History of War - Issue 02-14

HI
R
HISTORY
NEW! S T O Y
of

R
A
R
R
R
R
W
WAR
W
A
W
A
A
A
W
W
MACHINES OF WAR
• U • U S S G E O R G E W A SH I I N G T O N
• USS GEORGE WASHINGTON
S
G
E W
A
E
O
R
T
O
N
SH
N
G
S G
• AH-64 APACHE HELICOPTER
• A H - 6 4 A P A C H E H E L I C O P T E R
• AH-64 APACHE HELICOPTER
• HISTORY OF MISSILES
• HISTORY OF MISSILES
E
O
N
S
HE
,
D
R
S
A
IN
E
C
A
M
H
,
S
IE
A
R
ST
HE
T
THE STORIES, STRATEGIES, HEROES AND MACHINES
R
O
ST
T
S
IE
G
E
Gallipoli SOVIET/AFGHAN WAR
TRIGGER POINT
CONQUEST WALES!
Jeremy Paxman on EDWARD I’s CONWY CASTLE
THE ANZAC AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
TRAGEDY THE BATTLE FOR PETERSBURG
PLUS THE WAR IN NUMBERS
Churchill’s
Churchill’s
Churchill’s
B
N
AT
B
AT
B B B B AT T L E of R I TA I N
BATTLE BRITAIN
I
B
N
I
B
N
I
T
R
I
I
I
L
L
L
R
R
TA
E
E
E
AT
T
T
TA
TA
HOW CHURCHILL AND THE RAF DEFENDED
BRITISH SHORES FROM THE GERMAN ADVANCE 04 04
T H E L A T E S T B O O K S , A P P S , L E A D E R S O F M E N T HE VI S ITI N G TH E W EST E R N APRIL 2014 ISSUE 2 £3.99 376004 376004
LEADERS OF MEN THE VISITING THE WESTERN
THE LATEST BOOKS, APPS,
DVDS REVIEWED & RATED GREATEST CRUSADERS FRONT BATTLEGROUNDS 772054 772054
9 9
HoW02.Cover.jc1.indd 1 24/02/2014 17:18



HISTORY Contributors
of
WAR The renowned journalist,
JEREMY PAXMAN

broadcaster and author of
history books contributes
to History Of War with
a fascinating feature on
the battle of Gallipoli and
the role played by his Uncle
Charlie, who gave his life
Welcome conflict of 1915.
during the devastating

STEVE JARRATT
With over 30 years’
A big thank you to the many thousands experience of magazine
of you who bought the fi rst issue of History journalism and editing at
Of War, and a warm welcome to this, our the highest level, Steve
second issue, where we take a detailed look was ideally placed to craft
at how the Battle of Britain progressed in our feature on the Battle
1940 and how Churchill’s attitude to the of Britain and Winston
Churchill’s role in it,
confl ict helped to shape Hitler’s ambitions utilising texts by historians
on the British front (turn to page 18). Jon Lake and Brenda Ralph.
Elsewhere, we explore the origins of the
Soviet war in Afghanistan (page 86), examine CHRIS MCNAB
the battle of Petersburg, which effectively ended the American Civil Chris is a prolific author,

War (page 30), and run through some of the battles that infl uenced the with over 40 books on
outcome of the French Revolution and marked Napoleon’s meteoric rise military history under his
through the ranks of his army (page 68). We also welcome broadcaster belt. He is an expert on
and journalist Jeremy Paxman to our pages, the American Civil War and
as he considers what happened to his contributes to this issue
uncle at Gallipoli (page 50). All this with a detailed analysis of
and much, much more! Enjoy the issue. the battle that effectively
ended it: the finale of

Paul Pettengale Editorial Director the siege of Petersburg.
paul.pettengale@anthem-publishing.com
Subscribe
Share your views and opinions online Search History Of S u bs c r i b e
historyofwar.co.uk War Magazine GET 25% OFF THE COVER PRICE AND
@HistoryOfWarMag
A FREE BOOK WORTH £30 (SEE P44)










































HISTORY WAR 3
of



HISTORY

of
WAR








Contents








USS GEORGE WASHINGTON p46 APRIL 2014 ISSUE 02




Features



Churchill’s Battle of Britain
Hitler’s forces were amassing in France,
preparing to invade England. But they
hadn’t reckoned with the new PM .........18
Great Battles Petersburg
A detailed look at one of the American
Civil War’s most pivotal engagements ...30
Conwy Castle
King Edward I built this imposing fortress
to keep the Welsh at bay, and it has many
a tale to tell ........................................38
What happened to Uncle Charlie
Jeremy Paxman looks back at the
First World War Gallipoli campaign,
and explores what became of his
heroic relative .....................................50
Back to the Past
A new battlefi eld tour, Fritz and Tommy,
delves into the stories of both British
and German forces fi ghting in France and
Belgium during the First World War .......61
Battles in Brief
The French Revolution: Part One
The skirmishes that shaped the French
PETERSBURG p30 Revolutionary Wars, and turned Napoleon
into a leader to be reckoned with ..........68
Leaders of Men Crusaders
Meet the brave, committed and
p66 sometimes downright scheming men and
women who played a part in the holy wars
of the Middle Ages ..............................74
From the Front
There are numerous Vietnam War fi lms
out there, but it’s not often we get
a glimpse of the personalities in the
thick of the action ...............................79
Trigger Point
The start of the Soviet/Afghan War,
a confl ict that changed the world ..........86





p86

Denotes on the cover

HISTORY WAR 5 5
WA
R
Y
ISTO
H
R
of of

TopFoto





WAR

FOCUS
in

DISCARDED ARGENTINE HELMETS
AT GOOSE GREEN

Taken 29 May 1982
Steel helmets lie strewn across the grass at Goose
Green, abandoned by Argentine troops following
their surrender in the first major land battle of
the Falklands War. Despite being outnumbered
two to one, British forces had managed to
score a morale-boosting victory during
a fierce, 40-hour gun battle.





































































6 HISTORY WAR
of

HISTORY WAR 7
of

TopFoto





WAR

FOCUS
in

AN EMOTIONAL FAMILY GREETING
FOR A RETURNING PRIVATE

Taken January 1946
Mrs Flo Martin’s flag had already been hanging up
for two weeks when she received a call from her
son, Private Bill Martin of the Royal Army Medical
Corps, to say that he would soon be returning
home to London from Burma, where the
Allies had just defeated the Japanese.
A cup of Mum’s tea had probably
never tasted better.



































































8 HISTORY WAR
of

HISTORY WAR 9
of

Mary Evans Picture Library

































































































10 HISTORY WAR
of

WAR


FOCUS
in

ANTI-VIETNAM WAR
DEMONSTRATION AT
KENT STATE UNIVERSITY

Taken 4 May 1970
A student lies dead in the grounds of Kent State
University, Ohio – one of four killed when
National Guardsmen fired 67 rounds in
13 seconds into an anti-Vietnam War
demonstration. Nine more were
wounded in the incident.





HISTORY WAR 11
of

DISPATCHES




Military news and opinion from around the globe, including a doo-biously shaped Vietnam
transmitter, the untold story of some WWII gardeners, and an explosive art mystery…





COLD-WAR NUCLEAR


LEVELS PROVE THAT


PAINTING IS A FAKE




Scientists use new carbon-dating method to
ascertain that “Léger” work hails from the 1950s
painting in Venice’s Peggy levels released during a series
Guggenheim Collection has of nuclear tests conducted
been revealed as a fake during the Cold War. One of
– after the intervention of the secondary effects of these
A nuclear physicists. tests was a substantial increase
For years, experts on Fernand in the level of radiocarbon
Léger’s works had suspected that in the atmosphere, and the fact
Contraste de Formes – originally that this painting came up with
believed to have been produced a high reading proved that it
by the French artist between was created around this time
1913 and 1914 – was not original. and not decades earlier.
But now scientists at the Florence- “This comparison, used for
based Institute for Nuclear the fi rst time to ascertain the
Physicists have proved as much authenticity of an artwork,
using a new carbon-dating method demonstrated with absolute legerpaintingPeggyGuggenheimCollection
– the so-called “bomb-peak” certainty that the [painting’s]
curve – that positions the work canvas support was produced
fi rmly in the Cold War era. after 1959, which was at least
The carbon-14 method four years later than Fernand
estimates the age of organic Léger’s death in 1955,” the
materials based on radiocarbon Institute confi rmed in a statement.


British knowledge of

the First World War

is severely lacking,
according to new research



id you know that Britain and 1.4 million Indians fought as part of the
Canada were both involved in British forces. Worse still, seven per cent
Dthe First World War? It may be of British respondents under the age of
common knowledge for many of us, but 24 believed that Margaret Thatcher was
new research suggests that only 38 per the Prime Minister during the war!
cent of British people were aware of John Worne, the British Council’s
this. Meanwhile, less than half of the Director of Strategy, said, “Our research
respondents involved in the survey knew shows that the things we in the UK know
that the assassination of Archduke Franz and remember the most from the First
Ferdinand triggered the start of the war. World War are the harrowing images and
The research, which was carried out iconic stories from the Western Front.”
on 1,955 adults in Britain, plus natives Experts cited a number of reasons for
of six other countries, raised some the public’s limited knowledge, including
Xxxxxxx alarming statistics. Twenty-seven per cent poor history education in schools and the
conflict being overshadowed by the Second

of Indian respondents believed that India
fought against Britain, when in fact
World War and affairs in the Middle East.
12 HISTORY WAR
of

RUSSIAN NEWS ANCHOR LABELS Events

IWO-JIMA MEMORIAL AS "GAY"
Superpowers engage in a new Cold War, only this time it’s monument-bashing 6 APRIL
Chelmsford Militaria Fair
The only indoor event of its kind in
prominent anchor on state has since been withdrawn from the
television in Russia has caused website. Essex, this fair features two halls
Acontroversy by insinuating that the bustling with dealers selling their
US Marines depicted in the Iwo-Jima war wares to discerning collectors and
memorial near Washington DC look as if military re-enactors.
they are engaged in homosexual activity. Marconi Social Club, Chelmsford,
Never afraid to be outspoken in his Essex. 07595 511981;
views, Dmitry Kiselyov told viewers, “[The www.chelmsfordmilitaria.com
memorial] is easy to mock. A fevered
subconsciousness could ascribe just about
anything to it. Take a closer look: a very
modern theme, is it not?”
The outburst came in response to an
article written by a CNN correspondent
entitled “The World’s Ugliest Monuments”,

in which it was suggested that a figure in
a Second World War monument in Brest
looked constipated. The article has since
been removed from the CNN website.
Kiselyov was appointed head of the state Xxxxxxxx 12-13 APRIL
news agency RIA Novosti by Vladimir Putin Colwyn Bay 1940s Festival
in December. His comments are the latest Attractions include military vehicles,
in a wave of anti-gay propaganda to emerge heritage tours, film footage, Forties

out of Russia in recent months. food and live entertainment.
Colwyn Bay Town Centre, North Wales.
01492 577600;
www.facebook.com/FortiesFestival
HOW GARDENING HELPED CAMP 13 APRIL
INMATES THROUGH THE WAR Massive war-games show run by
the South London Warlords.
ExCel, London.
A NEW RHS EXHIBITION WILL SHED www.salute.co.uk
LIGHT ON THE MEN WHO PLANTED
SEEDS OF HOPE AT RUHLEBEN
T
hink of the First World War and
your mind immediately conjures
up images of muddy trenches.
But for a small group of Britons in
Germany, the confl ict had a somewhat
greener outlook to it.
When war broke out in 1914, there
were around 5,000 British men living
and working in Germany. As potential
13 APRIL
enemy soldiers, they were not allowed Hack Green Bunker Sale
to return home, but neither were Sale of military electronics,
they prisoners of war. The German ham radios and vehicle spares.
government’s compromise was an Hack Green, Nantwich, Cheshire.
internment camp, with all British men 01270 623353
aged 17-55 being arrested and taken
to Ruhleben near Berlin. As well as 13 APRIL
setting up an amateur-dramatics Crank-Up
group, an internal postal service Attendees are invited to display
and a casino, and organising regular their military vehicles old and new.
York Castle Museum, York.
sporting fi xtures, many men took www.yorkshiremvt.co.uk
up horticulture. Some grew shrubs
to hide the barbed wire, while others 13 APRIL
nurtured chrysanthemums and The REME Museum Model Show
dahlias. And vegetables were grown This is the museum’s second show
to feed their fellow inmates, too. of transport and military models.
This autumn, the Royal REME Museum, Arborfield, Berkshire.

Horticultural Society plans to run an 0118 976 3375;
exhibition telling the Ruhleben story, www.rememuseum.org.uk
and Fiona Davison, Head of Libraries
and Exhibitions, thinks it will provide 19-21 APRIL
a fascinating insight. “The story of Tanks and Military Machines
Everything from re-enactments to
the Ruhleben Horticultural Society is aerial displays and blank-firing tanks.

completely unique,” she says, “in that, Lincolnshire Aviation Heritage
unlike many WWI histories that tell Centre. 01790 763207;
of the triumph of the human spirit www.lincsaviation.co.uk
over adversity, it is all but unknown.”

HISTORY WAR 13
of

ANGLO-ZULU WAR ITEMS


GO UNDER THE HAMMER



A sucking sound the weapon
collection of artefacts from
the Anglo-Zulu War have
made when it was withdrawn
from the body), along with two
been auctioned in Sussex
hardwood status staffs.
on the 135th anniversary
Some of the pieces were
of one of the confl ict’s
most famous skirmishes, the bought by people from South
Battle of Isandlwana in 1879. Africa, revealing that the
War shields, stabbing spears confl ict still resonates on an
and staffs were among the emotional level. Carol Slater
154 lots sold off by Wallis & of the KwaZulu-Natal provincial
Wallis in Lewes, with the items government in South Africa
WAR SHIELDS, STABBING SPEARS AND STAFFS
WERE AMONG THE 154 LOTS SOLD OFF BY

WALLIS & WALLIS AUCTIONEERS IN LEWES


fetching a total of £95,485. said, “It’s a bit like the Elgin
The collection had belonged marbles, where people want
to David Smith, who started them to come back to where
gathering the artefacts after they belong. There’s a sense
being inspired by the 1964 that [the items] should not be
Michael Caine fi lm Zulu, out of the country.”
but has since passed away. The Michael Caine fi lm
The items included a recounts the battle of Rorke’s
Zulu regimental war shield, Drift, where 150 British soldiers
a knobkierrie – thought to be heroically fought off around
an executioner’s club – a short 4,000 warrior tribesmen. Eleven
stabbing spear with a razor- Victoria Crosses were awarded
sharp blade known as an iklwa for the defence – more than for Wallis & Wallis
(the name comes from the any single battle before or since.




NEVER MIND THE Letter from Great War
DOG TAGS, LOOK OUT
FOR THE DOG POO sailor arrives 98 years late


he next time you quibble about propped up on the mantelpiece ready
merican troops a letter or parcel arriving a couple to be taken to the Post Office, but had

in the Vietnam Tof days late, spare a thought for fallen down and been forgotten about.
AWar had to the family of First World War sailor David After the letter was handed over to
make sure they didn’t John Phillips – it’s taken 98 years for Orkney Library last year, a search began
step in any dog poo – them to receive a letter he penned back to find the intended recipients – or their

because it might not have in December 1916! ancestors, anyway. An online appeal
been dog poo. The sealed and stamped envelope, led to a distant relative in Canada
During the confl ict, addressed to Phillips’ family in Wales, suggesting that the sailor may have been
suggesting that the sailor may have been
the US Army developed was discovered in 1980 behind a Phillips. The man contacted Mary Hodge
Phillips. The man contacted Mary Hodge
a cleverly disguised fireplace in a house in Kirkwall, Orkney, in Chester, who recognised the author as
in Chester, who recognised the author as
fi replace in a house in Kirkwall, Orkney,
homing beacon where Phillips was stationed during her grandfather. She is now planning
her grandfather. She is now planning
where Phillips was stationed during
called the T-1151 the war. It’s believed that it had been a visit to Orkney to collect the letter.
a visit to Orkney to collect the letter.
the war. It s believed that it had been
Dog Doo Transmitter
(not pictured), which
emitted a warning when
movements occurred,
allowing military bosses to
monitor shipments or fi nd
soldiers in need of rescue.
Says the Gale Encylopedia of
Espionage & Intelligence, “Because
the device gave the appearance of Getty Images Getty Images
fecal matter, it was often left undisturbed Shutterstock Shutterstock
and thus retained a high efficiency as a homing
beacon, even when planted days or weeks before a mission.”
14 HISTORY WAR
of

FIRST WORLD WAR HERO LEAVES Events

SKETCHBOOK OF HIS BATTLEFIELD
26-27 APRIL
DRAWINGS Grand Historical and Vintage Bazaar
Pictures provide precious This multi-period living-history and
sale show is now in its sixth year.
memento for family Rufford Abbey Country Park,
any men and women Nottinghamshire. 01623 822944;
www.eventplan.co.uk
return from battle not East Anglican Daily Times
wanting to talk about their 26-27 APRIL
experiences, and Sydney South East Midlands Crank-Up
M Green was no different. Organised by the South East
However, the Suffolk Regiment Midlands section of the Military
soldier (pictured), who fought in Vehicle Trust, this event invites
France during the First World War, you to come along, pitch your
tent, drive your military vehicle
found another way to remember around a field and have a natter.

his time on the frontline. He kept John Marchant’s Farm, Cosgrove,
a sketchbook, small enough to Buckinghamshire.
keep inside his uniform pocket, and 01536 799395; ww.mvtsem.com
drew pictures of the devastation
that surrounded him – the ruins of 27 APRIL
Givenchy Church; the debris-strewn Dallas Dig-Out
fountain of Mortagne; a broken A car-boot sale, but for military
clothes and memorabilia.
bridge at Stambruges, destroyed Dallas Autos, Newbury, Berkshire.
by retreating German forces. 01635 201124
While the pictures are slightly
faded and stained now, they 27 APRIL
shed some light on the kind of Northern Military Expo
man Sydney was – a consolation Traders selling everything from
to his son, Ernie, now 93, who vehicles to books.
remembers his father saying very Newark Showground,
little to his family from the day Nottinghamshire. 01302 739000;
he returned from the battlefield to www.nmexpo.co.uk
the day he died in 1977. “I wish 3-5 MAY
I knew more about my father,” Muddy Good Weekend
he laments. “But I lost the chance.” Four-wheel-drive and military show
with a three-day battle re-enactment.
Billing Aquadrome, Northamptonshire.
01604 407477; www.billingshows.com
Bomber Command
centre to pay

tribute to an icon


s it a building? Is it a plane? Actually, it’s kind of both.
This is an artist’s impression of what a new RAF Bomber
Getty I Command centre in Lincoln will look like. The centre, which will AND DON’T FORGET
tell the story of Bomber Command and the 55,573 personnel who THESE EVENTS LATER
HOW JAPAN’S died in the Second World War, will be named after Roy Chadwick, the IN THE YEAR…
Lancashire-born engineer who designed the iconic Lancaster Bomber.
“BBC” IS And because of this, it was felt that the building should feature an
emphatic tribute to his legendary aircraft, which was prominent in a
16–20 JULY
RE-WRITING number of WWII campaigns, including the Dambuster raid of 1943. The War And Peace Revival
Nicky Barr, of the Lincolnshire Bomber Command Memorial
RAF Westenhanger, Folkestone
THE WAR Trust (LBCMT), explained that the centre will help to provide an Racecourse, Kent. 01304 813337;
understanding of the effect the war had on the civilian population
www.thewarandpeacerevival.co.uk
in continental Europe and at home, adding that the distinctive
he debate about whether the Nanking Lancaster Bomber design will “echo the crouching beauty of its form”. 1-3 AUGUST
massacre occurred or not continues to rage Military & Flying Machines Show
Ton, with a major figure in Japanese television Damyns Hall Aerodrome,
being quoted as saying that it never took place. Upminster, Essex.
Naoki Hyakuta – who sits on the board of the www.militaryandfl yingmachines.
supposedly impartial Japanese public-broadcasting org.uk
company NHK – reportedly told the Asahi Shimbun
newspaper, “In 1938, [Chinese nationalist ruler] 23-25 AUGUST
Chiang Kai-shek tried to publicise Japan’s responsibility Military Odyssey
for the Nanking massacre, but the nations of the world The Kent Show Ground, Detling, Kent.
ignored him. Why? Because it never happened.” www.military-odyssey.com
In the interview, Hyakuta went on to assert that
the massacre – which is widely believed to have seen 20-21 SEPTEMBER
250,000 Chinese murdered in 1937 – was fabricated by Euro Militaire
the United States to overshadow the “cruel massacres” Leas Cliff Hall, Folkestone, Kent. 0844
committed by America during the Second World War. 848 8822; www.euromilitaire.co.uk


HISTORY WAR 15
of

HISTORY



of
WAR


















READ ON ANY DEVICE, ANY TIME!









FREE


PREVIEW

ISSUE!



























Download your FREE App today









SINGLE ISSUES JUST £2.49/$3.99
SI NG L E IS SU E S J US T £ 2 . 4 9 / $ 3 .9 9

SUBSCRIBE FROM £2.49 PER MONTH or £25.99 PER YEAR


Search for History of War and download your FREE App today












HoW01.app ad.indd 6 28/01/2014 09:47

LETTERS Make your thoughts and opinions known by writing

to History Of War. Email historyofwar@anthem-
publishing.com or send letters to the address below






FACING THE FACTS of the story he gives. Any such slip might give of war, whether it’s African, African-Caribbean or
away the whole story as untrue. The British
African-American, and the American magazines
Dear Sir, were, in fact, meticulous in checking every tiny tend to publish articles on that particular
It was fascinating to read Ben Macintyre’s detail of the deception, and the misdirections subject (the Tuskegee airmen, the Red Ball
account of Operation Mincemeat. But there are they supplied resulted in the saving, probably, Express, the Montford Marines and the like).
various details that one can add to the story. of thousands of lives when the Allies fi nally The Commonwealth sent troops from Africa,
It was my father, Ronnie Reed, an MI5 offi cer, invaded Sicily. the Caribbean and the Indian subcontinent
whose photograph was used for the Identity Nicholas Reed Author of My Father, the Man Who Never Was in both World Wars, and these soldiers served
Card of the fi ctitious “Major Martin”. Ewan with distinction. I’d like to see articles on this
Montagu had found it impossible to fi nd anyone w Thank you for providing us with some fascinating background subject in future issues of your magazine.
who looked at all like the body they were to the feature we ran in issue one. We would love to hear other I’m also looking forward to seeing a 70th-
going to use for the stratagem. But they had to tales about how the readers of History of War related to past anniversary of D-Day issue of History Of War.
include an Identity Card in the briefcase that confl icts. Do you have a war hero in your family? Write to us to Apparently, this is going to be one of the last
the body was carrying. At a meeting to discuss let us know their story. major celebrations of this momentous event,
the Double Agent Zigzag, Montagu found himself as the veterans are, sadly, few and far between
sitting opposite my father, who was in charge of nowadays, and the Queen will be attending.
Ronnie Reed “could have been the twin brother BACK TO BLACK I really hope they televise that occasion, with
the Zigzag case. As Montagu wrote afterwards,
David Dimbleby narrating the events.
of the corpse”, so he asked him if they could Dear Sir, Derek Harrison Via email
have a photo to use for the stratagem, and I picked up a copy of History Of War and was
dressed him up in Marine uniform. very impressed. I tend to buy American military w Thanks for your feedback. We’ll be presenting a lead
My father remembered that, fi ve years after magazines such as Military History, World War II feature on the D-Day landings in issue four of the magazine,
the war ended, he attended a meeting in Oxford and America in WWII. I’m African-Caribbean and on sale fi rst week in May. We’re really glad you enjoyed the
at which members of MI5 and MI6 convened have an interest in the black military experience mag and we’ve taken on board your comments.
over a weekend at Worcester College. The
attendance list for this get-together survives,
but does not include my father’s name. What Black soldiers have served with
distinction in many wars
it does include is a “Major W Martin”, though
there was no such offi cer in the Security Service
at that time. One can only conclude that Ronnie
Reed attended the conference in the guise of
Major William Martin: the fi ctitious Man Who
Never Was!
In his book, Ben Macintyre is remarkably
critical of the stratagem and how it was carried
out. He complains that the story of William
Martin was too perfect: for example, there
were no loose ends and there was excessive
detail. He ends by saying that, “In the warped
intelligence mentality, something that looks
too perfect is probably a fake.” But these
arguments do not hold up. A double agent Getty Images
telling a plausible story to the Germans has to
be extremely careful not to slip up in any detail



EDITORIAL DIRECTOR Paul Pettengale ADVERTISING DIRECTOR Simon Lewis COMPETITION RULES
paul.pettengale@anthem-publishing.com simon.lewis@anthem-publishing.com Late or incomplete entries will be disqualifi ed.
Only one entry per person will be accepted. The
ART DIRECTOR Jenny Cook MARKETING MANAGER Alex Godfrey company reserves the right to substitute any
jenny.cook@anthem-publishing.com alex.godfrey@anthem-publishing.com prize with cash, or a prize of comparable value.
Competitions are open to UK residents over 18
ART EDITOR Kai Wood MARKETING EXECUTIVE Kate Doyle only, except employees of Anthem Publishing
and any party involved in the competition or
kai.wood@anthem-publishing.com kate.doyle@anthem-publishing.com their households. By entering a competition, you
PRODUCTION EDITOR Paul Dimery MANAGING DIRECTOR Jon Bickley give permission to use personal information in
connection with the competition, for promotional
paul.dimery@anthem-publishing.com jon.bickley@anthem-publishing.co.uk purposes. If you do not want your information to
be shared, please tick “no offers” on your entry.
BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT MANAGER PRINT Polestar UK Print Ltd Entries become the property of the company
Jackie Ainsworth Tel +44 (0) 1206 849500 upon receipt and will not be returned. If you are
Cover illustration Rob Hefferan chris.short@anthem-publishing.com London SE1 0SU Tel +44 (0)1582 678900
a winner, receipt of prize is conditional upon
jackie.ainsworth@anthem-publishing.com
DISTRIBUTION Marketforce (UK) Ltd
complying with the competition rules. A list of
SOCIAL-MEDIA EDITOR Chris Short
The Blue Fin Building, 110 Southwark Street,
winners will be available upon request.
ANTHEM PUBLISHING Ltd Suite 6, Piccadilly House, London Road, Bath BA1 6PL
Tel +44 (0) 1225 489985 Fax +44 (0) 1225 489980 www.anthem-publishing.com
All content copyright Anthem Publishing Ltd, 2014, all rights reserved. While we make every effort to ensure that the factual content of History Of War is
correct, we cannot take any responsibility nor be held accountable for any factual errors printed. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system or resold without the prior consent of Anthem Publishing Ltd. Anthem Publishing recognises all copyrights contained within this issue.
Where possible, we acknowledge the copyright holder. History Of War is a trademark owned by Anthem Publishing.
HISTORY WAR 17
of





CHURCHILL’S BATTLE OF BRITAIN
IT BECAME CLEAR TO Britain’s will soon followed. Plans were
The next, more serious, test of
CLEMENTINE THAT being laid by the Germans for Operation
Sea Lion – the invasion of Britain.
CHURCHILL’S FITS In preparation for this, the Luftwaffe
launched a series of air attacks in
OF TEMPER WERE order to destroy the RAF and establish
supremacy in the air. Churchill himself
MAKING IT HARD FOR had named the upcoming confl ict in
his speech to Parliament, pronouncing,
HIS FELLOW MINISTERS “What [French Commander] General
[Maxime] Weygand has called the
TO WORK WITH HIM Battle of France is over. I expect that
the Battle of Britain is about to begin.”
“Operation Eagle Attack” began
on 13 August – codenamed Adlertag,
or Eagle Day. Field Marshal Hermann
Goering, the head of the German air
force, had every expectation of quick
told Anthony Eden, his War Minister, w BRIT FLICK deterioration in your manner, and you success. Aircraft production in Britain
“Normally, I wake up buoyant to face A FILM ABOUT are not so kind as you used to be. had accelerated since the war began,
the new day. Then, I awoke with dread THE CONFLICT I cannot bear that those who serve the but not enough to confront Goering’s
in my heart.” On 20 June, the PM had WAS MADE IN country and yourself should not love Luftwaffe on equal terms. The RAF had
told a secret session at the House of 1969. SIMPLY you as well as admire and respect you. only 650 Hurricane and Spitfi re fi ghters
CALLED BATTLE
Commons that plans for prosecuting the OF BRITAIN, Besides, you won’t get the best results to face the Luftwaffe’s 2,800 planes
war in 1941 and 1942 had been laid, IT STARRED by irascibility and rudeness.” – though this disparity was deceptive.
but there was no guarantee that Britain SIR LAURENCE Churchill valued Clementine’s advice, The RAF managed to keep 600 Spitfi res
would remain at liberty long enough OLIVIER, TREVOR but had little time to adjust his conduct and Hurricanes in service every day,
to put them into practice. Churchill’s HOWARD AND before he was faced with an agonising and these aircraft had the advantage
mood swung between his “black dog” MICHAEL CAINE. decision. It concerned the French of operating from their home bases.
depressions and bouts of aggression. fl eet berthed at the naval base of The equivalent fi gure for the Luftwaffe’s
It became clear to his wife, Clementine, Mers-el-Kébir, near Oran in Algeria. Messerschmitt Bf 109s was 800, but
that Churchill’s fi ts of temper were After the Franco-German Armistice was their bases in the recently conquered
making it diffi cult for his fellow ministers signed on 22 June, these powerful, territories of Belgium and France were
to work with him, and she tried to well-equipped vessels were in danger not yet fully prepared. In addition, the
intervene. “My darling,” she began, of falling into German hands. When the Luftwaffe’s fl ying time over Britain was
“one of the men in your entourage – a French authorities at Oran, who were restricted to 25 minutes by the limited
devoted friend – has told me that there’s loyal to the Vichy government, refused amount of fuel its planes could carry.
a danger of your being generally disliked to co-operate with Britain by putting their
by your colleagues and subordinates ships out of reach, Churchill ordered the Crucial advantage
because of your rough, sarcastic and destruction of the fl eet. On 3 July 1940, The most crucial advantage the RAF
overbearing manner. My darling Winston, the guns of Force H, the Royal Navy enjoyed, though, was the chain of radar
I must confess that I have noticed a squadron in the Mediterranean, sank the warning stations that could detect
French battleship Bretagne, crippled the incoming raiders at long range. This
battleship Dunkerque and damaged fi ve enabled the RAF to concentrate its
other vessels, with the loss of 1,297 squadrons and have them waiting in the
French seamen. Churchill later wrote of right place before the Luftwaffe arrived.
this attack on a former ally as “a hateful The roots of this system were
decision, the most unnatural and painful established in 1933 with the direction
in which I have ever been concerned”. of fi ghters from the ground using radio
This picture Winston The action at Mers-el-Kébir had telephony to convey instructions, and
and Clementine unexpected, though salutary, effects. High Frequency Direction Finding (HF
Opposite page It removed any lingering doubts – DF) to work out their position when out
A WAAF (Women’s especially in the United States – over
Auxiliary Air Force) of sight of the controller. By 1935, the
operative scans her Britain’s will to fi ght and win the war, system had been suffi ciently refi ned to
cathode-ray-tube and gave the British a new name for allow a fi ghter to be vectored onto
display for signs of ruthless resolve. Churchill later called a bomber target above cloud, at night.
enemy activity. The it “the turning point in our fortunes. It In 1934, Harry Egerton Wimperis,
system was then made the world realise that we were in
known as RDF (Radio the Government’s Director of Scientifi c
Direction Finding) earnest in our intentions to carry on.” Research, was given a brief to see

1940 Battle of Britain timeline

30 JUNE 10 JULY 16 JULY 1 AUGUST 12 AUGUST 13 AUGUST 15 AUGUST
Reichsmarschall The Luftwaffe begins Adolf Hitler delivers Hitler decrees the Germany begins its Delayed by bad On what the Luftwaffe
Hermann Goering, attacking convoys in Führer Directive 17 Battle of Britain main raids across weather, Adlertag calls “Black Thursday”,
head of the Luftwaffe, the English Channel, as Operation Sea with the command, Britain, codenamed or “Eagle Day” the Germans focus
orders his pilots to as a means of Lion. A land invasion “The German Air Adlerangriff or “Eagle commences. The their attention on
draw the Royal Air reconnaissance and to of the British mainland Force is to overcome Attack”. Its planes Luftwaffe begins RAF airfields. The

Force into battle with train its pilots. It begins is set to take place the British Air Force carry out a systematic a four-day attack German air force

attacks on coastal to drop mines around between 19 and 26 with all means at assault on RDF on key RAF airfields launches 1,786 sorties
convoys, aircraft Britain on the 13th. September. its disposal, and as stations and forward- and RDF stations, to the RAF’s 974.

factories and airfields. soon as possible.” fi ghter airfi elds. launching 1,485 German losses amount
sorties. The Germans to 75 aircraft; the
lose 45 aircraft RAF loses just 34.
and the RAF 13.
20 20 HISTORY WAR

R
ISTO
H
Y
R
WA
of of

Hurricanes on the production line. The plane’s
structure was robust, light, relatively easy to
manufacture and repair, and capable of absorbing
enormous amounts of battle damage


















































how technology might be used to make
fi ghters more effi cient. He approached the
physicist Robert Watson-Watt, to enquire
as to the practicality of producing a
radio-based “death ray”. It was apparent
to the scientists that there was no way
(at that time, at least) of generating
beams of suffi cient power to harm either
humans or aircraft, but Watson-Watt did
point out the potential of using radio
beams for target detection, and asked
if the Air Ministry might be interested
in how planes could be detected by
transmitting radio waves that would
be refl ected by the target aircraft.




17 AUGUST 18 AUGUST 19 AUGUST 20 AUGUST 23 AUGUST 24 AUGUST 31 AUGUST
Germany establishes Both sides suffer German attacks Churchill gives Goering orders attacks With German bombers The RAF suffers its
an “operational their biggest losses on begin on RAF a speech in on RAF airfields. in short supply, the heaviest losses to

area” around Britain. what becomes known aircraft factories. Parliament, stating Bombs are also Luftwaffe changes date, with six out of
Any ship entering is as “The Hardest Day”. that, “Never in dropped on residential tactics, concentrating the seven main bases

to be sunk without Between 8 and 18 the field of human areas of London. on airfields in the in South East England


warning. Crews from August, the RAF loses conflict has so much South East in an heavily damaged,
Bomber Command are 175 aircraft and been owed by so attempt to disable restricting their ability
seconded to fill the the Luftwaffe 332. many to so few.” Fighter Command. to operate effectively.

RAF’s dwindling supply
of fighter pilots.


HISTORY WAR 21 21
WA
R
Y
ISTO
H
R
of of

CHURCHILL’S BATTLE OF BRITAIN

The brave young pilots of the RAF, referred to as
“The Few” by Churchill, outmatched the German
Luftwaffe in a fierce battle in the skies during the

late summer of 1940. But casualties were high and
pilots had a life expectancy of just four to five weeks
















































Designated “RDF” or Radio Direction
Finding, the new system’s development
was rapid, with a number of stations built
during 1937 and 1938. And following
the annexation of Czechoslovakia,
the construction of such stations was
accelerated, with compulsory land
purchase and the use of wooden towers.
Still offi cially referred to as “Air Ministry
Experimental Stations”, the buildings
became operational in 1938, and began
a 24-hour watch on Good Friday 1939.
The system was referred to as RDF
until 1943, when the British adopted the
term “Radar” – short for RAdio Detection
1 9 40
1940 Battle of Britain timeline cont'd
3 SEPTEMBER 7 SEPTEMBER 15 SEPTEMBER 16 SEPTEMBER 17 SEPTEMBER 29 OCTOBER 31 OCTOBER
Aircraft losses and Switching tactics During a mission to Having failed to The German invasion The final large-scale German attacks

varying results across again, the Luftwaffe bomb London, the incapacitate Fighter of Britain, Operation German bombing diminish as the
the campaign force launches attacks on Luftwaffe suffers huge Command, Goering Sea Lion, is postponed attack takes place, weather worsens.
Hitler to postpone London and other losses when its planes turns to night bombing indefi nitely. with two raids over Irregular bombing of
Operation Sea Lion major cities, targeting are attacked by around raids of British cities. London and three London will continue
until 21 September. aircraft factories and 300 RAF fighters. over Portsmouth. for several years,

other strategic targets. but today is regarded

The docks in the East as the final day of
End are assaulted the Battle of Britain.
by 348 bombers

and 617 fighters.
22 HISTORY WAR
of

Getty Images



















Navy in 1940. In actual fact, radar was AT THE END OF THE
And Ranging – a term coined by the US
secretly being developed by numerous GREAT WAR, BRITAIN
nations, including Germany. The
properly integrated into a well-planned HAD THE LARGEST
difference being that British radar was
and effi cient control and reporting AIR FORCE EVER
system. German radar, by contrast,
was limited to sea-surveillance use. SEEN, WITH 300,000
At the end of the Great War, Britain had PERSONNEL AND Air Chief
Cessation of hostilities
what was then the largest air force ever 22,000 AIRCRAFT Marshal Sir
seen, with nearly 300,000 personnel Hugh Dowding
and 22,000 aircraft. But within a year
of cessation of hostilities, this had One of the unsung heroes of the Battle of
shrunk to just 31,500 personnel and Britain is Air Chief Marshal, Sir Hugh Caswall
371 aircraft. Only the determination of Tremenheere Dowding, a complex and
Lord Trenchard, Marshal of the Royal Opposite page A Spitfire stage of British military expansion was controversial character whose achievements

were never properly recognised, and whose
Air Force, and his offi cers prevented Mk I. Based at Duxford, little more than a high-profi le attempt services were contemptuously dispensed with

complete disbandment, with the Army No.19 was the first to impress the Germans with what as soon as the battle was over.
squadron to rearm
and Royal Navy absorbing planes and with the Spitfire, in the amounted to little more than superfi cial Dowding – shy and humble yet also

crew to reform their own air arms. It took summer of 1938. The changes and low-budget rearmament. stubborn and difficult, and sometimes rude

several years for the RAF to defi ne a squadron number on the Although the existence of Germany’s own – was never an easy man to like. But he was
role for itself, and as it did so it grew to tail was soon replaced new air force was still supposedly secret, known to care for his men and was prudent in
by fuselage code letters
meet new responsibilities, which initially Above The Supermarine there was a suspicion that its government his approach, rather than take unnecessary
consisted largely of monitoring and S.5 was a winner of the was gearing up for war of some sort. risks and possibly incur further losses.
His cautious attitude did not endear him
enforcing the armistice in Europe, and prestigious Schneider Exhortation is seldom enough to to his peers. He clashed with General Hugh
colonial policing. Trophy. It was an achieve radical change, and various Trenchard during the First World War over a
ancestor of the Spitfire
Ironically, it was France that was seen practical measures were put in place desire to rest weary pilots, Trenchard calling
as the major threat to Britain during the to achieve the necessary expansion him a “dismal Jimmy obsessed by the fear of
1920s and early 1930s. This led to the of industrial output. A “Shadow Factory” further casualties”.
creation of the RAF’s Metropolitan Air scheme, announced in March 1936, Dowding’s brilliance was in his planning
Force in 1922, providing homeland air built state-owned plants equipped and and logistics. He appreciated that the
defence, and prompted Lord Trenchard managed by non-aerospace industrial forthcoming battle would be one of attrition,
to build a defensive belt of fi ghter concerns. These manufactured products and aimed to keep a mix of units and aircraft
aerodromes running from Devizes in designed by aircraft or engine makers – types in less dangerous areas, forming a
Wiltshire to Cambridge, curving around usually components or sub-assemblies ready-made reserve whose elements could
be used to reinforce the frontline when
London and roughly parallel to the coast. for fi nal assembly elsewhere. The fi rst squadrons became exhausted.
The foundations for a control and Shadow Factories were run by motor- As the Battle of Britain wore on, so
reporting system were also laid, initially car manufacturers, and produced Dowding’s star waned. He lacked the kind
relying upon the newly formed Observer components for Bristol Aero Engines. of flamboyant, extrovert confidence that


Corps, telephone lines and mobile sound w SEA WOE Lord Nuffi eld’s company, Wolseley, Churchill liked to see in his subordinates,

locators. Apart from the introduction RAF CREW WERE declined to participate unless it and was just the kind of diffident pessimist
of radar and radio, and the extension ISSUED WITH could build whole engines, which that the Prime Minister could not abide.
and strengthening of the fi ghter belt, LIFE JACKETS was not an option, and instead it Despite his success with Fighter Command,
the system was recognisably similar to IN CASE was later given control of the Castle Dowding’s critics grew, both within the RAF
and in Parliament. Probably at the behest of
that of Fighter Command as it fought THEY WERE Bromwich factory, whose task would Churchill, he was eventually dismissed on 17
the Battle of Britain. The perception SHOT DOWN. be to build whole Spitfi res under the November 1940. He was employed on a vital
of France as a potential threat was HOWEVER, IN guidance of Vickers Supermarine. mission to the US, and later worked at the Air
extremely fortuitous, since the Luftwaffe 1940, THESE In the end, the Nuffi eld organisation Ministry, finally retiring in 1942. But this was,

mounted its Battle of Britain offensive WERE STILL proved unable to run the Castle at best, extremely shabby treatment for the
MANUALLY
from French aerodromes. INFLATED Bromwich works effectively, and it was man who had been the architect of success.
Expansion of the Air Force began – ALMOST only after the transfer of the premises For his detailed planning and resource
gearing up in earnest in 1934, following IMPOSSIBLE to Vickers Supermarine – nearly too late management of Britain’s air defences,
the break-up of the League of Nations’ FOR A PILOT for the Battle of Britain – that the factory Dowding is now generally given the credit for
the country’s victory against the Luftwaffe.
Disarmament Conference. The fi rst IN SHOCK. began churning out huge numbers of
HISTORY WAR 23
of

CHURCHILL’S BATTLE OF BRITAIN

Operation Spitfi res. Had Vickers been in control the highest priority and prestige were still
of the plant from the beginning, many
attached to bombers. The new Fighter
Sea Lion more fi ghter squadrons could have been Command controlled two subordinate
geographic groups – No.11 in the south
Spitfi re-equipped during the confl ict.
Despite a concerted effort by the Germans Further expansion, authorised in and No.12 in the north. From November
to destroy the RAF, and its amassing of troops February 1936, strengthened the RAF 1939, there was also a Balloon
and barges at French ports, many historians frontline further, and placed increased Command overseeing the many barrage
now believe that Hitler had no real intention emphasis on the provision of fi ghters. balloons, while Anti-Aircraft Command
of invading Britain. The operation was deemed Meanwhile, the new Chief of the Air Staff, was formed in April 1939 to control
technically dubious and politically undesirable, Air Chief Marshal Sir Edward Ellington, and coordinate searchlights and guns.
and initially the plan was politely rejected by fought to ensure that his service was Under successive expansion
both the Luftwaffe and the Kriegsmarine. based on quality and not just quantity. programmes, the RAF’s budget sky-
Even if the RAF had been disabled, the rocketed from £17.5million in 1934 to
Luftwaffe’s performance against armed Without an equivalent to Goering (who
naval vessels was poor. With the might of distributed top positions on the basis of £27.6million in 1935, £50.7million in
the Royal Navy brought to bear – and with patronage), RAF appointments during the 1936, £56.5million in 1937 and, fi nally,
the Kriegsmarine severely depleted after the late 1930s were on the whole sensible, £73.5million pounds in 1938. When
invasion of Norway – it’s unlikely the invasion and included the posting of Sir Hugh war broke out, the programmes had
force would have made the crossing in any Dowding to command the newly formed really started to bear fruit: fi ve Spitfi re
serious numbers. Fighter Command in 1936. Its formation squadrons were operational or soon to
Hitler’s love-hate relationship with Britain recognised the growing importance become so, with a further 11 operational
– he admired the Empire and the British attached to Britain’s air defences, though with the Hurricane. Fighter Command
sense of honour – meant that he would was becoming a modern force, though
have much preferred to work with the
nation as allies, rather than control it as it remained below the 52-squadron
a dictator. It’s possible that Britain’s refusal total that Dowding had calculated as
to surrender after the fall of France in being the minimum necessary to protect
1940 merely enraged the Führer, and that CHURCHILL the country from unescorted bomber
his directive to invade was no more than attacks from German bases. Nor had

wishful thinking. Compared to the years of NEVER LOST HIS Dowding anything like his required
preparation required for the D-Day landings, number of heavy AA guns (1,264),
it’s clear that Germany never stood any real BOYISH SENSE OF searchlights (4,700), AA guns for
chance of taking the British Isles. low-level air defence (300) or barrage
EXCITEMENT AT balloons (400 for London alone). But
Below The Messerschmitt Bf 110 was used things were getting better and there
during the Battle of Britain to escort and protect THE PROSPECT OF was, at last, the political will to do the
German bombers. However, the twin-engined
fighter proved to be a disaster and had to be job of defending Britain properly.

withdrawn because of its poor manoeuverability HISTORY UNFOLDING On his elevation to the post of Prime
and lack of speed, which made it vulnerable to Minister, Churchill established a Ministry
the RAF’s Spitfires and Hurricanes

“We shall fight them on the beaches...”

Churchill inspects a defensive post on
the coast of North East England during
the fateful summer of 1940









































24 HISTORY WAR
of

Key gures












WINSTON CHURCHILL ADOLF HITLER HERMANN GOERING LORD BEAVERBROOK
Churchill was 65 years Der Führer did not A fighter pilot during Canadian-born

old when he replaced entirely dislike Britain, the First World War, Beaverbrook became
Neville Chamberlain and admired its Empire Goering joined the the UK’s Minister of
as Prime Minister and sense of honour. Nazi Party in 1922 Aircraft Production
in May 1940, but he For this reason, he and became its in 1940. “I needed
strode into the war was happy to work Minister of Aviation his vital and vibrant
effort with the zest alongside the nation in 1933 (a position energy,” Churchill
of a schoolboy. An rather than occupy it. he held until 1945). later admitted. Indeed,
American who had
American who had However, Churchill’s As leader of the Beaverbrook was
visited London in 1940
visited London in 1940
visited London in 1940 refusal to agree to Luftwaffe, he was a brilliant man who

reported, “Everywhere an armistice forced a supremely confident managed to treble
I went, people admired Hitler’s hand and he man and predicted the production of
Churchill’s energy, ordered the leader of that the Battle of British fighter planes

his courage and his his air force, Hermann Britain would be won in his first four

of Aircraft Production, and appointed the Above The Hawker singleness of purpose.” Goering, to attack. in a matter of days. months in office.

energetic Lord Beaverbrook to run it. Hurricane, not the

The Shadow Factories established Spitfire, was to be
the mainstay of
before the war were galvanised into the RAF during the
action. Under the control of Vickers Battle of Britain
Supermarine, the Castle Bromwich works
produced astonishing results. By 30
September, it had produced 125 Spitfi re
Mk IIs. Between June and October,
Britain’s monthly fi ghter production totals
were 446, 496, 476, 467 and 469 –
a total of 2,354 aircraft. At the start of HARRY WIMPERIS ROBERT WATSON- WATT HUGH TRENCHARD EDWARD ELLINGTON
the Battle of Britain, the Maintenance Wimperis was the Working alongside A Commander of the Appointed Chief
Units held 222 Hurricanes and 119 Director of Scientific Wimperis, Scottish- Royal Flying Corps of the Air Staff in

Spitfi res in storage for issue as attrition Research at the UK’s born scientist Watson- during the First World 1933, Ellington – like
replacements, or to equip new units. Air Ministry prior to Watt was instrumental War, Trenchard was Trenchard before him
And at their very lowest, reserves never the Second World War. in the development later appointed Chief – was instrumental in
dropped below 78 Hurricanes and 38 It was in this role that of radar in Britain – it of the Air Staff and the growth of the RAF,
Spitfi res (equivalent to nine squadrons). he helped to develop was he who suggested played a vital role in implementing a plan to
By comparison, German industry the use of radar in the the potential for the developing the RAF. increase the number
managed to produce 14, 220, 173, 218 RAF. (He had already use of radio beams Trenchard left his post of its squadrons to
and 144 units between June and October developed drift sight in target detection. in 1930, feeling that 187 within three years,
He was later knighted
to counter the threat
and course-setting
he’d achieved all he
– a total of just 919 aircraft. bomb sight during the and awarded £50,000 could. He was offered from Hitler’s Germany.
Britain’s speedy production of new First World War, devices for his contribution several high-ranking Ellington retired in
fi ghters was augmented by a great effort that revolutionised to the RAF’s victory in positions during WWII April 1940, shortly
in the rapid repair and return to service the art of bombing.) the Battle of Britain. but declined them all. after the start of WWII.
of damaged aircraft, such that 35 per
cent of replacement planes delivered
to frontline squadrons during the Battle
of Britain were repaired rather than
newly built. Some 60 per cent of the grandstand view of the dogfi ghts taking The exploits of RAF pilots in the Battle
aircraft regarded as being unrepairable place overhead. The RAF made full use of Britain, as it soon came to be known,
at station level were rebuilt to fl y of the advantage of surprise that radar assumed heroic proportions and, on
again by the revitalised Civilian Repair allowed it. On 13 August, the Luftwaffe 20 August, Churchill told the House of
Organisation, which was rebuilding 160 fl ew 1,485 sorties, yet failed to break the Commons, “The gratitude of every home
aircraft per week by mid-July, and which back of RAF resistance. German losses in our island, in our empire, and indeed
delivered 4,196 aircraft between July and were three times greater – 45 aircraft throughout the world… goes out to the
December. In some cases, aircraft were shot down, compared to 13 RAF planes. British airmen who, undaunted by odds,
repaired on a “while you wait” basis, with Churchill never lost his boyish sense unwearied in their constant challenge of
Hurricanes fl ying into Henlow with battle w FORCE OF of excitement at the prospect of history mortal danger, are turning the tide of war
damage, only to be repaired in time for MANY PILOTS unfolding. News of how the aerial battle by their prowess and by their devotion.
their pilots to fl y them again that day. The FROM A NUMBER was progressing was brought to him Never in the fi eld of human confl ict was
record time for changing both wings, and OF DIFFERENT at 10 Downing Street – but he wanted so much owed by so many to so few.”
to fi t and load all eight machine guns, on NATIONS FOUGHT to witness the action for himself. On From 24 August, the Luftwaffe
a Hurricane was one hour 55 minutes! FOR THE RAF 15 August, he drove to Stanmore, concentrated its attacks on airfi elds,
DURING THE north-west of London, to monitor the aircraft factories, and communications
The battle begins BATTLE OF progress of the battle in the operations and control centres, causing severe
BRITAIN. THESE
August 1940 was hot and sunny. Day INCLUDED room of Fighter Command. The next damage and putting many sector control
after day, the cloudless skies of southern NEW ZEALAND, day, he repeated the experience in the stations out of action. By 5 September,
England, scarred by the vapour trails of SOUTH AFRICA operations room of Fighter Command’s the RAF had lost 450 aircraft, with 231
the contestants, afforded observers a AND AUSTRALIA. 11 Group at Uxbridge in Middlesex. pilots killed or injured, and was on
HISTORY WAR 25
of

CHURCHILL’S BATTLE OF BRITAIN

Luftwaffe bombers dropped 503 tonnes of
high explosives and 881 incendiary canisters
on Coventry during a ten-hour raid on
14 November 1940, devastating St Michael’s
Cathedral and the area around it








































On 10 September 1940, hree days into the blitz
on London, Battersea was hit by a Luftwaffe air
raid attack, which devastated the area. Churchill
visited the scene to survey the wreckage and
monitor the work of the air raid wardens (wearing
steel helmets), whose job it was to rescue people
trapped under the debris.

defi ance with recently coined slogans.
Churchill was so overwhelmed, he wept.
As the raids intensifi ed, 10 Downing
Street became vulnerable. On 16
September, Churchill and his staff moved
into a specially fortifi ed set of rooms in
the Board of Trade Building opposite St
James’s Park. The rooms, which became
known as the Number 10 Annexe, were
strengthened inside by steel girders and
outside by steel shutters. The shutters
were closed as soon as the air-raid
siren sounded, in preparation for attack.
The annexe remained Churchill’s HQ for
the rest of the war. In the underground
basement, the Central War Rooms –
later known as the Cabinet War Rooms –
the brink of defeat. But total victor
the brink of defeat. But total victory still became known as the Blitz. It was a were built for meetings of Churchill’s War
y still
eluded the Luftwaffe and, though critically tactical mistake, for it gave the RAF the Cabinet and the Defence Committee.
damaged, the RAF was not ready to give time to recover their shattered airfi elds, Churchill refused to remain inside
up the fi ght. which meant that British chances of his fortifi ed bunker and spent nights
From the start of the battle, Adolf Hitler survival improved. The Blitz began with watching from the roof of the government
and Hermann Goering had been looking daylight raids, but the Luftwaffe lost too Above Many families buildings in Whitehall – with searchlights
for a single target whose destruction many bombers by day and later switched unable to erect custom- scouring the skies overhead, the thunder
would achieve their ends quickly and to night raids. During one attack, an air- built air-raid shelters of anti-aircraft guns, and the whistle and
outdoors used indoor
decisively. Their fi rst choice, the RAF, raid shelter took a direct hit, killing 40 versions – this one has roar of bombs descending and exploding.
had proved tougher than expected, so people inside. Churchill came to survey been adapted for use A year earlier, he had believed that
they changed the focus of the attacks. the ruins and found himself surrounded as a dining-room table. mercy should soften the brutalities of
On 7 September 1940, they unleashed by a crowd of survivors and bereaved The effectiveness of war – “God forbid we should ever part
such shelters was
the fury of the Luftwaffe on London in relatives. “We can take it! Give it ’em limited, especially if the company with that,” he had commented
the fi rst of a long series of assaults that back!” they shouted, expressing their bomb was a direct hit – but the sight of London ablaze around
26 HISTORY WAR
of

him hardened his heart. As his secretary IN JUST UNDER NINE
John Colville noted in his diary on 19
September, the PM was “becoming MONTHS, MORE THAN
less and less benevolent towards the
Germans… and talks about castrating 43,000 CIVILIANS WERE
the lot!” By the time the Blitz ended in
May 1941, the Luftwaffe had extended KILLED, ANOTHER
the bombing beyond London to Coventry,
Liverpool and other industrial cities. 51,000 INJURED, AND
In just under nine months, more than
43,000 civilians were killed, another LARGE AREAS OF
51,000 seriously injured, and large areas
of the bombed cities lay in ruins. CITIES LAY IN RUINS
On 15 September 1940 – only eight
days after the bombing of London began
– the RAF brought an end to the Battle
of Britain. That day, some 500 Luftwaffe
aircraft crossed the English coast but
only about 70 managed to reach their w TRIBUTE achievement, as it symbolised the The Battle
targets in central London. According to TO THE FEW beginning of an alliance between Britain
RAF statistics, 174 enemy aircraft were THERE IS A and the United States. of Britain
destroyed that day, and another nine SPECIAL BATTLE Then, in the summer of 1941,
were brought down by anti-aircraft fi re. OF BRITAIN Churchill was distracted from criticism in numbers
The British lost 25 aircraft and 13 pilots. MEMORIAL AT at home by a new development: the

The same day, RAF bombers joined CAPEL-LE-FERNE Russo-German non-aggression pact, During the conflict, both the British and
forces with Royal Navy ships to destroy IN KENT. ITS signed in 1939, was about to be torn German governments exaggerated the other’s
some 200 barges moored along the WEBSITE CAN up. For some time, the Germans had losses. The RAF was reported to have shot
coast of northern France, in preparation BE FOUND AT been amassing troops, tanks and down nearly 2,700 planes, while the German
propaganda machine stated that the RAF had
for an invasion. Gradually, the Luftwaffe’s WWW.BATTLE armament on their border with Russia. lost 3,000 – more than the RAF’s entire fleet.

OF BRITAIN
massed daylight raids tapered off, with MEMORIAL.ORG Now, the alliances in the Balkans and The cost in men and machinery during
the last of them taking place on 30 the conquests of Greece and Yugoslavia the Battle of Britain is hard to determine,
September. The Germans had failed to came into focus: the Germans had been with various reports citing wildly different

take control of the air and, without it, protecting their southern fl ank as a figures. The numbers below are based on the
no invasion of England could succeed. prelude to their invasion of Russia. best available sources…
On 17 September, Hitler suspended At 4am on 22 June 1941, around
Operation Sea Lion indefi nitely. Britain 150 German divisions crossed into RAF LUFTWAFFE
was out of danger, but Churchill warned Russian territory along a line stretching 537 aircrew 967 aircrew
killed
against a lapse in vigilance. “Do not nearly 1,250 miles northwards from the 422 aircrew captured
2,662 aircrew
let us be lured into supposing that the Black Sea to the Arctic Circle. Britain wounded killed
danger is past,” he told the House of was no longer fi ghting alone. Yet, if the 1,100 aircraft 1,900 aircraft
Commons. “On the contrary, unwearying Soviets lost – as Churchill believed they destroyed destroyed
vigilance and the swift and steady would – it could give Hitler the chance to 67,600 36,500
strengthening of our force by land, concentrate the whole military might of sorties flown sorties flown


sea and air… must be at all costs Germany on another invasion of Britain. w
maintained. Because we feel easier
in ourselves and see our way more
clearly through our diffi culties and
dangers than we did some months
ago; because foreign countries, friends This feature was edited
or foes, recognise the giant, enduring, by Steve Jarratt using
material from two books:
resilient strength of Britain and the The Battle of Britain by
British Empire, do not let us dull for Jon Lake and Churchill
one moment the sense of the awful by Brenda Ralph Lewis.
hazard in which we stand… We must Both are published by
Amber Books and are
be united, we must be undaunted, we available from
must be infl exible. Our qualities and www.amberbooks.co.uk
deeds must burn and glow through the
gloom of Europe until they become
the veritable beacon of its salvation.”
The aftermath
The RAF’s success against the Luftwaffe
proved to be a huge turning point in the
war. Churchill’s dogged determination,
together with the triumph of the Battle
of Britain, combined to make a deep
impression on President Franklin D
Roosevelt. He was now willing to make
a deal with Churchill: in exchange for the
bases the United States needed in the
Caribbean, he agreed to supply the 50 During his visit to North America in 1941, Churchill
American destroyers Churchill wanted to addressed a joint session of the Canadian Parliament in
counteract the threat posed by German Ottowa on 30 December. In his speech, he referred to the
submarines. The Destroyers for Bases gloomy predictions made by the French Generals in 1940
that, “In three weeks, England will have her neck wrung like
agreement was announced in September a chicken!” To this, he retorted, “Some chicken, some neck!”
1940. For Churchill, this was a signifi cant
HISTORY WAR 27
of

TOOLS TRADE Foliage slot


M W
A
N
A
IT
R K
N
T
A
R
I
E V
E
I
S M
US MARINE VIETNAM WAR KIT
U

Stifl ing heat and constant rain rendered heavy M1 HELMET
uniforms un-usable in Asia. So a new, lightweight Date 1960s
outfi t was issued to alleviate the Marines’ load Origin US
Material Manganese steel
The M1 used in Vietnam T1 pressure Manganese-
hen US Marines were fi rst deployed to Vietnam in 1965, was a slightly modified clip steel helmet under

they were ill-equipped for an environment in which terrible version of the famous camouflage cover

heat exhausted the infantrymen and constant rain ruined Second World War helmet.
their kit and uniforms. With its men becoming increasingly
W demoralised (they would already have been aware of the growing It featured a pressure clip,
which was introduced to
dissent towards the war back home), the US Government issued a new, reduce the risk of choking.
lightweight, camoufl age uniform in 1966-67, replacing the standard,
heavy, olive-green Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform. The hazards
Rope ridge to
of patrols and sweeps in Vietnam – where ambushes and booby- prevent slippage
trap devices infl icted a heavy toll of casualties – meant that personal
trap devices infl icted a heavy toll of casualties – meant that personal of weapon sling
protection was of high priority, hence the wearing of fl ak jackets and
protection was of high priority, hence the wearing of fl ak jackets and
the eventual adoption of reinforced jungle boots.
the eventual adoption of reinforced jungle boots.
COAT TROPICAL WR CLASS II
Date 1960s
Origin US
Materials Cotton, poplin
The tight weave on this shirt made
it wind-resistant and almost
waterproof. The fabric was found
to offer a good mix of breathability
and defence against biting insects.
Camoufl age
This feature is an edited extract from The Military History Book, published in the UK by Dorling Kindersley, RRP £30
pattern for
tropical zones


JUNGLE BOOTS
Date 1960s
Origin US
Materials Leather, canvas, nylon, rubber
These tropical-combat (or jungle) boots were Eyelet for
among the most common types issued to US hanging
Marines. Their hard-rubber soles were directly equipment
moulded on, since stitching tended to rot in
the hot climate. From 1967, Panama-sole
boots were issued, with an embedded steel M14
plate to protect against punji-stick booby traps. magazine
pouch





M1943

M6 first-aid kit
Drainage scabbard M19 canteen
eyelet carrier, insulated
with wool
M61 WEBBING The straps of the M61 webbing
Date 1960s looped over the Marine infantryman’s
Origin US shoulders to help take the weight of the
Material Nylon equipment hung around his waistbelt.

28 HISTORY WAR
of

1941 PACK
Date 1941
Origin US
Material Nylon, cotton
This small pack was
used to hold rations
and personal effects,
while the rolled sheet
of camouflage canvas

formed half of a “pup”
tent when joined to
a second sheet.

Mitchell-pattern MAP OF SAIGON BASE AREA
camouflage issued

only to Marine Corps
ANGLE-HEAD
FLASHLIGHT
PARACHUTE FLARE
M1943 folding
entrenching shovel

M14 RIFLE Designed to use the then-standard
Date 1959 NATO round, the US M14 replaced the

M1955 ARMOURED VEST The Doron-armoured (fibreglass and plastic) Origin US old M1 rifle. The M14 possessed a

Date 1960s vest – heavy and unsuitable for tropical Weight 4.4kg fully automatic fire capability and was

conditions – would have little chance of
Origin US stopping a bullet, but it was an effective Barrel 55.8cm equipped with a larger magazine. By the
Material Fibreglass, plastic, nylon Calibre 7.62mm
defence against shrapnel. late 1960s, it was replaced by the M16.
Rear sight


Flash-hider


20-round Safety-
detachable pin ring
magazine

M79 GRENADE-LAUNCHER With a maximum range of 300m,
the M79 grenade-launcher bridged the
Date 1961 gap between the hand grenade and the
Weight 2.75kg mortar. As well as firing high explosives,

Barrel 30.5cm the M79 could fire antipersonnel, M67 GRENADES

Calibre 40mm smoke and illuminating rounds.
Range 300m Fold-down leaf Date 1960s
Two were issued to each rifle squad.

sight, graduated Origin US
to 350m Weight 0.45kg
Length 89mm
The M67 “baseball” grenade
had a notched-wire interior
designed to fragment into many
small pieces on the detonation
of its high-explosive charge.

Rubber pad
absorbs recoil
M60 MACHINE-GUN
Carrying
Feed cover handle Date 1963
Heat shield Origin US
Fore
sight Weight 10.51kg
Barrel 59.9cm
Calibre 7.62mm
The M60 was the US example
of the general-purpose machine gun
– inheriting some features from the
German MG42. It was widely used
Pistol grip Bipod
(folded) by the US Marine Corps in Vietnam
and is still in service today.
HISTORY WAR 29
of

This painting by Don Troiani shows
Confederate forces under Major-General
William Mahone counter-attacking Union
troops (foreground) at the battle of the
Crater, Petersburg, 1864. Union troops
became trapped in the crater and were
massacred in what Mahone later described as
a “turkey shoot”. The Confederates reported
losses of 1,032 men in the battle, while
Union casualties were estimated at 5,300
30 HISTORY WAR
of

Great Battles






PETERSBURG







American Civil War: Having failed to capture Richmond and
defeat the Confederate army of Northern Virginia during the
Overland Campaign of 1864, General Ulysses S Grant turned
his attention to the city of Petersburg, a vital transportation
hub. Taking this would isolate Richmond and enable the Union
hub. Taking this would isolate Richmond and enable the Union
army to launch a decisive attack on the Confederate capital…
army to launch a decisive attack on the Confederate capital…


against these. With the improvement of weather
Y THE END OF MARCH 1865, against these. With the improvement of weather
the city of Petersburg had been in spring, time was running out. Furthermore,
in spring, time was running out. Furthermore,
the extended length of the Confederate lines
under siege for more than eight the extended length of the Confederate lines
months. In scenes that many – around 60km (37 miles) from Petersburg to
– around 60km (37 miles) from Petersburg to
Richmond – meant that Lee’s troops were, in
B historians have likened to the Richmond – meant that Lee’s troops were, in
many places, spread unacceptably thin, with
conditions in western Europe during the First
conditions in western Europe during the First many places, spread unacceptably thin, with
World War, the Confederate and Union armies
World War, the Confederate and Union armies gaps of several metres between each man
gaps of several metres between each man
had settled into enforced in places.
huge static trench GENERAL ROBERT E Lee did have a plan
systems, frequently but it required a heavy
probing the other’s LEE HAD A PLAN BUT dose of optimism
lines with raids and to believe in it. If he
other minor actions. IT REQUIRED A HEAVY could break his forces
The Confederate out of Petersburg,
commander in Virginia, DOSE OF OPTIMISM he might be able to
General Robert E drive to the south,
Lee, realised that his TO BELIEVE IN IT resupplying on the way,
strategic options were and eventually join up
contracting. The siege with the Confederate
was steadily eating into the city’s supplies.
troops of General Joseph E Johnston in North
was steadily eating into the city’s supplies. troops of General Joseph E Johnston in North
Carolina. If this could be achieved, maybe
Supply lines were open – particularly the Carolina. If this could be achieved, maybe
Southside Railroad that ran into Petersburg from their combined forces would be able to defeat
Southside Railroad that ran into Petersburg from
their combined forces would be able to defeat
the west – but it was mainly the winter weather Major-General William Tecumseh Sherman’s
the west – but it was mainly the winter weather
Major-General William Tecumseh Sherman’s
that had prevented the Union troops under units in the Carolinas, then return north to
units in the Carolinas, then return north to
Lieutenant-General Ulysses S Grant from moving
Lieutenant-General Ulysses S Grant from moving battle with Grant on a more equal footing.
battle with Grant on a more equal footing.
The facts
WHO Five Union corps under Lieutenant-General Ulysses
S Grant, totalling over 97,000 troops, launched a fi nal
attack against General Robert E Lee’s thinly spread
45,000 Confederate troops around Petersburg, Virginia.
WHAT The battle was the culmination of a long Union
siege of Petersburg. The Union forces attacked all along
siege of Petersburg. The Union forces attacked all along
the Confederate line, with Sixth Corps making the decisive WASHINGTON
break south of the city.
WHERE The battle lines ran from east of Petersburg, RICHMOND
to the south of the city, and then out west to positions PETERSBURG
around Five Forks.
WHEN 2 April 1865.
WHY Grant was determined to conclude the Petersburg
siege, and to take advantage of the Union forces’ victory
at Five Forks the previous day.
OUTCOME The Confederate defences around Petersburg
were shattered, and General Lee ordered his troops to
evacuate the city. Within days, the Civil War was over.
HISTORY WAR 31
of

GREAT BATTLES: PETERSBURG


The Battle of Five Forks was a critical defeat
for the Confederates that destabilised their
defence of Petersburg. Here, Union cavalry

charge a line of Confederate riflemen

























Depot and prevent Union forces from striking
As it turned out, it was Grant who took the Plank Road. On 29 March, they renewed their Depot and prevent Union forces from striking
initiative in the Virginia theatre. As spring efforts in the area, using Sheridan’s cavalry the Southside Railroad. Regret exceedingly your
approached, he diligently reinforced his units and Fifth Corps infantry under Major- forces’ withdrawal and your inability to hold the
positions, which snaked in a long line from General Gouverneur K Warren to attack towards advantage you had gained.”
east of Petersburg, ran south around the Dinwiddie Court House. Pickett ordered his troops to dig in and await
city, then ran out well west, parallel with the Although the Federal troops had a numerical the inevitable attack – which came on 1 April.
Hatcher’s Run River. Signifi cant additions to advantage, the Confederates were obdurate Sheridan and Warren were again partnered for
his aggregate strength were Major-General in defence. Sheridan’s attempts to outfl ank the operation, Sheridan using cavalry to make
Philip H Sheridan’s Army of the Shenandoah them were stopped by defences at White Oak a frontal pinning action while Warren’s cavalry
a frontal pinning action while Warren’s cavalry
and Major-General Edward OC Ord’s Army of Road, Boydton Road, Dinwiddie Court House, were sent on a fl anking manoeuvre. The Union
were sent on a fl anking manoeuvre. The Union
assault was poorly executed. Union intelligence
the James. With a bolstered force, Grant now Crow’s House and Hatcher’s Run. Even so, the assault was poorly executed. Union intelligence
launched a new series of offensives aimed at Confederate commanding offi cer in the region had marked the Confederate defences as
had marked the Confederate defences as
breaking the Confederate hold on Petersburg. – the much-criticised Major-General George beginning further east than they actually did.
beginning further east than they actually did.
Pickett – understood that his defences would This, combined with treacherous wooded terrain,
This, combined with treacherous wooded terrain,
Treacherous terrain eventually crumble, so he pulled his troops back led to slow and confused manoeuvring by the
led to slow and confused manoeuvring by the
Back in February 1864, Federal troops had to the Five Forks crossroads. frontal divisions of Warren’s Fifth Corps.
frontal divisions of Warren’s Fifth Corps.
In the end, Sheridan’s judicious use of
carried out several assaults south-west of Pickett actually wanted to retreat further, In the end, Sheridan’s judicious use of
Warren’s reserve division permitted the attack
Petersburg around Hatcher’s Run, attempting but Lee insisted that he hold the strategically Warren’s reserve division permitted the attack
to go in, and the Confederate left fl ank was
to consolidate their advantage over the important crossroads, stating clearly: “Hold Five to go in, and the Confederate left fl ank was
Confederate supply route along the Boydton Forks at all hazards. Protect the road to Ford’s quickly punctured. (Pickett was actually
quickly punctured. (Pickett was actually
THE LOSS OF FIVE
THE LOSS OF FIVE
A
FORKS WAS S
FORKS W
A CRITICAL BLOW
FOR LEE'S DEFENCE
OF PETERSBURG
G
OF PETERSBUR
3.2km – two miles – away, having a meal with
3.2km – two miles – away, having a meal with
fellow generals, blissfully unaware that his
fellow generals, blissfully unaware that his
troops were battling for their lives without
troops were battling for their lives without
central leadership.) In the end, Five Forks was
central leadership.) In the end, Five Forks was
abandoned, with 2,950 Southern casualties
abandoned, with 2,950 Southern casualties
against 840 Union losses, although the
against 840 Union losses, although the
fi ght had been hard for the Union (Sheridan
fi ght had been hard for the Union (Sheridan
relieved Warren of his command), and the
relieved Warren of his command), and the
Confederates re-established and held a new
Confederates re-established and held a new
Fort Steadman had an line of defence.
extensive complex of
The loss of Five Forks was a critical blow for
bunkers, as seen here. While The loss of Five Forks was a critical blow for
the Confederate defences Lee’s defence of Petersburg, as the Federal
around Petersburg were forces had broken the main Confederate line
undoubtedly strong, the and were moving inexorably closer to the
troops were spread too thin Southside Railroad. Lee recognised that the
for a focused resistance Petersburg-Richmond line would eventually
crumble, so he telegraphed Richmond, advising
that the authorities there make preparations to
32 HISTORY WAR
of

Union Zouaves display their muskets, complete
with fixed bayonets. The Zouaves’ dress, with

its North African origins, created a memorable
sight on the battlefields of the Civil War, and

sometimes included the classic tasseled fez

abandon the city. The defence of Petersburg was Major-General Charles Griffi n, ran the Union despite the weakening, the line still boasted
also acknowledged as unsustainable, a point lines out to positions at Five Forks. some powerful defences, particularly the three-
that the Union forces would prove on 2 April. Grant planned a major assault along the sided Fort Mahone in the far south of the sector.
entire length of the line, with the heaviest In fact, such was the strength of the defences
Dogmatic defence weight of attack concentrated in Wright’s sector. that Parke had even requested his portion
Grant understood that the Union victory at Start time for the operation was just before of the assault be cancelled. Nevertheless, at
Five Forks presented him with the opportunity fi rst light at 4am, but at 2am Union artillery 4.30am, his attack began, using three divisions.
to take Petersburg with the 50,000 troops conducted a night bombardment of Confederate Parke initially met with success, the Union
he had deployed there. Lee’s line had been lines to mask the movement of around 14,000 troops capturing three Confederate gun batteries
thinned by losses and redeployments, and the men into positions in no-man’s land. and making some inroads into the Fort Mahone
move towards retreat would leave his forces At 4am, the fi rst Union troops surged towards defences. However, the complex of Confederate
tactically vulnerable. Five corps held the Union the Confederate lines. Although the actions trenches and defences quickly broke up the
lines around Petersburg. The eastern side basically occurred simultaneously, it’s useful Union manoeuvres, as did a dogmatic defence
of the lines was manned by Ninth Corps under to separate them out into their respective by veteran troops of Lieutenant-General John
Major-General John G Parke, while next to events. Looking fi rst to the east of Petersburg, B Gordon’s Second Corps.
him was a southern front held by Sixth Corps, Ninth Corps was faced by three divisions of the By midday, Ninth Corps’ position was
under the command of Major-General Horatio Confederate Second Corps – some 3,600 men becoming desperate, and reinforcements were
G Wright. Major-General John Gibbon’s along approximately 6km (four miles) of front. requested. These helped contain a vigorous
24th Corps, Major-General AA Humphreys’ Second Corps’ strength had been reduced by counter-attack by Gordon at around 3pm, but
Second Corps and Fifth Corps, now under one division through Lee’s redeployments, yet, only just. In fact, only news of a Sixth Corps


FIGHTING FOR THE FORT
A dramatic bird’s-eye view of
the defences at Fort Steadman,
25 March 1865. A daring
Confederate assault had
taken the fort, but a massive
Union counter-attack reclaimed
it the same day. The fruitless
action cost the Confederate
forces 5,000 men
























HISTORY WAR 33
of

Great Battles




P
U
PETERSBURG
RG
B
E
RS
E
T
2 APRIL, 1865











PETERSBURG











To the west of the
5 city, the Union
Second Corps defeats
six Confederate divisions.
Almost all parts of
the rebel lines have
now collapsed, and
the evacuation of
Petersburg is ordered.














OPPOSING FORCES
Union
Five corps around Petersburg
Total 90,000
Confederate
Mixed units dug into defensive earthworks
Total 45,000



STERN DEFENCE
A typical earthwork
fortification of the Civil

War, such as was found
around Petersburg in
1865. These defences
were designed to break
up the impetus and
formations of enemy
attacks, while providing
superb protection from

rifle and cannon fire.

34 HISTORY WAR
of

At 2am on 2 April 1865,
1 a bombardment of KEY
Confederate lines provides Confederate
cover for Union troops to Union
move out into no-man’s
land and take up their
assault start positions.











FORT
STEADMAN















PARKE

GORDON














WRIGHT

THE CRATER
Wright’s Sixth Corps
4 punches through
the enemy defences
The Confederate Second and swings left into the
3 Corps manages to hold Confederate rear. This is
off attacks in the eastern the crucial attack of the
sector for the entire day, day, and throws the rebel
and is only forced to defence into disarray.
abandon its defences by the
general evacuation order.
The main Union
2 assault begins at 4am,
with a near-simultaneous
attack by five corps of

troops along the length
of the Petersburg lines.










HISTORY WAR 35
of

to overrun the two forts, the Federal forces
would be able to continue north to the
Appomattox River and take the bridges that were
vital to Petersburg’s resupply and evacuation.
The Union assault swung into action at
approximately 1pm, but it soon met with
approximately 1pm, but it soon met with
unexpectedly fi erce resistance from both
unexpectedly fi erce resistance from both
garrisons (the two forts could also support one
garrisons (the two forts could also support one
another with fi re, and further fi re assistance
another with fi re, and further fi re assistance
came from a battery on the Dimmock Line).
came from a battery on the Dimmock Line).
Eventually, however, sheer weight of numbers
Eventually, however, sheer weight of numbers
and the collapse of Confederate ammunition
and the collapse of Confederate ammunition
supplies carried the day, and the Union troops
supplies carried the day, and the Union troops
managed to clamber into Fort Gregg’s interior
managed to clamber into Fort Gregg’s interior
and take the surrender. Witnessing this, Fort
and take the surrender. Witnessing this, Fort
Whitworth’s garrison then evacuated their
Whitworth’s garrison then evacuated their
stronghold. Occupying the two forts had not
stronghold. Occupying the two forts had not
IF THE FORMATION
IF THE FORMA
TION
LA
UNCHED
COULD BE LAUNCHED
WITH SURPRISE,
A dead Confederate soldier lies at the bottom of a ditch in
the defences around Petersburg. Over 4,000 Confederate ITS EFFECT WOULD
troops were killed or injured during the final battle, and

another 30,000 were forced into a humiliating retreat
BE DECISIVE
BE DECISIVE
breakthrough to the west prevented Gordon from formation fi rst cutting into, then through, the been without cost for the Federals, however:
been without cost for the Federals, however:
making another, potentially successful attempt North Carolina Brigade. With the line pierced, 24th Corps had suffered 122 fatalities, with
24th Corps had suffered 122 fatalities, with
to eject the Union troops from the lines. The day Sixth Corps then swung to the left to support another 200 wounded.
another 200 wounded.
Further to the south-west, fi ghting was also
ended with 1,700 Union casualties among Ninth the Union Second Corps attack from the south. Further to the south-west, fi ghting was also
heavy along the Boydton Line, down to Hatcher’s
Corps, and Gordon’s Confederates moving back The chaos unleashed in the Confederate rear heavy along the Boydton Line, down to Hatcher’s
Run and beyond, down the White Oak Road
only because of the Petersburg evacuation order. was profound, aided by the fact that some Run and beyond, down the White Oak Road
Line, defended by six divisions of Confederates
isolated Union units even fought as far forward Line, defended by six divisions of Confederates
Ambushed and shot as the Southside Railroad. For a day’s-end under Major-General Harry Heth against the
under Major-General Harry Heth against the
The Sixth Corps attack was the nexus of victory casualty fi gure of 2,100, Sixth Corps had Union Second Corps. Humphreys took this corps
Union Second Corps. Humphreys took this corps
into the attack around 8am, buoyed by news of
at Petersburg on 2 April. Wright’s front faced the infl icted around 5,000 dead and wounded. into the attack around 8am, buoyed by news of
Wright’s breakthrough, and it only took one hour
critical Boydton Plank Road. Wright had formed One of the Confederate dead was Major- Wright’s breakthrough, and it only took one hour
much of the corps into a powerful wedge, General AP Hill, who was ambushed and shot to put the Confederates into a retreat (by this
to put the Confederates into a retreat (by this
aiming to crack open the Confederate line with while riding along the lines of battle. stage, Heth’s men also had advance units of
a powerful concentration of force at a single The Sixth Corps attack destabilised the Wright’s corps pressing on their left fl ank). Only
point, the positions around Fort Welch. It was a entire Confederate line, and in the west the some subsequent poor manoeuvring on the part
precarious formation, one that risked decimation rebels rushed to reinforce the last major
by enemy artillery, but if it could be launched strongpoints protecting the defences of the
with surprise, its effect would be decisive. Boydton Plank Road – Fort Gregg and Fort Union troops at Petersburg. Although
The attack went in at 4.40am, assaulting over Whitworth (the latter also known as Fort the battle resulted in a Union victory, it
a 10km (six-mile) front against six brigades of Baldwin). These objectives were the province still cost the Federal army around 3,500

Confederate troops between Fort Howard and of General John Gibbon’s 24th Corps, plus casualties. Confederate artillery fire using
Peebles Farm. In only half an hour, Sixth Corps one division from 25th Corps – 5,000 troops grape shot was particularly lethal among
smashed open the enemy lines, the wedge compared to the 300 defenders. Were they the tightly packed ranks of the attackers



REBELS WITHOUT A UNIFORM
The Confederate army has often been portrayed as a “rag-tag” bunch with no proper uniform, and there is
some truth in that – in the early days of the war, at least. Due to limitations in the supply of materials, proper

military kit was hard to come by and many soldiers seized items of clothing from fallen Union fighters. Although

German-American artist Nicola Marschall – designer of the Confederate flag – conceived a new uniform in the


summer of 1961, heavily influenced by the mid-1800s outfits of the Austrian and French armies, it wasn’t until

early the following year that these were mass-produced. In the final year of the war, the Confederates finally

began to resemble a well-uniformed army, wearing consistent clothing made of imported blue and grey cloth.
36 HISTORY WAR
of

The Confederate mortar known as
“the Dictator” was used at Petersburg.
It had a calibre of 33cm (13in) and

could fire a 91kg (200lb) explosive shell
over a distance of 4km (2.5 miles)






























of the Union forces allowed Heth’s soldiers
to escape complete destruction. veteran Confederates, and Humphreys had to Lee fought several very effective delaying
Rather than pursue the Rebel troops up make an about-turn to come to his rescue. actions, a large number of infantry were able
the Claiborne Road, Humphreys was ordered Only in the late afternoon did the Confederate to make their escape along the Appomattox.
to move to support the push on Petersburg defence fi nally collapse, when the shattered
itself, even though his forward division, led by troops moved up to the Appomattox to begin Suffered for victory
Major-General Nelson A Miles, was battling their retreat into Petersburg itself. By this By the end of 2 April 1865, the Battle of
the Confederates around Sutherland Station. time, they were joined by men retreating back Petersburg was conclusively won for the Union.
Humphreys responded by leaving this division from the Five Forks area. Some uncertain Nonetheless, Grant did not make a fi nal drive
with its present action, and moving his other decisions by Sheridan meant that Fifth into the city itself, but essentially just placed
two divisions up towards the city. However, Miles Corps was deployed ineffectively, and as the a noose around the city’s neck. There were
actually found himself in trouble battling the Confederate cavalry of Major-General Fitzhugh several reasons for this policy. First, the Union
troops had suffered for victory, with around
3,500 casualties against the Confederates’
estimated 4,250. Factor in the mental condition
of men who had been in action for over 16
hours, and the Union troops were in no condition
for a fi nal epic assault. Furthermore, the
Confederates had received some reinforcements
in the form of a division from First Corps.
More importantly, Grant probably understood
that the Confederate defence of Petersburg
was, in any case, untenable. Such was indeed
the case – as early as 10am, Lee had sent a
telegram to Richmond saying that he would not
be able to hold the lines, and that an evacuation
must take place. By 8pm, this evacuation had
begun and, overnight, around 30,000 troops
pulled out of the city, to endure further ordeals
over the coming days. The fall of Petersburg
meant, by implication, the fall of Richmond
and the effective end of the Civil War. w









This feature is an edited
extract from the book
Battles of the Civil War by
Chris McNab, published by
Amber Books. It is available
from www.amberbooks.co.uk
HISTORY WAR 37
of

inside
VIEW

Conwy Castle











After King Edward I conquered Wales, he built a series of fortresses to
protect his land. Steve Jarratt visits one of the most impressive –
a castle that has survived many a bloody siege and still stands tall today
















































All castle pictures © Crown Copyright 2014, Visit Wales





















38 History War
of

dward of Westminster was engaged in the Edward was known either directly or via English protectorates under
Seventh Crusade in North Africa when for his fiery temper the control of Dafydd ap Gruffydd, the Marcher
news reached him of his father Henry Lordships and other Royal vassals. Only the
III’s death. Instantly proclaimed Edward I western part of Gwynedd and Anglesey remained
King of England, he set off on his journey under Llywelyn’s purview.
home. However, with the country enjoying Five years later, it was Dafydd who railed
Erelative stability, and still suffering from against the English. Although he’d once fought
the after-effects of an assassination attempt, he alongside Edward against his own brother, and
took a leisurely detour through Italy and France. had been given manors in both Norfolk and
En route, he had an audience with Pope Gregory Northampton, he decided to heed the growing
X and even suppressed a rebellion in Gascony. call for Welsh independence. On Palm Sunday
The new King was crowned on 19 August 1282, Dafydd led an assault on Hawarden
1274, upon which he set about restoring order Castle, while his forces also attacked Oswestry
after the shambolic and unpopular reign of his and Aberystwyth.
father. But no sooner had Edward acceded to Mary Evans Picture Library In November of that year, Edward offered
the throne than trouble began brewing in Wales. the Gruffydd brothers terms – Dafydd was to
A patchwork of principalities and lordships, go on crusade, while Llywelyn was offered lands
Wales had been in flux for hundreds of years, in England and an Earldom. Foolishly, they
with power ebbing and flowing between the turned the King down. Edward, tall and severe
Welsh and the English. In 1274, relations with a fiery temper, was not one to be crossed.
between Edward and the then-Prince of Wales, RATHER THAN SEND A PARTY Rather than send a party to quell another
Llywelyn ap Gruffydd, broke down. Llywelyn’s irksome uprising, he decided to conquer
Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of Powys – had plotted TO QUELL ANOTHER UPRISING, Wales once and for all. He attacked with three
younger brother Dafydd – in league with
armies, leading one himself into North Wales,
attempt took place, their plan was discovered EDWARD DECIDED TO CONQUER consisting of 8,000 men and 750 cavalry.
Llywelyn’s demise. Although no assassination
Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron of Wigmore, attacked
and the pair defected to the English. With in mid-Wales, and Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl
Edward harbouring his assailants, Llywelyn WALES ONCE AND FOR ALL of Gloucester, in the south. However, both of
refused to pay homage to the King. Then, to Edward’s commanders would die in combat
make matters worse, Edward discovered that place, faced with superior numbers – plus the within months of the campaign, and initially
Llywelyn was planning to marry Eleanor, daughter possibility of bombardment by the King’s navy the Welsh enjoyed some success.
of Simon de Montfort, the French nobleman – Llywelyn had little choice but to surrender. The tide turned when, in December 1282,
who had led the rebellion against his father. He retained his position as Prince of Wales but Llywelyn was lured into a trap and killed at the
Edward was quick to act, marching into ceded important territory to Edward, who now Battle of Orewin Bridge. Dafydd stepped into his
Wales with a force of 15,000 men, including enjoyed unprecedented influence in the region. long-awaited role as Prince of Wales, but lacked
9,000 from South Wales who held no allegiance Following the Treaty of Aberconwy in 1277, the support his brother had enjoyed. Edward
to Llywelyn. Although no major conflict took Edward gained control of the bulk of Wales, seized the opportunity, raising a new army
Plan of Conwy Castle















































HISTORY WAR 39
of

INSIDE VIEW: CONWY CASTLE

and marching into Snowdonia. In January 1283, While on crusade in Acre, Edward was a strategic vantage point overlooking the River
Dolwyddelan Castle fell after a surprisingly the victim of an assassination attempt Conwy. As the burial site of Llywelyn the Great,
short siege, and Dafydd fled to the countryside a former Prince of Wales and the grandfather of
with Edward’s forces in pursuit. The English – the Gruffydd brothers, the site was of symbolic
now swelled with mercenaries from Gascony as well as strategic importance. Edward financed
– crossed the Menai and destroyed Bangor, the relocation of the abbey to Maenan, eight
before marching on Caernarfon and Harlech. miles inland. Building on revered ground allowed
Determined to capture the back-stabbing him to make an even more potent statement
Dafydd, Edward deployed some 7,000 troops about his subjugation of the native populace.
to find and detain him. Castell y Bere was
besieged and fell in April, and, although Dafydd Under duress
had fled again, the net was closing in. He was The construction of Conwy Castle was controlled
eventually caught on 22 June 1284, hiding in by Sir John de Bonvillars and overseen by
a bog near Bera Mountain. He’d been betrayed Edward’s architect, Master James of Saint
by his own men. Mary Evans Picture Library George. Also known as Jacques de Saint-
The younger Gruffydd was tried that October, Georges d’Espéranche, the Master Mason
found guilty of “high treason” – the first instance hailed from Savoy, a region on the borders
of this crime – and condemned to death. (Poor of France, Switzerland and Italy (Edward had
Dafydd also suffered the ignominy of being the probably met him during his visit to the area
first person on record to be hung, drawn and in 1273). Other key figures in the construction
quartered.) With the end of the Gruffydd line DETERMINED TO CAPTURE included Otto de Grandson – a Savoyard
came the end of any meaningful resistance knight and close personal friend of the King –
by the Welsh – at least for the time being. THE BACK-STABBING DAFYDD, Adam Boynard, Gillot de Chalons, William Seysel
Vantage point EDWARD DEPLOYED SOME and another Master Mason, John Francis.
To undertake the work, a huge English
Having secured all this new territory in Wales, workforce was ferried into Wales – often under
Edward was determined not to lose it. And 7,000 TROOPS TO FIND HIM duress. During the peak summer season,
so began the systematic construction of a Conwy probably had 1,500 craftsmen working
series of new towns and castles, designed as on it. In 1284, Edward appointed the Burgundian
a display of the King’s influence over the region colonise North Wales with a number of walled knight Sir William de Cicon as constable of the
and to encourage settlement by English folk. towns guarded by huge castles incorporating the castle, whose job it would be to oversee its
Several small castles had been constructed latest designs from mainland Europe. The King completion and act as Mayor of the town.
after the rebellion of 1277, at Flint, Rhuddlan, chose sites with defence in mind, often where The walled town of Conwy was given 21
Builth and Aberystwyth, which had included the castle would be easily accessible by water towers and three gatehouses set in a wall 24ft
new buildings as well as the refortification of for the delivery of supplies and reinforcements. thick – designed to protect what would now
existing strongholds. But following the demise of Castles were to be built at Harlech, Caernarfon be a strictly English population. It would also
the Gruffydds, Edward decided to permanently and on the site of Aberconwy Abbey, which held form the centre of the new county of Conwy.

















































40 40 HISTORY WAR

WA
R
ISTO
H
R
Y
of of

Castle anatomy














BAILEY
Also known as a ward, this is an outdoor
courtyard contained within a castle’s protective
curtain walls. The word bailey comes from the
Norman-French baille.




CURTAIN WALL PARAPET
This is the defensive fortification around a castle. Between waist and
head height, these
defensive walls were
often crenellated
to provide cover.



ARROW SLITS
Also known as arrow loops or embrasures, these
are the vertical holes in castle walls that enabled
defending archers to fire on attacking forces. CORBELS
These are structural
pieces of stonework
that extend out from
a wall to support
a projecting floor
or parapet above.















FINIALS MERLONS
Not all exterior features of a castle were built for defensive purposes – these The raised sections
carved pieces of stone were used to decorate the tops of walls and towers. of a battlement or
crenellated parapet,
merlons provided cover
for the defending
soldiers and often held
embrasures or arrow
slits, through which
archers could target
their attackers.


CRENEL
This is the gap between
the merlons on the top
of a fortified wall. The
PUTLOG HOLE alternating series of
These small openings were deliberately left in walls for the insertion of merlons and crenels
a beam or pole, which could be used for attaching scaffolding or a walkway. is termed crenellation.

HISTORY WAR 41 41
WA
R
Y
ISTO
H
R
of of

INSIDE VIEW: CONWY CASTLE

The design of the castle drew on a number
Master Mason of infl uences, not least Edward himself, then surrounded by an outer curtain wall,
providing inner and outer wards that could be
James of Saint who had led the siege of Kenilworth Castle in defended separately. This design had been
used extensively and was a feature of Rhuddlan,
1266 and had been on the receiving end in the
George: architect fortifi ed city of Acre while on crusade in 1271. Aberystwyth and Harlech Castles. Such was
their popularity that Edward ordered the addition
His military experience undoubtedly helped
of a dynasty inform the placement of defensive elements. of a second curtain wall to the Tower of London.
However, the fi ner details belonged to
Instead, Conwy featured (and still features)
Master James of Saint George. The Savoyard two wards sitting side by side, the larger outer
James of Saint George (also known as Jacques de architect had been working for Edward in ward ringed by six towers on the west, with
Saint-Georges d’Espéranche) was born in Savoy, on the Wales since 1278, being paid three shillings an adjacent inner ward to the east. Either
borders of France, Italy and Switzerland, around 1230. a day (which was a week’s pay for other ward could hold out independently if the other
The Master Mason worked on a number of castles craftsmen). He brought certain architectural should fall. This design was in part due to the
across Europe, most notably the French fortress of Saint
George d’Espéranche near Lyon, from which he took features to the project, such as semi-circular building’s location on a high, narrow ridge of
his name. Edward I met the architect on his travels arches, a new design of arched window and grey sandstone and limestone, whose shape
around 1273, but wouldn’t get the chance to employ triple fi nials on the merlons (that is, three prevented the typical concentric design. (This
him for several years. Records show Master James stone spikes on the higher parts of the wall). also explains the bowing out of the south wall,
travelling to Wales in 1278, and indicate that he was James also employed the technique of which follows the topology of the rock.)
Master Mason at Flint and Rhuddlan between 1278 creating spiralling scaffolding around the Although not concentric, the castle does
and 1282. Eventually, he would be responsible for towers. Wooden beams were inserted in putlog include a barbican at either end – small, fortifi ed

12 of the 17 castles that Edward built or fortified. holes, onto which platforms could be built. areas each containing a gateway, which could
His final castle was the beautiful fortress at Beaumaris He was also responsible for designing the be used as outer defences. The main entrance

on the island of Anglesey, which is now regarded royal chambers, which were heated, well-lit
as the finest example of the symmetric, concentric would have been accessed through the

design of the period. James enjoyed the prestige that and suitably palatial, where most castles up western barbican, reached via a stone ramp
his position afforded, and was paid accordingly: by until then had been dark and dreary affairs. and drawbridge, and protected by a portcullis.
1284, his wage had risen to three shillings a day (a The drop to the ditch below is 28 feet.
week’s work for most craftsmen). The Savoyard lived out Perilous rocks The western barbican also features the
the rest of his life in Britain, and died around 1308. The castle layout is largely rectangular, with oldest-surviving machicolations in Britain –
a 50ft-high curtain wall punctuated by eight derived from the French word machicoulis,
towers, each around 40ft in diameter – four these are openings in the fl oor of a section
at each corner and two dissecting the longer of battlement that extend outward from the
northern and southern walls. The sheer bulk castle wall. Held up by “corbels”, these would
of the castle would have been enough to put have allowed soldiers to drop rocks or other
off would-be assailants, its structure safe from objects onto their attackers.
attack due to the perilous rocks on three sides, The larger outer ward was home to several
plus a wealth of well-thought-out defences. administrative buildings, with the great hall
Conwy also eschewed the practice of having – some 125ft long – and chapel residing on
Beaumaris Castle multiple lines of defence, where a fortifi ed the south side. The towers probably housed
courtyard – termed a “ward” or “bailey” – was the castle constable and members of the
garrison, which would have numbered around 30
soldiers. The north side would have contained
Edward I and Conwy Castle timeline accommodation, a kitchen and a brewery.
On the eastern side lies the smaller inner
1272 1287 Bolingbroke’s 1655 ward, separated by a wall and accessed via
On crusade in North Conwy Castle is emissary in the castle Parliament’s Council a gate over another drawbridge. Next to the wall
Africa, Edward hears completed at chapel. Later, Richard of State orders is a well, 91ft deep and fed by a natural spring.
of his father Henry III’s a cost of £15,000. abdicates and Conwy Castle to The inner ward would have housed the King
death. He is named 1294 Bolingbroke takes the be made unusable and Queen’s private rooms and accommodation
King of England. throne as Henry IV. by the military. for their entourage, and could be sealed off
Madog ap Llywelyn
1274 puts himself at the 1401 1665 from the rest of the castle and resupplied by
Edward is crowned. head of a revolt After the Prince The castle is returned sea. The four towers at each corner of the inner
of Wales, Owain
1276 against Edward. Glyndr, encourages to Edward Conway, ward also feature an additional watchtower
who strips the lead
turret, for an even greater view of the
Caernarfon Castle
Llywelyn ap Gruffydd is overrun and a rebellion against and iron to sell, surroundings and for displaying the royal fl ag.
leads a minor uprising captured, while England, two of his leaving Conwy in ruin. By 1287, Castle Conwy was complete, with
in Wales. Conwy is besieged. cousins capture 1865 a fi nal price tag – including the walls of the
1277 1295 Conwy Castle, while With the castle town – of £15,000. In the 13th Century, that
others take over
Edward invades Edward and his forces the town. The two now under the was an astonishing amount of money. The
Wales with a force hold Conwy until brothers hold out for auspices of Conwy’s exterior walls and towers were given a coat of
of 15,500 men to help arrives. Madog’s three months, but civil leadership, white lime render, partially to protect the stone
quell the uprising. forces are defeated, eventually surrender. work begins on its but also to give the fortress even more visual
1282 ending the war. 1520-1530 restoration, and impact, helping this already imposing castle to
Another rebellion, this 1321 Henry VIII orders it soon becomes be seen from many miles away.
time led by Dafydd A survey of the castle restoration work a tourist attraction.
ap Gruffydd, prompts states that it is in to be carried out 1986 Heavy defeat
Edward to conquer poor condition, with on the castle. Conwy Castle is
Wales once and for all. limited supplies. declared part of the The fortress stood unmolested for eight years,
until it was besieged by Madog ap Llywelyn in
1283 1343 1627 World Heritage Site the winter of 1294. As the descendant of Owain
Now in disrepair,
Having defeated Sir John Weston the castle is sold by of the “Castles and ap Gruffydd, former King of Gwynedd, Madog
Town Walls of King
the Welsh, Edward undertakes repairs Charles I to Edward Edward in Gwynedd”. declared himself the lawful Prince of Wales, and
embarks on a on the orders of Conway for £100. became the fi gurehead of a revolt against the
programme of Edward of Woodstock, 2012
colonisation. He the Black Prince. 1646 A new visitor centre English, due to unfair taxes and the conscription
instigates the During the English is opened. The of the Welsh to fi ght for Edward against France.
building of castles at 1399 Civil War, the castle castle now welcomes With military matters pressing in Scotland and
Beaumaris, Harlech, Richard II meets is besieged by the over 180,000 France, Edward was keen to put down the revolt
Caernarfon and Conwy. with his rival Henry Parliamentary army. sightseers a year. and marched into Wales yet again. Upon his
42 HISTORY WAR
of

Visiting Conwy today, it’s not hard to
imagine the bloodshed that must have
occurred here as invading forces attempted
to penetrate its sturdy defences

arrival in Conwy, he probably had in the region the Welsh siege may have been very different Edward spared his enemy the death penalty,
of 20,000 men, who set up camp on the far – and with it, the fortunes of both Wales and Madog was destined to live out the rest of his
side of the river. The army spent Christmas in England. Eventually, Madog’s army suffered life as a prisoner in the Tower of London, until
the area, after which Edward and a small force a heavy defeat at the hands of the Earl of his death in 1312.
set off west to Caernarfon Castle, only to find Warwick’s forces at the Battle of Maes Moydog Edward’s troops launched a midnight attack
it in ruins. Madog’s forces had besieged the in Powys, in March 1295. Madog escaped, but on the remaining Welsh forces, killing 500,
castle, which was still in the process of being with his army decimated and the Welsh spirit and then occupied Anglesey, the last remaining
built. Lacking key defences, the garrison was broken, he surrendered later that year. Although Welsh stronghold. The war between Wales and
overrun and the marauding Welsh were able England was finally over.
to take over the castle – as they had with many EDWARD ALLEGEDLY SHARED Over the next hundred years, Conwy Castle
of Edward’s other strongholds. gradually fell into disrepair, as its military
captured, Edward decided to retreat to the safety HIS LAST BARREL OF WINE importance faded. It occasionally underwent
When his baggage train was attacked and
restoration, but its glory days were over. It
of Conwy Castle and wait for reinforcements. WITH HIS MEN RATHER wouldn’t see any major military action again
However, the winter weather had descended until the Parliamentarians went to war against
and severe flooding prevented his forces from THAN DRINK IT HIMSELF Charles I’s Royalists. Sir John Owen, commander
crossing the river and coming to his aid. of the Royalist foot regiment in North West
With the forces from his sortie to Caernarfon, Wales, seized the castle in 1644 and held
Edward had just enough soldiers to repel on for two years, eventually capitulating to
Madog’s assault. Unlike Caernarfon, Conwy was General Thomas Mytton after a lengthy siege.
complete and the Welsh lacked the heavy siege A decade later, the order was given for the
equipment needed to make any impact on fortress to be “slighted” – deliberately damaged
this vast and sturdy emplacement. However, Mary Evans Picture Library to prevent it from being used by the Royalists.
the additional bodies inside Conwy presented When its then-owner, Edward Earl of Conway,
the problem of dwindling supplies – Edward decided to strip and sell off its iron and lead in
allegedly shared his last barrel of wine with his 1663, the castle became an uninhabitable ruin.
men rather than drink it himself. Its military career over, Conwy Castle gradually
With the King’s castles either captured or captured the hearts and minds of painters and
under siege, the Welsh were free to raid towns sightseers who visited the region. During the
and interrupt supply lines. Edward’s grip on 18th and 19th Centuries, road and rail links to
Wales was beginning to slip and he needed the town improved, and a restoration effort was
to act. Fortunately, by February, the weather instigated in 1953. The castle’s credentials as
had abated enough for his troops to make a tourist attraction were cemented in 1986
the crossing. Faced with superior numbers, Richard II (centre) took refuge in when it was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage
the Welsh melted back into the countryside. Conwy Castle in 1399, when his Site, part of the greater “Castles and Town Walls
Had Conwy not been completed, or had it cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, mounted of King Edward in Gwynedd”. w
been built to lesser standards, the outcome of a rebellion. He later surrendered www.cadw.wales.gov.uk/daysout/conwycastle
HISTORY WAR 43
of

OFFER CODE HISTP01
Subscription order form



■ Yes! I would like to subscribe to History Of War
■ UK Direct Debit Just £17.95 every 6 issues BEST
*
DEAL
saving 25% off the cover price, plus a free book.
(Please complete the form below.)
YOUR DETAILS
Title Forename
Surname
Email address**
Address
Postcode Country
Phone
Mobile**


INSTRUCTION TO YOUR Originator’s Identifi cation Number
BANK OR BUILDING SOCIETY TO PAY 8 3 7 1 8 1
DIRECT DEBIT ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
1 Name and address of your Bank or Building Society
To the Manager Bank/Building Society SAVE 25%
Address
Postcode ON THE SHOP

2 Name of account holder(s) PRICE
3 Branch sort code ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
4 Account number ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
5 Instruction to your Bank/Building Society Please pay Anthem Publishing
Direct Debits from the account detailed in this instruction, subject to the safeguards easy ways to
assured by the Direct Debit Guarantee. I understand that this instruction may remain 3
with Anthem and if so, details will be passed electronically to my Bank/Building Society.
Signature(s) Date

OTHER PAYMENT METHODS subscribe...
■ UK 12 issues by credit/debit card for just £36 SAVE 25%
■ Europe 12 issues by credit/debit card for just £45
■ USA/Canada 12 issues by credit/debit card for just $75 ONLINE
■ World 12 issues by credit/debit card for just £54 1
Please debit my card anthem.subscribeonline.co.uk/
■ Visa ■ Mastercard ■ Maestro ■ Am Ex
Card no historyofwar
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Valid from ■ ■ ■ ■ Expiry date ■ ■ ■ ■ Issue no ■ ■ Use code HISTP01
Signature(s) Date
■ I enclose a cheque payable to Anthem Publishing Ltd for £ 2 CALL US ON
Send your completed form to Anthem Publishing Ltd, 0844 245 6931 **
Freepost RRBS-LRRG-CTBJ, 800 Guillat Avenue,
Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8GU

OFFER ENDS 3 APRIL 2014
*Sorry, free gift is available to UK Direct Debit orders only, and is subject to availability. ** Overseas readers should call
Anthem Publishing reserves the right to substitute this gift with a suitable alternative of
similar value. Your subscription will start with the next available issue. Please note that your +44 (0)1795 592814, quoting code HISTP01
subscription payments are based on the number of issues you receive.
**Please enter this information so that Anthem Publishing Ltd can keep you informed of
newsletters, special offers and promotions via email or free text messages. You may Or COMPLETE THE FORM
unsubscribe from these messages at any time. 3
Anthem Publishing Ltd, publisher of History Of War, may contact you with details of our
products and services or to undertake research. Please tick here if you prefer not to receive ➔
such information by post ■ phone ■. We occasionally pass your details on to carefully
selected companies whose products and services we feel may be of interest to you. Please
tick here if you prefer not to receive such information by post ■ phone ■.
44 44 44 HISTORY WAR

Y
Y
Y
Y
ISTO
ISTO
ISTO
H H H H
ISTO
R
R
R
R
R
R
WA
WA
of of of of



INSIDE
VIEW

American aircra -carrier
USS GEORGE Superstructure Radar Bridge Flight flight deck Anchor
Forward
mast

deck
WASHINGTON



Aircraft-carriers are the ultimate symbol of naval power. Rudder Elevator SIDE VIEW
The Washington is one of ten Nimitz-class super-carriers Arrestor Jet-blast Catapult Angled
in the US Navy – the largest military vessels ever built wires deflectors tracks flight deck


ommissioned in 1992, the During flying operations, the deck is a
USS George Washington can hive of activity, with aircraft taking off and
accommodate 85 aircraft, including landing, as well as being manoeuvred,
C fighter, strike and transport refuelled and armed. Aircraft are launched
planes, airborne-early-warning (AEW) aircraft, by four catapults – two at the forward end
and helicopters. It is also a floating home of the angled deck and two in the bows. Island superstructure Elevator PLAN VIEW
for around 6,000 service men and women. The landing deck is angled to the port side
Although it was designed primarily to offer to allow other activities to take place as USS GEORGE WASHINGTON The sixth Nimitz-class carrier,
an offensive strike capability, the ship is aircraft return to the ship. When touching the Washington is 333m (1,092ft) long and displaces around
equipped with its own defences, such down, a pilot must ensure that the plane’s 103,000 tonnes. It is powered by two nuclear reactors.
as anti-aircraft and anti-missile weapon tailhook catches one of four high-tensile
systems, as well as rapid-fire 20mm guns. steel arrestor wires that run across the flight
On the starboard side and overlooking deck. These decelerate the aircraft rapidly
the deck is the island superstructure – the and bring it to a halt within two seconds. PREPARING FOR
ship’s command-and-control centre, which When they’re not in use, most aircraft are TAKE-OFF Deck crew
houses the bridge and primary flight-control stored beneath the flight deck in the vast secure a Northrop
area. From here, officers can keep a careful hangar, which stretches for much of the Grumman E-2C
watch on the massive flight deck, which ship’s length. On the decks below are living Hawkeye AEW
covers 1.8 hectares (4.5 acres) – about quarters for the personnel, complete with aircraft to a
the size of two-and-a-half soccer pitches. mess halls, stores and laundry facilities. catapult shuttle.

















CATAPULT CONTROL POD This observation pod, which retracts CATAPULT SHUTTLE For catapult launches, a shuttle is attached SHUTTLE TRACK The catapult shuttle runs
below the flight deck, enables the crew controlling catapult launches to the plane’s undercarriage and propelled along a short track by along a track set into the surface of the
to see what’s happening while remaining safe from moving aircraft. a steam-powered piston. ship’s flight deck.





















JET-BLAST DEFLECTOR The deflector shield that sits behind this McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet prevents GRUMMAN F-14 TOMCAT LANDING A pilot increases the throttle
the plane’s exhaust from causing damage or injury during take-off. These shields have to be strong enough to during touchdown, so that if the aircraft fails to catch the arrestor
withstand temperatures close to 2,300 degrees Fahrenheit, although they are cooled by water from the sea. wires, it still has enough speed to take off again.
46 HISTORY WAR
of

FLOATING AIRSTRIP Carriers such as the George Washington
provide the strategic benefit of a mobile strike platform that
can operate from anywhere in international waters.










ELEVATOR Four hydraulic lifts – one to port and three to
starboard – move aircraft between the hangar and the flight deck.
They also take stores or spare parts to and from the hangars.
HELICOPTER
MAINTENANCE
An aircraft-carrier’s
helicopters perform
many roles,
including anti-
submarine work,
rescues and the
AIRCRAFT WEAPONRY Most of the carrier’s transportation
formidable firepower is reserved for its of personnel ISLAND SUPERSTRUCTURE Much of the electronics, including
aircraft. Airborne weapons include bombs, to and from radar and satellite-communications equipment, is based on
rockets, guided missiles and torpedoes. combat situations. the island, which has the ship’s number painted on its sides.
HISTORY WAR 47
of

INSIDE AND DOWN BELOW INSTRUMENT
The control rooms are based both in the island PANEL
superstructure and elsewhere below deck. In addition Gauges show the
to the aircraft hangar, the lower-deck areas include the steam pressure
catapult and arrestor-gear machinery, 44 magazines, in the catapult
and the power plant and engine room. Facilities for mechanisms.
the thousands of crew and air wing include messes, The ship can
medical facilities and a gym. launch up to four
planes per minute.
Elevator Aircraft Catapult steam vessel
hangar Ammunition
Arrestor- depots
gear engine



ARRESTING
Engine bay Engine room
CROSS SECTION GEAR PISTON
Huge hydraulic
pistons below
the flight deck
provide the power
to rein in the
arrestor wires as
they are caught
by planes landing
at speeds of up to
240kph (150mph).





PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL
Overlooking the deck, the air boss in charge of the ship’s aircraft
coordinates all take-offs and landings. The windows are angled to
reduce glare from the sun.
ENGINE BAY
The maintenance, testing and storage of engines take place in a bay below the ship’s
deck. A Grumman F-14 Tomcat engine can be seen in this picture, with the engine of an
F/A-18 Hornet visible in the background.

HANGAR
Aircraft are serviced in the hangar. Each
of the staff involved has a specific jacket
colour that denotes his or her role: for
example, a general maintenance petty
officer wears a green one, while brown
denotes a plane captain – responsible
for the upkeep of a specific aircraft.



NO.3 PUMP ROOM
BRIDGE JP5 aviation fuel is pumped up to the
The bridge provides its crew with panoramic views of the sky and flight deck. To reduce the risk of fire, JP5
ocean. From here, the captain or watch officer oversees the ship’s has a lower ignition temperature than
navigation and steering. commercial fuel.















REACTOR CONTROLS
The reactors are controlled remotely from this room. The ship
can run for a year on a fuel pellet the size of a soft-drink can.
It has enough fuel to run non-stop for 18 years.

48 HISTORY WAR
of

PROPELLER SHAFT
An engineer
checks a shaft
that drives one of
the four propellers.
Powered by the
ship’s twin nuclear
reactors, a quartet

of five-bladed
propellers give the
George Washington
a top speed in
excess of 30 knots.




OPERATIONS ROOM
Staff monitor take-offs and landings via television screens, and use radar to direct airborne
planes. In the event of an attack, the defence systems are also operated from here.






BRIEFING ROOM

Flight instructions are given in the briefing room. Each seat

is assigned to a specific pilot.







ANCHOR CHAINS BAKERY
The ship has a pair of 30-tonne, stockless Along with the galley, the bakery helps to provide around 18,000
anchors. Each of the anchor chain’s links meals for the ship’s 6,000 crew every single day. The large ovens
weighs approximately 160kg (360lb). are visible in the background.

OPERATING
THEATRE
The ship’s medical
department must
be ready for
almost any kind of
illness, accident
or battle casualty.
In an average year,
the medical team
sees over 10,000
patients, processes
around 3,000
X-rays and performs
more than 100
surgical operations.















DRINKING FOUNTAIN
Each day, distilling plants produce 1.5 This feature is an edited extract from The
million litres (330,000 gallons) of fresh Military History Book, published in the UK by
water from sea water. Dorling Kindersley and available from both
online and high-street book stores, RRP £30.
HISTORY WAR 49
of

WHAT HAPPENED TO








UNCLE CHARLIE























































































50 HISTORY WAR
of