
“IN 2020, electric vehicles, perform well over long timescales.
BATTERY range anxiety is
AND PLUG-IN the fear of running StoreDot’s
low on power battery that
before reaching charges in
your destination, five minutes

HYBRID CARS or having to sit
around for a long

GETTY IMAGES X3 ACCOUNTED time waiting for the
battery to charge.

FOR 1 IN 10 Although most
modern electric

REGISTRATIONS” vehicles can charge
in 20 to 60 minutes,

41

INNOVATIONS

INTERVIEW

Inside the world’s first
airport for drones and
flying cars

Plans to build the world’s first off-grid transport WHY NOT LAND-BASED TAXIS AND DELIVERIES? Ricky Sandhu,
hub for drones and air-taxis have just received 6JGTGoU C OCUU OKITCVKQP JCRRGPKPI VQYCTFU EKVKGU CEO and founder
government funding. The Urban Air Port, CPF YGoTG CNN UYKVEJKPI VQ UJQRRKPI QPNKPG 6JGTGoU of Urban Air Port
located in Coventry, will offer flying electric PQY C FGNKXGT[ XCP QP VJG MGTD QH GXGT[ UVTGGV
vehicles a place to charge and load up. The ENQIIKPI WR QWT TQCFU 6JKU WNVKOCVGN[ GZCEGTDCVGU
project aims to lay the groundwork for a web of VJG RTQDNGOU EKVKGU CNTGCF[ JCXG %QPIGUVKQP KU
transport hubs that could provide a green, clean IGVVKPI YQTUG CPF UQ KU CKT SWCNKV[ +H YG ECP
remedy to our cities’ groaning infrastructure. QTICPKUG CPQVJGT U[UVGO YJGTGD[ VJGTG CTG
Daniel Bennett talks to Ricky Sandhu, the EQQTFKPCVGF NQECVKQPU s NKMG VJG #OC\QP .QEMGTU
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NCTIGUV HWNƂNOGPV EGPVTGU VJGTG 6JGTGoU ITGCV

42

INNOVATIONS

1WT RCTVPGTU *[WPFCK JCXG DGGP CDNG VQ QRGP
FQQTU HQT WU CPF VJG[ ECP RTQXKFG GZCORNGU QH VJG
MKPFU QH XGJKENGU VJCV YQWNF WUG VJG 7TDCP #KT 2QTV

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GXGPV QH GOGTIGPE[ CPF FKUCUVGT UEGPCTKQU +P RNCEGU
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UQOGVJKPI NKMG 7TDCP #KT 2QTV EQWNF KOOGFKCVGN[
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HOW MANY REGULATIONS, IN TERMS OF FLYING DRONES

NEAR PEOPLE AND CITIES, ARE YOU GOING TO HAVE TO

WORK AROUND?
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43

INNOVATIONS

Ideas
we like…

A see-through speaker…

Apart from public toilets, there are few
things in life that aren’t made better by
being see-through. Case in point, this
speaker that replaces its housing with
tempered glass. Its creator, a Swedish
design studio, says that its speakers use
durable, recyclable materials. Each of the
devices can be used alone as a Bluetooth
speaker, paired together as a stereo sound
system, or plugged into existing audio
equipment. It’s upgradable too, with a
compartment at the rear that can
hold and power various modules – a
voice assistant, for example, or new
wireless tech.
Transparent speakers

From £900, transpa.rent

‹– A great-looking smartwatch
A telescope for the social
media age Health tech company Withings
has been making stylish, fitness-
The notion of a telescope without an monitoring gadgets for years and
eyepiece to look through could inspire their latest watch is no exception.
a few strongly worded letters from our The traditional face hides some of the
readers, but we can’t help but lust after most advanced tech we’ve seen in a
this new telescope from Italian company smartwatch. The medical grade ECG
Vaonis (even if it does cost around and oximeter take continual readings
£1,300). The Vespera takes the work out to measure the health of your heart
of stargazing. The scope grabs the images and respiratory system. It’s looking for
hitting its sensors and sends a live view signals that might suggest you suffer
to your smartphone or tablet via Wi-Fi. from arrhythmia or apnoea. It’s also
This means you can set up the telescope got activity
outside (it has a four-hour battery life), detection,
jump under the covers and tour the GPS to log the
Universe from the warmth of your routes you
bed. The app presents cosmic points of walk, and can
interest to direct the telescope towards, be worn when
while the motors and GPS aboard the swimming. Our
telescope point the lens in the right favourite thing
direction. From there you can watch is its battery
the view live, or take stacks of photos to life, which
share what you’re seeing with friends. lasts around 30
You can even schedule observations, days between
in case you want to capture something charges.
while you’re asleep. You’ll have to wait Withings
until 2022 to get your mitts on it, but its
bigger sibling, the Stellina, is out now. ScanWatch
Vaonis Vespera
From £208.29,
€1,499 (£1,327 approx), vaonis.com/Vespera
withings.com

44