18 此处和下文的词源例子取自Silverstein(1979)。这 是一篇真正意义上开创了整个研究领域的文章。 19 <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/hayfestival/9308062 /HayFestival 2012TimMinchinbreakstaboos.html>;2016年10 月14日访问。 20 Gal and Woolard, 2001. 21 Woolard, 2016.我接下来所关注的绝大多数细节都来自 于此书。 22 Ibid., p.22. 23 <https://www.bnp.org.uk/news/national/video—— painindigenous community-ignored>;2016年10月14日访问。 24 Woolard, 2016, pp.3-7. 25 引自Ibid., p.223。 26 Ibid., p.296. 27 Ibid., p.254. 28 <https://www.bia.gov/cs/groups/xofa/documents/text/idc 001338.pdf>;2016年10月17日访问。
29 Merry, 2001. 30 Jessie‘Little Doe'Baird, <http://www.wlrp.org>;2016年10月18日访问。 31 <http://www.mashpeewampanoagtribe.com/human_services>; 2016年10月18日访问。 第七章 权威 1 Weiner, 1992. 2 Ibid., p.12. 3 Ibid., pp.63-4. 4 Evans-Pritchard, 1931, p.36. 5 Yan, 2009. 6 Fong, 2004. 7 Yan, 2009, p.170. 8 引自 Yan, 2009, p.164。 9 Stafford, 2010, pp.204-5. 10 Mueggler, 2014.
11 Ibid., p.213. 12 在撰写这一部分时,我借鉴的论点通常可见以下这些中 Bloch, 1989, Rap-paport, 2000, Turner, 1967。这只是仪式 理论中的三位主要人物。另外还一些帮助理解的评论,特别是 关于仪式和宗教语言的评述可见Keane,1997和Stasch,2011。 13 Bloch, 1989, p.37. 14 Bloch, 2005. 15 关 于 这 些 观 点 的 经 典 表 述 可 见 Bloch and Parry, 1982。 16 Austin, 1975[1962]. 17 有 关 就 职 典 礼 的 失 误 , 请 参 阅 <http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/22/us/politics/22oath.h tml>;2016年10月28日访问。 18 Austin, 1975[1962], p.117. 19 最高法院前法官桑德拉·戴·奥康纳(Sandra Day O’Connor ) 以 这 些 黑 色 长 袍 为 主 题 进 行 反 思 , <http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/justicesandradayoconnoronwhyjudges wearblackrobes4370574/? noist>;2016年10月28日访问。 20 Mueggler, 2014, pp.212-13.
21 Agrama, 2010. 22 Ibid., p.11. 23 Ibid., p.13. 24 Evans-Pritchard and Fortes, 1940, pp.6-7. 25 Howell, 1989. 26 Ibid., pp.37-8. 27 Ibid., pp.52-3. 第八章 理性 1 Whorf, 1956, p.137. 2 Boroditsky, 2009. 3 Whorf, 1956, p.151. 4 关于这一点,请参见Enfield(2015),这是近期发表的 一篇对Whorf研究工作的优秀评论。 5 Whorf, 1956, p.151. 6 Sperber, 1985. 7 Lévy-Bruhl, 1966[1926], p.62.
8 Ibid., p.61. 9 Evans-Pritchard, 1976[1937], p.30. 10 Ibid., p.25. 11 Ibid., p.11. 12 Crocker, 1977, p.184. 13 Ibid., p.192. 14 Turner, 1991. 15 Handman, 2014, p.282, n.3. 16 Overing, 1985, p.154. 17 Viveiros de Castro, 1992;1998. 18 Viveiros de Castro, 1998, p.475. 19 Scott, 2013. 20 Viveiros de Castro, 1992, p.271. 21 Viveiros de Castro, 1998 p.470. 22 Scott, 2013, pp.5-9. 23 Viveiros de Castro, 1992, p.271.
24 切尔诺贝利事件的后续内容摘自Petryna,2003;“爆 炸的生活”这个短语正出自她的笔下。 25 Evans-Pritchard, 1976[1937], p.19. 第九章 自然 1 Said, 1993. 2 Sahlins, 1976. 3 这 个 列 表 被 发 布 在 “ 野 蛮 人 的 思 维 ( Savage Minds ) ” ,一 个 流 行 人 类 学 博 客 上 , <http://savageminds.org/2011/04/17/anthropologicalkeywords-2011-edi-tion/>;2016年12月7日访问。 4 见Lévi-Strauss, 1963, p.33。 5 引用自Lévi-Strauss, 1964。 6 Lévi-Strauss, 1966, p.268. 7 Bloch, 2012, p.53. 8 Lock, 2002. 9 Ibid., p.279. 10 Ibid., p.51.
11 <https : //www.ipsosmori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/3685/Poli ticians-are-still-trusted-less-than-estate-agentsjournalists-and-bankers.aspx#gallery[m]/0/>;2016年12月 12日访问。 12 来 自 2015 年 12 月 的 盖 洛 普 民 意 测 验 <http://www.gallup.com/poll/1654/honesty-ethicsprofessions.aspx>;2016年12月12日访问。 13 Martin, 1991. 14 Ibid., p.490. 15 Ibid., p.500. 16 2015年,马利根(Mulligan, 2015)对刚果民主共和国 的 表 观 遗 传 学 研 究 进 行 了 总 结 。 参 阅 同 一 期 American Anthropologist可以了解一系列关于人类遗传学的概述。 17 McKinnon, 2005. 18 Ibid., pp.29-33. 19 Astuti, Solomon and Carey, 2004. 20 Astuti, 1995. 21 Astuti, Solomon and Carey, 2004, p.117.
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[1]除非他们自己就是“本地人”。日本人类学家大贯惠美子(Emiko Ohnuki Tierney)就是一个例子(1984)。她在神户研究“她的族群”。然而本土人类学 家是一类有争议的群体,引发了许多讨论。通常在非白人或是非西方的情境下, 一个研究者才会被认为是“本土”的。所以如果你是日本人,研究日本,那么你 就是本土人类学家。但如果你是白种美国人,研究例如好莱坞,那么你很可能不 会被称为“本土人类学家”。这些争论让我们注意到人类学的殖民主义史里一些 重要的信息。总的来说,反对“本土化”的主要论点是,一位人类学家不能仅仅 站在研究对象的视角去描述世界。做人类学,始终应该留有某种批判的距离。 [2]如同在其他学术和职业领域中一样,人类学领域的女性,特别是早些年, 也经常会遇到“玻璃天花板”。米德和本尼迪克特都没有得到顶尖大学的教职, 尽管她们有着卓越的成就和名望。 [3]原文“cricket”既有板球也有蟋蟀的意思,显然作者一开始误解了菲利 普的意思。——译者注 [4]进化理论并非达尔文的独创,它有着悠久的发展历史。社会理论学家赫伯 特·斯宾塞曾匿名发表过一篇关于有机进化的文章,比《物种起源》的出版早了 七年。 [5]罗得西亚是津巴布韦的旧称。——译者注 [6]奥姆卡拉(Omkara)是奥姆(Om)的另一种表述,是印度教中神圣音节的 组合,它构成了精神能量的核心。——编者注 [7]就连梭罗本人,也只是在瓦尔登湖畔暂时隐居了一段日子。“现在,我又 再次回到了文明生活中。”他在书的开头这样告诉他的读者们。(1897,p.1) [8]这并不是说非洲就是神秘莫测的。它在“民族文化上的混乱”是由其社会 形式种类繁多而造成的。比如,东非的哈扎人会被分类为野蛮的狩猎采集者。而 南部非洲的恩古尼人(Nguni)则因为他们以宗族为基础的政治制度和以畜牧业为 主的生活方式被认为处于“未开化”的阶段。总而言之,“未开化”意味着饲养 家畜和拥有等级制的政治模式。 [9]泰勒写道:“加勒比人(Caribs)被描述成快活、谦虚和有礼貌的种族, 而且他们互相之间非常诚实,假如他们家里丢了东西,他们会自然地说:‘这儿 来过一个基督教徒。’但是这些令人尊敬的人又残酷地对待他们的战俘,用刀、
火和辣椒折磨他们,在放浪形骸的宴席上将他们煮着吃了。这就说明了为什么在 许多欧洲语言里,“加勒比人”和“食人族”是同一个意思。”(1871,p.30). [10]除非在美国或法国的工作是关于另一个特别明显的“他者”的:比如非 法的墨西哥移民,或是柏林的土耳其社区。那些被认为是异域的或边缘化的群 体。 [11]这座奥地利城堡归属于纽约的维纳——格林人类学基金会(Wenner-Gren Foundation),该基金会可能是世界上专门用于支持人类学(包括所有四个分 支)的最重要的资方机构。很遗憾,他们后来卖掉了城堡,但除了许多其他项目 外,他们仍然资助一些主要的工作坊。近年来,这些工作坊上的论文发表在《当 代人类学》(Current Anthropology)期刊的特刊中。这些特刊文章在网上免费 向公众开放。 [12]而不是,比如说采用长子继承制,将遗产都给最年长的儿子。 [13]希腊语,意为“荣誉、自豪或价值”。——译者注 [14]希腊语,意为“荣誉(感)”。——译者注 [15]请记住,1980年是阐释人类学的鼎盛时期。对语言、文化和意义的关注 ——有时被表达为“文化的符号学方法”——占据了主导地位,在赫兹菲尔德和 阿布—卢格霍德所在的美国无疑是如此。格尔茨也常被称为“特殊主义者”,意 思是他不喜欢概括,认为人类学必须要在相应语境中研究其文化,否则就一无是 处。 [16]一些人类学家(例如Nicholas Dirks,2001)甚至认为,英国人在确定 种姓类别方面起的作用比印度人几千年来的思想和实践还要多。殖民政府喜欢制 定明确的社会和法律身份;这使得管理一个帝国变得容易得多,特别是像印度这 样的殖民领土,它的复杂性、多样性和难以理解的程度是英国本土的十倍。 [17] 最 后 一 个 示 例 来 自 “ 个 人 自 由 中 心 ” ( Center for Individual Freedom ) 所 支 持 的 网 站 “ 等 待 它 ! 弗 吉 尼 亚 ” 上 的 一 个 帖 子 。 详 情 可 见 http://cfif.org/v/index.php/jesters courtroom/3068 a colorful lawsuit. [18]社会等级制度在互惠关系的形塑中起到了重要作用。例如,当我和我的 博士生们见面讨论他们的研究工作时,我经常给他们买咖啡,有时甚至买蛋糕。
不过,我从来不期待他们给我买咖啡,因为我有薪水,而且我是他们的导师(这 并不是说我是一个特别看重等级秩序的导师或其他什么,但事情就该这么办才 对。)话说回来,我的导师很久以前也曾给我买咖啡,所以这仍然构成了一种持 续的互惠关系。大卫·格雷伯(David Graeber)的一些研究工作我将在本章后面 讨论,他将这称为一种相对“开放”的互惠形式,这意味着礼物不会在某个固定 的时间框架内得到回报,甚至有时根本不必回报,或者不会回报给原来送出礼物 的那个人。更确切地说,回报可以是给到社区中的其他人——在这个例子中,我 们回报给了不断扩大的人类学家共同体。 [19]人类学家威廉·马扎雷拉(William Mazzarella,2003)在对孟买一家 广告公司的研究中提出了品牌“灵力”的观点。他就如何利用“hau”来阐明现代 品牌的魅力展开了一场富有启发性的长篇讨论。优秀的品牌模糊了主客体的界 限。你是阿玛尼人还是巴宝莉人? [20]在我的青少年时期,流传的一个都市传说是,流通中的20美元纸币中有 50%(或者很大一部分,我真的记不起来了,但这不重要)曾被瘾君子用来辅助从 鼻子吸食可卡因。糟糕,糟糕。现在至少有一位著名的经济学家(Rogoff, 2016)希望完全废除现金,因为大部分现金都是由不受欢迎的人持有的。2016 年,印度政府为此做出了一些努力,它在一夜之间宣布面额最大的卢比纸币无 效。这导致了巨大的混乱,因为人们争先恐后地在规定时间内挤兑货币。 [21]虽然这只是20世纪中期以来的情况。然而,硬币的使用是有相当长的历 史的;事实上,从古希腊和古罗马时期就开始了。 [22]原文pits有交易所也有深坑的意思。——译者注 [23]在专业的记录中,这些术语的出现被视为彻底缺乏专业素养:它们的意 义庞杂,在特定的文化中有特殊的含义,在表意上极度模糊。关于亲属关系的研 究有一个非常术语化的词汇表,以“自我”为中心,周围环绕着“母亲”“父 亲”“姐妹”和“兄弟”,而不是“叔叔”“姨妈”,甚至“祖母”,因为这些 必须被表示为“母亲的兄弟”(舅舅)或“母亲的母亲”或“母亲的母亲的母 亲”等等。当然,所有这些术语都是基于可构成一系列可能组合的、最小的理解 单位。它们就像质数,只能被它们自己整除。此外,亲属关系研究往往附带图 表、符号和标志,详细说明各种关系和联系。不是所有的人类学家都喜欢这个。 布罗尼斯拉夫·马林诺夫斯基抱怨道:“坦率地说,我必须承认,没有一种亲属 关系不令我感到困惑,我对这种荒谬的科学和架空的数学化的亲属关系的事实感 到迷惑。(1930,p20)。
[24]“亲家”(in-law)一词在这里也很重要;它告诉我们,我们需要法律 体系的力量来接近那种从血缘中获得的“自然”关系。 [25]在语言学术语中,这些词被称为同源词(cognates),来自拉丁语 “cognatus”,有“血缘关系”的意思。关于血液的隐喻根深蒂固。 [26]在当代人权运动中,我们常常发现类似的观点和方法,尽管它们背后的 形而上学可能非常不同,或者有时这些观点背后根本就没有形而上学。但这种运 动往往是以意义的绝对性和固定性作为前提展开的;折磨就是折磨,就是折磨。 [27]祭祀本身被看作是对楚科奇人祖先的奉献,在楚科奇人的文化中,祖先 对世俗世界拥有相当大的权力。牺牲往往是安抚性的,尽管在一些世界观中,这 种行为被否认或忽视。但马塞尔·莫斯会长篇大论地讨论献祭的逻辑并不应让我 们感到意外,它的许多形式都起到与礼物交换类似的作用。 [28]《牛津英语词典》中“个体”(individual)的第一个义项是“实体或 本质上的同一”,它几乎与“身份同一性”(既identity)同义。 [29]世界音乐当然是个将所有非西方的音乐形式一股脑囊括进去的“包罗万 象”概念。迈克尔·杰克逊不属于“世界音乐”;津巴布韦流行歌手托马斯·马 普弗莫(Thomas Mapfumo)才是。如果你停下来琢磨一下的话,这很奇怪,因为 迈克尔·杰克逊才是那个在全世界都很受欢迎的歌手。这绝不是说托马斯·马普 弗莫的出色成就是微不足道的。但它告诉了我们是谁在发号施令和定义标签。 [30]英语文化中认为触摸木头可以带走厄运。——译者注 [31]比喻在面向大众的信息中隐藏一些指向特定人群的信息,常指政治家用 隐晦的语言取悦某类受众。——译者注 [32]他当时其实并不出名,后来才成为学术明星。我们将在下一章介绍一些 他的出色工作。 [33]中国长期(虽然现在已经撤销)的独生子女政策也可以被看作是这种情 况的一部分,尽管这种政策并没有像在城市地区那样影响农村家庭的变化。芬兰 人类学家安妮·卡亚努斯(Anni Kajanus 2015)也报告了独生子女政策如何帮 助推动城市家庭对女童教育进行大量投资。 [34]阎云翔研究彩礼习俗变化的地方离云南很远;事实上,缪格勒并不是和 汉族人一起工作,而是和一个名为彝族、说藏缅语的少数民族一起。
[35]以言施事力并非仪式语言所独有;它在更多的日常交往和交流中也存 在。不过,这在仪式中特别常见,因为举行仪式经常是为了“做”某事(和别人 结婚、埋葬他人、赎罪、恢复湿婆形象的神力和治愈年轻女性的胃痛等等)。 [36]本地方言,意为“小的”。——译者注 [37]朱旺人是上世纪80年代中期被马来西亚政府安排在农村定居的。这种国 家支持的项目在许多国家都很常见,包括博茨瓦纳和纳米比亚,那里住着桑族人 (San)/纳罗人(Naro)、居和人(Jul’hoan)和其他族群。这些定居点和重 新安置经常是被强加给他们的,遭到他们的强烈抵抗。 [38]有时它也是令人憎恶的,并非无法衡量的。对另一个狩猎和采集社会, 坦桑尼亚的哈扎人来说,确实存在一些次要的权力形式——比如名义上的团体 “领袖”。然而,这些领导人的权威受到许多因素的制约,包括团体成员的流动 性和财产权的缺乏。没有人是被强制归属该团体的,没有人能积聚威望或权力。 哈扎人和其他一些非洲平等社会的例子是詹姆斯·伍德伯恩(James Woodburn) 一篇发表于1982年的开创性文章的主题。 [39]沃尔夫提出SAE概念,旨在将欧洲现代印欧语族中的语言进行分组,指代 一系列有着相似语法、词汇、词源和语序等的语言。而这种相似性在其他语言中 并不存在。他认为罗马语和西日耳曼语(包括英语、荷兰语和德语等)是SAE的核 心语言。——译者注 [40]这一点非常重要。我们知道,在任何特定的文化中,人们可以拥有不止 一种对时间的理解或对时间性的体验(Munn,1992)。此外,对线性时间和因果 关系的基本感觉是认知的一般特征(Bloch,2012)。人类学家尚未发现某种文化 中人们认为可以在吃了煮鸡蛋之后才煮鸡蛋。 [41]实际上,它的法语原名是《下层社会的心理功能》(Les Fonctions Mentales dans les Sociétés Inférieures)。英语译本直到1926年才出版, 它的英文标题更多地反映了英国人对“土著”(native)一词的喜好,尽管它并 没有弱化法国人对思想和心态的兴趣。事实上,如果说有什么不同的话,法国人 类学更专注于思维,当我们后面提到克洛德·列维—斯特劳斯时,将继续讨论这 一点。 [42]在此之前,这些辩论是基于冯·登·施泰宁的早期评论、一些天主教牧 师的研究以及列维·施特劳斯的一些著作,但他在20世纪30年代只在波洛洛待了 几周。
[43]雅韦提人从来不这样称呼自己;这是1977年巴西国家印第安人基金会给 他们起的名字。他们总是把自己称为“bïde”,意思是“人类”或者“人”。 [44]维韦罗斯·德·卡斯特罗不常写鹦鹉,但他经常提到美洲豹,它是许多 美洲印第安人,包括雅韦提人宇宙观中的重要生物(人)。在他的书中,他着重 叙述了一个案例,16世纪的一位酋长告诉一位德国探险家:“我是美洲豹。” [45]人类学家在研究1984年印度博帕尔(Bhopal)化工厂爆炸案(见Das, 1995)和2004年印度洋海啸时也表明了这一点。这次海啸摧毁了东南亚广大地 区,特别是印度尼西亚的亚齐(Aceh,见Samuels,2012)。 [46]她把重点放在北美,但这个论点可以扩展到西欧的许多国家。 [47]意为强烈抵制技术革新的人。——译者注 [48]体型优美?考虑到我们对人类历史和史前的了解,更不用说许多当代的 非西方美学了,现在平均水平的T台模特只是众多理想标准之一而已。肥胖和肚腩 经常相当有吸引力。有关萨赫勒(Sahel)地区肥胖和美丽的研究,请参见 Popenoe,2004。 [49]当然,加泰罗尼亚人也是如此——至少近年来如此。 [50]唐纳德·特朗普的顾问凯莉安·康威(Kellyanne Conway)在2017年1 月接受NBC周日早间新闻节目《与媒体见面》(Meet the Press)采访时创造了 “ 另 类 事 实 ” ( alternative facts ) 一 词 。 有 关 视 频 请 参 见 http://www.nbcnews.com/meet-press/vid-eo/Conway-pression-signationgive-facts-86014213(最后一次访问时间为2017年3月14日)。我不认为人类学 家会把这个词收进术语词典之中。 [51]21世纪初,当米歇尔·麦卡锡(Michelle MacCarthy)前往特罗布里恩 德群岛去为她在奥克兰大学的博士学位论文做调查时,文化旅游已成为岛上居民 生计的重要来源。她在论文中详细讨论了这一点(MacCarthy,2012)。在随后的 旅行中,她发现一些被五旬节派传教士传递的信息所影响的妇女已经停止生产香 蕉叶布;五旬节派认为这是浪费时间(MacCarthy,2017)。
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