件复印件，还有他在牙买加一座由种植园建成的天文台旁的露 台上潦草地写下他关于火星感想的皮装书。穿插其中的是上百 幅铅笔素描和数十幅用胭脂红和褐色上色的油画。还有一些从 古列尔莫·马可尼试图在横渡大西洋的航行中检测来自火星信 号这一无声电影镜头中剪辑出来的画面：在甲板下的实验室 中，他戴着耳机专心地听着，神情严肃而坚定，随着巨大的天 线不停地旋转，他的头微微向右倾斜。箱子中还有大卫·佩克 ·托德的照片，包括1910年左右他站在一片空地上，旁边是他 那放了气的热气球的照片。他穿着一件长大衣，戴着驾驶帽， 朝镜头走去。热气球的缝合布料被一棵树刮住了，他的影子弯 弯曲曲地穿过瘪了的袋子。他那时并不知道，但在接下来的14 年里，正如照片中所拍摄的那样，他会一次又一次地试图去往 能够听到火星呼唤的地方。现在观测火星时受噪音的影响越来 越小，他又会如何思考？现在我们正在向光纤电缆过渡，也许 无线电传输有一天会被全部废止，对此他又会做何感想？ 箱子里还有洛厄尔以及在他那蜘蛛网状地图上的运河。当 他制作这些图片时，他一定不会知道现代眼科学的发现——人 类在黑暗中窥视时也许能够瞥见自己眼睛里微小视网膜静脉的 微弱阴影 [40] 。几十年来，我们一直在努力弄清楚如蛛网般附 在火星表面的那些“小且精细的细丝” ，也许那是我们未能摆 脱我们自身看到的飘忽虚幻的影像？ 箱子里还有一张南极洲阿斯加德山脉的地形图，我曾经数 十次地乘坐贝尔直升机或爱思达直升机飞越阿斯加德山脉的山 峰。半个世纪过去了，我仍旧在从事和沃尔夫·维什尼亚克一
样的研究，试图在火星上最不可能存在生命的地方之一探测生 命的痕迹。在地图旁边是他的妻子海伦写的一篇论文，其中尽 是对一种大部分呈米色、非发酵的、嗜冷的隐球菌细胞的描 述： “从未被描述过的不完美的酵母。”海伦接着发表了大量 关于她丈夫培养的细胞的期刊文章，在沃尔夫去世后的几十年 里，她致力于研究这些载玻片，不论搬去哪里，从一个实验室 到另一个实验室，她都随身带着这些小载玻片，直到几年前她 去了养老院。 当然，箱子中还有那本既至高无上又年代久远的《几何原 本》的副本。这是自从印刷机发明以来印刷的一千多种版本中 的一版，是我忍不住要购买的一版。这版的封面上恰好用丝网 印刷印着浪漫主义时期最伟大的画作之一，所有的数学运算符 都被束缚在一个站在悬崖边上的半身人物画像内，这些数学运 算符在风中摇摆，同时高耸于云端，同时又被虚无所吞没。 这个箱子里包含了希罗多德所说的“人类事件的痕迹” ， 这是属于我的“河流馈赠的礼物”。在寻找生命的过程中，我 们已经犯了很多错误，很难找到一个坚实的根基，也很难知道 什么时候我们的理论不再成立。这个箱子让我想起了以前的那 些先辈以及他们所做出的贡献。 它同时也提醒着我还有什么需要做，毕竟火星只是我们进 入浩瀚黑夜的第一步。新的技术正在为生命探测任务铺平道 路，这些任务可以到达太阳系中很远的地方，到达离我们曾经 认为的“可居住区”还有很远距离的外行星的卫星上；到达那 些像蛋糕一样漂浮的冰层中存在成片海洋的世界，那些从冰火
山中喷出盐水的世界，那些有苍白的山丘、暗黑的河流和碳氢 化合物雨的世界。而且那里也有环绕恒星的行星。仅仅是银河 系就可能有多达四百亿颗行星能够维持生命，这些行星被大卫 星和小卫星围绕着，也许就和地球上的每个人都处于同一个太 阳系中。想到有一天能够密切地了解这些地方，触及它们的表 面，这种想法可能会显得滑稽可笑。宇宙有一个较慢的速度限 制，而这些世界离我们都很远。除了关于它们轨道的一些细 节，也许还有一些关于它们大气层的光谱测定，我们还能了解 些什么呢？它们在我们的视线中就是视线边缘的一些亮点或者 阴影，远远超出我们的理解范围。然而，一个世纪以前，火星 在我们的视线中也是这个样子的。 尽管火星似乎是我们熟悉的地方，是一个像地球一样的地 方，但是它仍然是异域的外星。箱子中我最喜欢的物品之一是 2010年机遇号拍摄的一组照片，它们被夹在一个弯曲的文件夹 里。多年之前，漫游车还在工作，这似乎是一个奇迹，没有人 敢相信它还能够再进行数千个火星日的科学研究。尘土堆积， 电力流失，它的穿越火星之旅已经有6年之久了，远远超出了90 天的服役期。但随后一阵风呼啸着穿过子午线高原，把太阳能 板上的一些细小颗粒清理掉了。随着电力输出的意外激增，科 学研究小组给全景相机下达指令，令其拍摄了一系列能够与延 时摄影结合起来的照片。 漫游车捕捉到的闪烁图像令人难忘。在靠近火星赤道的一 个古老平原上，在那个尘土飞扬的日子，赭黄色的天空映染着 大地，太阳正在徐徐落下。一道白色的光圈在暗黑的沙漠上飘
落。平原广袤无垠，天空仍沐浴在夕阳的微光中。在地平线 处，尘埃散射了所有的红色光线，夕阳散发出一种神秘的、变 幻莫测的、炽热的蓝色。 这种蓝色让我们困惑，搅乱我们的思绪，这道光在有形世 界的裂缝中迅猛穿入。从科学的角度，我理解这种现象，细尘 沿着如此薄的大气层边缘分布导致了米散射，并克服了瑞利散 射的影响，这没有什么神秘可言。然而，这个奥秘就像是宇宙 中许多其他事物一样，是深邃的、几乎难以理解的。那种蓝 色，如此清晰可辨，却又如此陌生。在我们共同的恒星周围闪 耀着光环，像塞壬 [41] 一样召唤着我们。 [29] 克罗地亚普利特维兹湖国家公园。 [30] 漫游车也将会由一个复制版的空中吊车就位、下降和降落系统进行运 载。 [31] 机械臂上仪器载具重40千克。 [32] 漫游车将会携带42个样本试管，包括5个工程备件，但是漫游车被设计 为在前1.5个火星年只钻取20个样本，其余将会用于延续任务中。 [33] NASA计划在处理这些样本时采取极其谨慎的态度，尽管有人认为寄生是 与宿主共同进化激烈竞争的结果。正如罗伯特·祖布林（Robert Zubrin）所说的 原因，“人类不会感染荷兰榆树病，树木也不会感冒”。即使地球上进化的绝大 多数生命体也不会对人类造成伤害。但为确保对行星的保护，有人提出了几种可 能的检疫方式，包括使用国际空间站上的实验室。 [34] 美国太空探索公司始创人马斯克（Elon Musk）表露：“我们将在火星 上创造一个拥有一百万居民的城市。” [35] 拉丁文quod erat demonstrandum的缩写，出现在数学证明末尾，表示 证明完毕。（译者注）
[36] 高斯对外星生物有着浓厚的兴趣，他也是传说中提出毕达哥拉斯直角三 角形地外信号方案的德国人。这个想法是否起源于他还有待商榷。 [37] 欧几里得的第五公设是“一直线与两条直线相交，若在同侧的两内角之 和小于两直角，则这两条直线无定限延长后在该侧相交”。 [38] 生命可能已经进化成使用苛刻的紫外线或宇宙射线作为能量来源，就像 我们在地球上使用可见光波长一样。 [39] 在20世纪60年代，托马斯·库恩（Thomas Kuhn）提出了科学范式转变 的想法。他认为科学思维的主导模式会慢慢积累错误，然后从根本上转变为新的 范式。 [40] 洛厄尔不仅在火星上观测到了线性特征，而且在水星（裂缝）、木星的 卫星（直线）和金星（辐条）上也观测到了线性特征。20世纪初他在金星表面地 图上绘制的“辐条”与从视杯中分离出的血管的现代图像之间有不可思议的相似 之处。 [41] 古希腊神话中的海妖，通过诱惑性的歌声吸引水手将船只划向她们所在 岛屿处。（译者注）
致谢 这是一本关于寻找生命的书：地外的生命，也就是我们目 前所生活的星球以外的生命。我总是能迅速意识到自己想要在 如此重要的突破性进展中发挥自身作用的野心和抱负，并使其 成为我工作的基石，哪怕这个作用是多么渺小。有时，我担心 此类追求会带来一种躁动感，一种不满足感。 就在我完成这份手稿后不久，我在地球上的生命价值在一 次濒临死亡的医疗事故中得到了诠释。那时，我和我的丈夫及 其他家人都挤在华盛顿特区（Washington, D.C.）一个舒适的 地方。我躺在重症监护病房维持着生命，脖子上有一条缝合 线，喉咙里插着呼吸机，母亲和丈夫守在我身边。在生命垂危 之际，通过十四次输血、体内的每一滴血被置换后，我才得以 生存。这本书不能没有致谢部分，我要感谢那天来到捐献中心 的十四位（献血给我的）匿名人士，他们允许陌生人把针头扎 入他们的胳膊，然后又回归各自的光明生活。正因为他们，我 重拾了我的生命，这是我在地球上的宝贵生命，并且我有了未 来美好的时光。
我也无比感激在那个暗淡的时期里聚集在我身边的人们。 这其中包括我最年长、最珍爱的朋友：丽莎（Lisha）和艾玛 （Emma），以及利比（Lippy）和凯耶（Kayje），他们跋涉了 数百英里来到我身边，减轻了我的疼痛，指导我的医疗护理， 并 教 我 用 多 种 方 式 保 持 精 力 充 沛 ， 此 外 还 有 希 瑟 （ Chathersea ） ， 颖 （ Ying ） ， 瑞 恩 （ Ryan ） ， 贾 森 （Jason），梅根（Meagan），克莉丝汀（Christine），凯瑟 琳（Katherine），艾琳（Erin），莎娜（Shayna），玛娅 （Maya），斯蒂芬（Stephen），莱斯利（Leslie），蒂莎 （ Tisha ） ， 泰 莎 （ Tessa ） ， 玛 丽 亚 （ Maria ） ， 安 蒂 耶 （ Antje ） ， 雪 莉 （ Sherry ） ， 妮 基 （ Nikki ） ， 莎 拉 （Sarah），安格斯（Angus），汉娜（Hannah），劳伦斯 （ Lawrence ） 和 克 里 蒂 娜 （ Christina ） ， 理 查 德 （ Richard ） ， 珍 妮 （ Jeannie ） ， 梅 根 · 奈 特 （ Meghan Nate），罗丝（Ross），凯特（Kayte），玛克辛（Maxine）， 乔（Joel），雅各布（Jacob），帕蒂（Patti），阿杰伊 （ Ajay ） ， 阿 曼 达 （ Amanda ） ， 艾 玛 （ Emma ） ， 艾 力 克 （Eric），杰夫（Jeff），劳拉（Laura），艾伦（Alan），安 妮（Annie），戴维（David），阿什莉（Ashley），朱迪 （ Judy ） ， 迈 克 （ Mike ） 。 我 还 非 常 感 谢 乔 治 敦 大 学 （Georgetown University）以及那里无数优秀的同事们给予我 的支持，当然还有我的实验室的支持。即使在我最低潮的时 候，他们也从未远离我的脑海。这不是我第一次被我的学生们 和博士后们包围并高举起来，我知道这也不会是最后一次。
在这本书中，我谈了很多关于时间和尺度的问题：关于我 们如何处理地质时间尺度和人类时间尺度之间的不和谐；关于 我们作为地球上的人类，如何在浩瀚宇宙中疾驰而过，活出我 们自己的微小而闪亮的时刻。我很幸运，从我出生的那天起， 就与我在肯塔基州（Kentucky）的家人们分享了我的光辉时 刻。虽然命中注定，但我很庆幸自己是凯特（Kate）和约翰 （John）的孩子，他们是我所认识的最有魅力的人。做他们的 女儿真是太好了。（我感到非常遗憾的是，我的母亲应该更多 地出现在本书中！）同样，如果没有我的姐姐，我不可能成为 现在这样的人。我亲爱的姐姐艾米丽（Emily）给我的生活带来 了一种纯粹的幸福，她教会了我什么是无条件的爱。 我还要感谢我的祖父母们、叔叔阿姨们和堂兄弟姐妹们， 他们以不可估量的方式塑造了我。我还要感谢我所珍爱的孩子 们，在很长的一段时间里，他们以为这本书只有一本，而且就 放在他们共用房间的书架上。从某种意义上来说，他们是对 的，因为这本书现在是，也将永远是为他们而写的。最重要的 是，我要感谢我的丈夫约翰（John），他宽广的思想在这本书 中熠熠生辉。他阅读并改进了每一个段落，就像他改进了我的 每一个部分一样。他给了我梦寐以求的充实生活。在我们的婚 礼上我告诉他，他懂我内心所想，而他也确实如此。更令我开 心的是，我们还将一起探索广阔的未来。 一开始，这个项目只是一些没有机会发表在科学期刊上的 思绪的集合。没有克里斯蒂娜（Christina），它永远不会成为 一本书。克里斯蒂娜决定发表我的第一本非小说类散文，她也
一直是我最喜欢的读者，在我之前就相信这种写作会引起其他 读者的兴趣。这本书的面世也离不开可爱的马特（Matt）。在 我的自我怀疑达到顶峰的时候，是马特在克里斯蒂娜的帮助下 确保我继续留在学术界，并给我介绍了我的作品经纪人吉尔 （Jill）。凭借她出色的洞察力，吉尔将一堆杂乱的想法变成 了充满可能性的事物。她还和马特一起带我结识了我这本书的 编辑阿曼达（Amanda）。在12月的一个寒冷的日子里，阿曼达 握着我的手向我保证这本书一定能出版。她对这件事一直很上 心，教给我关于写书的所有知识。没有她的帮助，这永远不会 成为一本值得出版的书。 其他在这项本不太可能完成的工作中支持我的人还包括我 不可替代的仿佛拥有数百年智慧的朋友丹（Dan）、对宇宙充满 激情的艾兰（Alan）、凯特（Kate）、托尼（Tony）、班夫中 心（Banff Centre）和研究员学会（Society of Fellows）， 以及我在那里结交的很多朋友、悉心照料我孩子的玛特 （Marthe）、维罗妮卡（Veronica）和简（Jane），对我充满 信 心 的 玛 格 丽 特 （ Margaret ） 、 马 萨 诸 塞 州 文 化 委 员 会 （Massachusetts Cultural Council）、麻省理工学院科学-技 术-社会理学系（MIT’s STS Department），以及艾伦·梅洛 伊基金会（Ellen Meloy Fund）及其了不起的委员会。我非常 感谢我在美国宇航局的同事，特别是保罗（Paul）、希瑟 （ Heather ） 、 贝 萨 尼 （ Bethany ） 、 吉 姆 （ Jim ） 、 约 翰 （John）、梅丽莎（Melissa）、斯蒂芬妮（Stephanie）、威 尔 （ Will ） 、 艾 米 和 艾 米 （ Amy and Amy ） 、 查 尔 斯 (Charles)、克里斯蒂娜(Christine)、切丽(Cherie)、詹和詹
（Jen and Jen）、道格(Doug)、斯蒂尔(Steelie)，还有火星 样品分析组（SAM team）的其他成员：亚历克斯（Alex）、海 莉 （ Haley ） 、 摩 根 （ Morgan ） 、 凯 文 （ Kevin ） 、 艾 比 （Abby）、史蒂夫（Steve）、杰克（Jack）、凯特（Kate）、 杰米（Jamie）、克里斯（Chris）、埃里克（Eric）、安迪 （ Andy ） 、 李 （ Lee ） 、 玛 丽 · 贝 思 （ Mary Beth ） 、 詹 （Jen）、戴尔（Dale）、托里（Tori）、布里特（Brit）、乔 （Joe）、保罗（Paul），林赛（Lindsay）和玛丽（Mary）， 以及参与早期火星任务的科学家和工程师，诺姆（Norm）、约 翰（John）、本（Ben）、拉里（Lary）和金特里（Gentry）， 我也非常感谢我的那些学识过人的导师们，他们是玛丽亚 （ Maria ） 、 雷 （ Ray ） 、 埃 洛 伊 斯 （ Eloise ） 、 里 克 （Rick）、吉姆（Jim）、史蒂夫（Steve）、约翰（John）、 谢 尔 （ Shere ） 、 林 迪 （ Lindy ） 、 皮 特 （ Pete ） 、 加 里 （ Gary ） 、 斯 科 特 （ Scott ） 、 戴 夫 （ Dave ） 、 罗 杰 （ Roger ） 、 凯 西 （ Kathy ） 、 芭 比 （ Barb ） 、 查 尔 斯 （ Charles ） 、 艾 斯 克 （ Eske ） 、 马 克 （ Mark ） 和 罗 兹 （Roz）。在写作过程中，比尔（Bill）用他那渊博的历史知识 为本书的原稿增光添色，帕克（Parker）认真仔细地逐行校 对，还有扎克（Zach）、詹姆斯（James）、朱莉（Julie）、 欧文（Owen）、安妮塔（Anita）、凯蒂（Katie）、安妮凯特 （Anne Cat）、玛雅（Maya）和马特（Matt），以及加州理工 学院、哈佛大学、麻省理工学院、牛津大学和喷气推进实验室 档案馆、美国宇航局历史办公室和国会图书馆的工作人员，他 们都以各种方式帮助我深入查阅资料，在此我向他们致以崇高 的敬意。此外，我对阅读我早期粗糙无聊草稿的朋友们将永远
心怀感激，他们是我最敬爱的莉斯（Liz）、格雷格（Greg）、 黛迪（Dedi）、毛拉（Maura）、海蒂（Heidi）和迪尔德雷 （Deirdre），迪尔德雷不仅是我最亲密的朋友之一，也是助我 寻觅并爱上约翰的媒人。我向任何我无意中遗漏的人和那些以 我不知道的方式帮助过我却未被提及的人深表歉意。 尤多拉·韦尔蒂（Eudora Welty）曾经写过这样一段话： 在我们无限接近事物的本质之前，事物往往是模糊不清的，以 至于我们无法识别其本质，也无法把零星的碎片拼凑成整体。 但是突然间，一盏明灯被抛了过来，就像是火车驶过弯道时， 你蓦然发现在来时的路上有一座高耸云端的山峰一直矗立在那 里。在写这本书的过程中，我开始更好地理解我在寻找生命途 中所体会到的深意。我也开始感激在我之前走过这条道路的所 有人，他们引领了一条令人惊叹的生命之路，我同样感激有幸 一起共事的杰出的同事们。最后，我要向在这个领域中深耕的 几代人及相关各个学科的所有人表示感谢，他们创造并拓展延 伸了这一领域。如果我们在火星上发现了生命，那将是我们所 有人共同努力的结果。同时，有了这样一个伟大的人类工程， 我们彼此之间会互相合作、携手共赢。
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56. "Kosmos 419," NASA Science Solar System Exploration, 26 Jan. 2018. 57. "Mariner I Assigned New Mission," NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 26 May 1971. 三、红色烟雾 1. Charles F. Capen, Leonard J. Martin, "The Developing Stages of the Martian Yellow Storm of 1971," Lowell Observatory Bulletin no. 157, 30 Nov. 1971, pp. 211, 214. 2. Norman Haynes, interviewed by Sarah Johnson, personal interview, Pasadena, CA, 6 Aug. 2016. 3. V.G. Perminov, The Difficult Road to Mars: A Brief History of Mars Exploration in the Soviet Union (Washington: Monographs in Aerospace History no. 15, 1999), 59. Something here about why Soviets "didn't have the same luxury?" 4. Amy Shira Teitel, "The Soviet Rovers That Died on Mars," Discover, 20 July 2017. 5. Caleb A. Scharf, "The Great Martian Storm of '71," Scientific American, 21 Oct. 2013. 6. Carlton C. Allen, et al., "JSC-Mars-1: Martian Regolith Simulant," Lunar and Planetary Science XXVIII (1997). 7. M.T. Lemmon, et al., "Atmospheric imaging results from the Mars exploration rovers: Spirit and Opportunity," Science 306 no. 5,702 (2004), p. 1753. 8.Gerard P. Kuiper, "Visual Observations of Mars, 1956," The Astrophysical Journal 125 (1957), p. 307. 9. William M. Sinton, "Spectroscopic Evidence for Vegetation on Mars, "Astrophysical Journal 126: 231 (1957) .
10. William M. Sinton, "Further Evidence of Vegetation on Mars," Science 130, no. 3384 (1959): 1234-237 and Steven J. Dick, Life on Other Worlds: The 20th-Century Extraterrestrial Life Debate (Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 51 11. The French colleague was Jean-Henri Focas,"Observations of Mars Made in 1961 at The Pic Du Midi Observatory," NASA Technical Report JPL-TR-32-151 (1962). 12. William K. Hartmann, Odell Raper, The New Mars: The Discoveries of Mariner 9 (Washington: NASA Office of Space Science, 1974), p. 17. 13. "Press Kit: Project: Mariner Mars 1971," NASA, 30 April 1971. 14. William Sheehan, Mars: The Lure of the Red Planet, (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2001), p. 354. 15. Caleb A. Scharf, "Mars and the Wave of Darkening," Scientific American , 9 Aug. 2018. 16. William H. Pickering, Guide to the Mt. Washington Range (A. Williams, 1882). 17. Paul White, Thomas Huxley: Making the "Man of Science ," Cambridge University Press (2003). 18. William H. Pickering, Mars (Boston: R.G. Badger, 1921). 19. David Bressan, "The Earth-like Mars," Scientific American, 14 Aug. 2012. 20. William H. Pickering, "Report on Mars, No. 37: What I Believe About Mars," Popular Astronomy 34 (1926), pp. 482-491. 21. Howard Plotkin, "William H. Pickering in Jamaica: The Founding of Woodlawn and Studies of Mars," Journal for the History of Astronomy xxiv (1993), pp. 109111.
22. Philip M. Sadler, "William Pickering's Search for a Planet Beyond Neptune," Journal for the History of Astronomy 21 no. 1 (Feb. 1990), pp. 59-60. 23. William H. Pickering, "Island universes and the origin of the Solar System, " The Observatory 47 (1924), 56. 24. E.P. Martz, Jr., "Pilgrimage to a Tropical Observatory," Popular Astronomy 45 (1937), pp. 419-428. 25. William H. Pickering, "Monthly Report on Mars. - No. 1," Popular Astronomy 22 (1914), p. 1. 26. E.P. Martz, Jr., "Professor William Henry Pickering, 1858- 1938, An Appreciation," Popular Astronomy 46 no. 456 (June-July 1938), p. 301. 29. William Henry Pickering, "Instrument readings, notes, and landscape sketches, 1891-1892," Papers of William Henry Pickering , 1870-1907 . Harvard University Archives, HUG 1691, HUG 1691.65. 27. William H. Pickering, Mars (Boston: R.G. Badger, 1921), p. 28. 28. William H. Pickering, quoted in Philip M. Sadler, "William Pickering's Search for a Planet Beyond Neptune," Journal for the History of Astronomy 21 no. 1 (Feb. 1990), p. 60. 29. Steven J. Dick, Life on Other Worlds: The 20th-Century Extraterrestrial Life Debate (Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 45-47. 30. W.W. Coblentz, "Thermocouple Measurements of Stellar and Planetary Radiation," Popular Astronomy 31 (1923), pp. 105-121. 31. William Henry Pickering, Guide to the Mt. Washington Range (A. Williams, 1882), p. 11.
32. William H. Pickering, "Monthly Report on Mars. - No. 37: What I Believe About Mars," Popular Astronomy 34 (1926), p. 484. 33. "Mariner 9," NASA Science: Solar System Exploration, 31 July 2019. 34. Norman Haynes, interviewed by Sarah Johnson, personal interview. (6 Aug. 2016). 35. Bruce Murray, interviewed by Rachel Prud'homme, cassette audio recording transcript (California Institute of Technology), Pasadena, Calif. (1993), p. 82. 36. William Sheehan, The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999), p. 156. 37. William K. Hartmann and Odell Raper, The New Mars: The Discoveries of Mariner 9 (Washington: NASA Office of Space Science, 1974), p. 94,97. 第二章 线是没有宽的长 一、奇幻世界之门 1. Bill Carter, " 'Civil War' Sets Audience Record for PBS," The New York Times, 25 Sept. 1990. 2. David A. Hollinger, "Star Power: Two biographies of Carl Sagan explore the scientist as celebrity and the celebrity as scientist," The New York Times, 28 Nov. 1999. 3. Carl Sagan, Carl Sagan's Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective (Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 45. 4. Carl Sagan and Joshua Lederberg, "The Prospects for Life on Mars: A Pre-Viking Assessment," Icarus, 28 (1976).
5. George Basalla, Civilized Life in the Universe: Scientists on Intelligent Extraterrestrials (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 110. 6. "Mars: The Search Begins," Time, 108 (July 5, 1976), 87-90; Carl Sagan, Other Worlds , (New York: Bantam Books, 1975). 7. Carl Sagan, Cosmos (New York: Ballantine Books, 1985). 8. Arthur C. Clarke, Interplanetary Flight: An Introduction to Aeronautics (New York: Harper, 1952). 9. Ray Spangenburg, Kit Moser, Diane Moser, Carl Sagan: A Biography (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Company, 2004), p. 12. 10. Jorge Alberto Delucca, A Few Great Scientists: From Alfred Nobel to Carl Sagan (Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation, 2017). 11. William Poundstone, Carl Sagan: A Life in the Cosmos (New York: Henry Holt, 1999) . 12. Keay Davidson, Carl Sagan: A Life (Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley and Sons, 1999). 13. Carl Sagan, Physical Studies of Planets , University of Chicago Ph.D. Thesis, 1960. 14. Jacob Berkowitz, The Stardust Revolution: The New Story of Our Origin in the Stars (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2012), p. 132. 15. Joshua Lederberg and Dean B. Cowie "Moondust," Science , Vol. 127, No. 3313 (1958), pp. 1473-1475. 16. Carl Sagan, "Wolf Vladimir Vishniac: An Obituary," Icarus , Volume 22, Issue 3 (1974), pp. 397-398.
17. Eugene Kinkead, "The Tiny Landscape, Pt. 1," The New Yorker, 2 July 1955. 18. Maya Benton, Roman Vishniac Rediscovered . Label Text, Roman Vishniac, "Vishniac's son Wolf arriving with his family in New York Harbor on the S.S. Siboney," [ca. 1940] (New York: International Center of Photography, 2013). 20. Wolf Vishniac, Bo L. Horecker, Severo Ochoa. "Enzymic aspects of photosynthesis," Advances in Enzymology and Related Areas of Molecular Biology 19 (1957), pp. 1-77. 19. Wolf Vishniac, Melvin Santer. "The thiobacilli," Bacteriological Reviews 21, no. 3 (1957), p. 195. 20. Wolf Vishniac, "Letter to Senator Clinton P. Anderson," U.S. National Library of Medicine, 28 Aug. 1969. 21. "The Search for Martian Life Begins: 1959-1965," in Edward Clinton Ezell and Linda Neuman Ezell, On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet , 1958-1978 (Washington: The NASA History Series, 1984). 22. Wolf Vishniac, "Extraterrestrial Microbiology," Aerospace Medicine (1960), pp. 678-680. 23. John D. Rummel, "Carl Woese, Dick Young, and the roots of astrobiology," RNA Biology 11 no. 3 (2014), pp. 207-209. 24. David Warmflash, "Celebrating Viking: Gilbert Levin Recalls the Search for Life on Mars," Discover , 20 July 2016. 25. Jay Gallentine, "What If," Infinity Beckoned: Adventuring through the solar system , 1969-1989 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2016). 26. Life Detection Experiments Team, "A Survey of Life Detection Instruments for Mars," NASA-TM-X-54946 Technical Report, NASA (August 1963), p. 15.
27. Wolf Vishniac, "Letter from Wolf Vishniac to Clinton P. Anderson, United States Senate," 28 August 1969. 28. S. D. Kilston, R. R. Drummond, C. Sagan, "A search for life on Earth at kilometer resolution," Icarus 5, 79 (1966), pp. 79-98. 29. Carl Sagan and David Wallace. "A search for life on Earth at 100 meter resolution," Icarus , 15, 3 (1970), pp. 515-554. 30. Carl Sagan, "Is There Life on Earth?" Engineering and Science, 35 (4) (1972), pp. 16-19. 31. Carl Sagan, "Statement of Dr. Carl Sagan, Department of Astronomy, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.," Symposium on Unidentified Flying Objects, Hearings Before the Committee on Science and Aeronautics, U.S. House of Representatives, 90th Congress, 2nd Session, 29 July 1968. 32. Jordan Bimm, "What's in the Mars Jar? Cold War Astrobiology and the idea of Mars as a Microbial Place," at the American Anthropological Association (AAA), Denver, CO, USA. 33. Henry S.F. Cooper, Jr., The Search for Life on Mars: Evolution of an Idea (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980). 34. N.H. Horowitz, et al."Sterile Soil from Antarctica: Organic Analysis," Science 164 no. 3,883 (1969), 1054-1056. 35. Norman H. Horowitz, To Utopia and Back: The Search for Life in the Solar System (New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1986), p. 120. 36. "55 Years Ago: Mariner 2 First to Venus," NASA, 14 Dec. 2017. 37. William Poundstone, Carl Sagan: A Life in the Cosmos (New York: Henry Holt, 1999), pp. 25, 107.
38. Harold Urey, quoted in Bill Sternberg, "The Sagan Files," Cornell Alumni Magazine , March/April 2014. 39. Wolf Vishniac, "Letter from Wolf Vishniac to Clinton P. Anderson, United States Senate," 28 August 1969. 40. Gilbert V. Levin, "The Curiousness of Curiosity," Astrobiology 15 no. 2 (2015), pp. 101-103. 41. "Viking Lander: Creating the Science Teams," in Edward Clinton Ezell and Linda Neuman Ezell, On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet, 1958-1978 (Washington: The NASA History Series, 1984). 42. Joshua Lederberg, "Letter to Dr. Richard S. Young, March 15, 1972," The Joshua Lederberg Papers. 43. Ephraim Vishniac, interviewed by Sarah Johnson, phone interview (8 Sept. 2017). 44. Zeddie Bowen, quoted in William Sheehan, Mars: The Lure of the Red Planet, 289 45. Zeddie Bowen, quoted in Ricki Lewis, "Researchers' Deaths Inspire Actions To Improve Safety," The Scientist, 27 Oct. 1997. 46. Associated Press, "Wolf V. Vishniac, Micro Biologist," The New York Times, 12 Dec. 1973. 47. Carl Sagan, "Wolf Vladimir Vishniac: An Obituary," Icarus , Volume 22, Issue 3 (1974), pp. 397-398. 48. Eric Burgess, To the Red Planet (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), p. 63. 49. F. Javier Martín-Torres, María-Paz Zorzano, Patricia Valentín-Serrano, Ari-Matti Harri, Maria Genzer, Osku Kemppinen, Edgard G. Rivera-Valentin et al. "Transient liquid water and water activity at Gale crater on Mars," Nature Geoscience 8, no. 5 (2015), p. 357.
50. "Yuty crater in Chryse Planitia, Mars," NASA, 22 June 1976. 51. "Site Certification - and Landing," in Edward Clinton Ezell and Linda Neuman Ezell, On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet, 1958-1978 (Washington: The NASA History Series, 1984). 52. "Science: Another Delay for Viking," Time , 19 July 1976. 53. Sam McDonald, "'Viking at 40' Events Revisit a Giant Step in NASA's Journey to Mars," NASA, July 26, 2016. 54. "Viking 1 Lander," NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1975-075C, NASA. 55. Sam McDonald, "'Viking at 40' Events Revisit a Giant Step in NASA's Journey to Mars," NASA, July 26, 2016. 56. Rebecca Wright, "Interview with A. Thomas Young," NASA Headquarters Oral History Project, NASA Johnson Space Center History Portal (2013). 57. "Viking Encounter Press Kit," NASA, June 1976, p. 18. 58. William Poundstone, Carl Sagan: A Life in the Cosmos (New York: Henry Holt, 1999). 59. "Big Joe in the Chryse Planitia," NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 27 Feb. 1997. 60. David McNab, James Younger, The Planets (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999). 61. Elliott C. Levinthal, Kenneth L. Jones, Paul Fox, and Carl Sagan. "Lander imaging as a detector of life on Mars," Journal of Geophysical Research 82, no. 28 (1977), pp. 4468-4478. 62. Gilbert V. Levin in"The Viking Labeled Release Biology Experiments," Viking at 40 Symposium Lectures (2016).
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August 17, 1998. 36. Steve Fossett Interview, Public Broadcasting Corporation, NOVA. 四、近拱点 1. "Mars is Earth, Upside Down," ToponymyMars, 2 June 2013. 2. Maria Zuber, David E. Smith, James B. Abshire, D. O. Muhleman, Sean C. Solomon, H. J. Zvally, G. A Neumann, Oded Aharonson, A. Ivanov, Geometry of the north polar icecap of Mars from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter, Eos Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un., 79, Fall Meeting suppl., F5,1998.s. 3. Maria Zuber, David E. Smith, Sean C. Solomon, et al. "Observations of the north polar region of Mars from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter," Science 282, no. 5396 (1998), pp. 2053- 2060. 4. "New View of Mars' North Pole Reported in Science," EurekAlert! , 6 Dec. 1998. 5. David L. Chandler, "In Profile: Maria Zuber," MIT News , 18 Sept. 2009. 6. "Background of the MOLA Investigation: Background and General Information," MOLA Science Investigation, NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center. 7. "The'80s > Mars Observer," NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory; Michael C. Malin, et al., "An overview of the 1985-2006 Mars Orbiter Camera science investigation," Mars: The International Journal of Mars Science and Exploration , 5 (2010), pp. 1-60. 8. MIT News Office, "3Q: Maria Zuber, daughter of coal country," MIT News, 27 Feb. 2017.
9. "Maria Zuber," YouTube video, posted by MIT Infinite History, 8 April 2016. 10. "Maria Zuber: The geophysicist became the first woman to lead a NASA planetary spacecraft mission," Physics Today , 27 June 2017. 11. Maria Zuber, interviewed by Sarah Johnson, personal interview, Cambridge, MA. (1 May 2019). 12. Maria Zuber, E. M. Parmentier, "A geometric analysis of surface deformation: Implications for the tectonic evolution of Ganymede," Icarus 60 no. 1 (1984), pp. 200-210. 13. Maria Zuber, "A dynamic model for ridge belts on Venus and constraints on lithospheric structure," Lunar and Planetary Science Conference vol. 17 (1986), pp. 979-980. 14. Maria Zuber, interviewed by Sarah Johnson, personal interview, Cambridge, MA. (1 May 2019). 15. Bruce Banerdt, "The Martian Chronicles vol. 1, no. 3," NASA. 16. Michael C. Malin, G. E. Danielson, A. P. Ingersoll, H. Masursky, J. Veverka, M. A. Ravine, T. A. Soulanille. "Mars observer camera," Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 97, no. E5 (1992), pp. 7699-7718. 17. Michael C. Malin, et al."An overview of the 1985-2006 Mars Orbiter Camera science investigation," Mars: The International Journal of Mars Science and Exploration no. 5 (2010), p. 7. 18. John Noble Wilford, "NASA Loses Communication With Mars Observer," The New York Times , 23 Aug. 1993. 19. John Noble Wilford, "Another Hope to Save Mars Craft Is Dashed," The New York Times, 26 Aug. 1993.
20. Ben Evans, "And Then Silence: 25 Years Since the Rise and Fall of Mars Observer," America Space , 24 Sept. 2017. 21. Zoe Strassfield, "An Interview with Maria Zuber (Part I)," EAPS, 14 Nov. 2012. 22. "Mars Orbiter Camera Mars Weather Update for the week September 3-9, 2002," Malin Space Science Systems. 23. Stephanie A. Roy, "The origin of the smaller, faster, cheaper approach in NASA's solar system exploration program," Journal of Space Policy 14 (1998), pp. 153-171. 24. "Press Kit: Mars Observer," NASA, Sept. 1992. 25. "Press Kit: Mars Global Surveyor Arrival," NASA, Sept. 1997; Kirk Goodall, "An Explanation of How Aerobreaking Works," Mars Global Surveyor, NASA. 26. Diana Ainsworth (contact), "Mars Pathfinder Passes Global Surveyor on Its Way to Mars," Public Information Office, Jet Propulsion Library, NASA, 14 March 1997. 27. "Mars Global Surveyor Mapped the Red Planet," in Exploring Mars, SpaceToday, 2007. 28. Daniel T. Lyons, "Mars Global Surveyor: Aerobraking with a Broken Wing," Jet Propulsion Laboratory Technical Report (30 July 1997) . 29. Mars Global Surveyor: An Explanation of How Aerobraking Works, NASA. 30. "Flight Status Report," 24 Jan. 1997; Daniel T. Lyons, "Mars Global Surveyor: Aerobraking with a Broken Wing," Jet Propulsion Laboratory Technical Report (30 July 1997). 31. Diane Ainsworth, "Surveyor Resumes Aerobraking, Heads for New Mapping Orbit," Public Information Office, Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, NASA, 10 Nov. 1997. 32. Diane Ainsworth, "Mars Global Surveyor Successfully Completes Aerobraking," Media Relations Office, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA, 4 Feb. 1999. 33. William Sheehan, The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999) . 34. William Sheehan, "Giovanni Schiaparelli: Visions of a colour blind astronomer," Journal of the British Astronomical Association 107 (1997), pp. 11-15. 35. William Sheehan, Mars: The Lure of the Red Planet (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2010) . 36. K. Maria D. Lane, Mapping the Mars canal mania: Cartographic projection and the creation of a popular icon. Imago Mundi , 58(2) (2006), pp. 198-211. 37. Michele T. Mazzucato, "Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli," Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada 100, (2006), pp. 114-117. 38. A. Manara, G. Trinchieri, "Schiaparelli and his legacy," Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana , 82, (2011). 39. A. Ferrari, "Between two Halley's comet visits," Journal of the Italian Astronomical Society 82 no. 2 (2011) pp. 232-239. 40. Agnese Mandrino, et al."Calze, camicie, frack e bottoni sullo sfondo del trattato di Parigi," Di Pane e Di Stelle , 29 Aug. 2010. 41. G.V. Schiaparelli, Letter dated April 29, 1856, Historical Archive of the Astronomical Observatory of Brera, Box 370. 42. G. Trinchieri, G. amd A. Manara, "Schiaparelli and His Legacy," Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana, v.82, (2011):
A. Ferrari, "Between Two Halley's Comet Visits," Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana, v.82 (2011). 43. P. Tucci, "The Diary of Schiaparelli in Berlin (26 October 1857-10 May 1859): a guide for his future scientific activity," Journal of the Italian Astronomical Society 82 no. 2 (2011), pp. 240-247. 44. Jürgen Blunck, Mars and Its Satellites: A Detailed Commentary on the Nomenclature (Smithtown, N.Y.: Exposition Press, 1982), p. 15. 45. Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli, Astronomical and Physical Observations of the Axis of Rotation and the Topography of the Planet Mars: First Memoir, 1877-1878, trans. 46. William Sheehan (Springfield, Ill.: Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers, 1996), pp. 1, 3. 47. K. Maria D. Lane, "Geographers of Mars: Cartographic Inscription and Exploration Narrative in Late Victorian Representations of the Red Planet," Isis , Vol. 96, No. 4 (December 2005), pp. 477-506, p. 488 in particular. 48. "Scientists get images of Mars pole, clouds," MIT News , 9 Dec. 1998 49. Maria Zuber, et al., "Observations of the north polar region of Mars from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter," Science 282 no. 5396 (1998), 2053-2060. 50. David Spencer, R.H. Tolson, "Aerobraking Cost/Risk Decisions," J. Spacecraft and Rockets. (2007), 44.; Greg Mehall, "Mars Global Surveyor and TES Update," TES News 7 no. 1 (Jan. 1998). 51. Tony Spear, "NASA FBC Task Final Report," National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 13 March 2001.
52. Arden Albee, Steven Battel, Richard Brace, Garry Burdick, John Casani, Jeffrey Lavell, Charles Leising, Duncan MacPherson, Peter Burr, Duane Dipprey. "Report on the loss of the Mars Polar Lander and Deep Space 2 missions," NASA Technical Report (2000). 53. Eric J. Kolb, Kenneth L. Tanaka, "Accumulation and erosion of south polar layered deposits in the Promethei Lingula region, Planum Australe, Mars," Mars: The International Journal of Mars Science and Exploration 2 (2006), pp. 1-9. 54. The lower gravity helped, but it was still the equivalent of a fall from a four-story building. Kenneth Chang, "Remains of Failed Mars Lander May Have Been Found," The New York Times , 10 May 2005. 55. "Possible Crash Site of Mars 6 Orbiter/Lander in Samara Vallis," Lunar and Planetary Laboratory High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment, Image acquired 26 May 2007. 56. "Mars 3 Lander," NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1971-049F. 57. J. C. Bridges, et al. "Identification of the Beagle 2 lander on Mars," Royal Society open science 4, no. 10 (2017): 170785. 58. Ben Huh, "Kids' Names Going to Mars," South Florida SunSentinel, 3 March 1998; Ashwin R. Vasavada, et al., "Surface properties of Mars' polar layered deposits and polar landing sites," Journal of Geophysical Research 105 no. E3 (2000), pp. 6961-6969. 59. "Mars Obiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) Elevation Map," NASA dard Space Flight Center, 27 May 1999. 60. D. Breuer, T. Spohn. "Early plate tectonics versus single ‐plate tectonics on Mars: Evidence from magnetic field history and crust evolution." Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 108, no. E7 (2003).
61. An Yin. "Structural analysis of the Valles Marineris fault zone: Possible evidence for large-scale strike-slip faulting on Mars." Lithosphere 4, no. 4 (2012), pp. 286-330. 62. J.H. Roberts, R.J. Mills, and M. Manga, "Giant impacts on early Mars and the cessation of the Martian dynamo," Journal of Geophysical Research Planets 114 no. E4 (2009). 63. David L. Chandler, "In Profile: Maria Zuber," MIT News, 18 Sept. 2009; David E. Smith, Maria T. Zuber, Sean C. Solomon, Roger J. Phillips, James W. Head, James B. Garvin, W. Bruce Banerdt et al. "The global topography of Mars and implications for surface evolution." Science 284, no. 5419 (1999), pp. 1495-1503 64. Mikhail A. Kreslavsky, James W. Head III. "Kilometer‐scale roughness of Mars: Results from MOLA data analysis," Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 105, no. E11 (2000): 26695-26711. 65. J. Taylor Perron, et al. "Evidence for an ancient martian ocean in the topography of deformed shorelines," Nature 447 (2007), pp. 840-843. 66. Javier Ruiz, "On ancient shorelines and heat flows on Mars," Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 36 (2005). 67. "PIA04531: Earth and Moon as viewed from Mars," Mars Global Surveyor, 22 May 2003. 68. Carl Sagan, Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space (New York: Ballantine Books, 1997), p. 6. 69. J.R.R. Tolkien, The Fellowship of the Ring (New York: Del Rey, 1986), p. 193. 五、酸性平原 1. "The Rover's Antennas,"NASA Mars; "Communications with Earth," NASA Mars.
2. Daniel Siegal, "Montrose jeweler makes watches on Mars time," Los Angeles Times , 30 Oct. 2013. 3. Steve Squyres, Roving Mars: Spirit, Opportunity, and the Exploration of the Red Planet (New York: Hyperion, 2005). 4. "Mars Exploration Rovers Overview," Mars Exploration Rovers, NASA. 5. Guy Webster, "Go To That Crater And Turn Right: Spirit Gets A Travel Itinerary," NASA, January 13, 2004. 6. Marcus Y. Woo, "Roving on Mars," Engineering and Science , 72 (2) (2009) pp. 12-20. 7. "Martian 'Blueberries,'" NASA Science Mars Exploration Program Beta, 27 Jan. 2015. 8. Marjorie A Chan, Brenda Beitler, W. T. Parry, Jens Ormö, Goro Komatsu. "A possible terrestrial analogue for haematite concretions on Mars," Nature 429, no. 6993 (2004) . 9. Scott M. McLennan, et al. "Provenance and diagenesis of the evaporite-bearing Burns formation, Meridiani Planum, Mars," Earth and Planetary Science Letters 240, no. 1 (2005), pp. 95-121. 10. W. M. Calvin, et al. "Hematite spherules at Meridiani: Results from MI, Mini‐TES, and Pancam," Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 113, no. E12 (2008). 11. Henry Bortman, "Evidence of Water Found on Mars," Astrobiology Magazine , 3 March 2004. 12. G. Klingelhöfer, R. Van Morris, B. Bernhardt, C. Schröder, D. S. Rodionov, et al. "Jarosite and hematite at Meridiani Planum from Opportunity's Mössbauer spectrometer," Science 306, no. 5702 (2004), pp. 1740-1745.