Churchill’s Toysh
7unbelievableinventionsfromthe
secret war lab of Winston Churchill
VIKING
E
S
R
RAI
D
RIDERS
heathens from
the north turned seas
redwithblood
TERRACOTTA
WARRIORS
Meet the emperor who waged
war with death itself
ORBIDDEN QUEEN
ANNE
BOLEYN
TheTudorscandalthattoreEnglandapar
Industrial www.historyanswers.co.uk 10 forgotten
Revolution superstars
Minds who set the wheels Spotlightonthecelebs
of change in motion ISSUE 22 you never knew existed
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Read more about the exemplary life
of Emmeline Pankhurst on page 38
Welcome Issue 22
PoorAnneBoleynhasbeengivenaprettybad terrifiedofdeathhespenthislifepreparingfor highlights
rep.Portrayedasasly,connivingtemptress it.Youcanalsopeerintothesecretwarlabsof
wholuredthekingawayfromthecountry’s WinstonChurchillonpage78,anddiscover 12 IndustrialRevolution
belovedqueen,thetruthaboutHenryVIII’s thebizarreinventionsthathelpedtheAllies Discoverthemachines,
mindsandevents
secondwifeisfarlessdamning.Henryhad defeattheAxispowers. thatchangedtheway
welivetodaywith12
alreadyhadcountlessaffairs,includingwith Wanttoshareyourviewsonanyofthe pagesdedicatedtothe
Anne’sownsister.Educatedandstrong-willed, topicsinthemagazine?Makesureyouheadto IndustrialRevolution.
Annewasdeterminednottobecomejust theAllAboutHistoryFacebookpage,where VikingRaiders
anothermistress,andwasperhapstheonly youcanfindloadsmorefascinatingfactsand 62 Wasthereamore
civilised aim to their
womantosay“no”tothemostpowerfulman stunningphotographsfromthepast.
oftenbarbaricactions?
inEngland.Itpaidoff.Afterayearofchasing, Findoutwhatcameafter
Henrymadeherhisqueen. Lindisfarneinour‘Raiders
or Traders’ feature.
Thisissuewerevealtheuntoldstoryof
AnneBoleyn,andfrompage46weexamine 70 Forgotten Superstars
From Ancient Greek
whatitwasthatcatapultedherfromtruelove Olympians to larger-than-life
totraitor.Onpage62,historianandbestselling 19th-century opera singers,
we showcase ten of the
authorJohnMantellsthedarksecretsofthe celebrities you never even
TerracottaArmy,unearthinganemperorso Alicea Francis knew existed.
www.historyanswers.co.uk Facebook Twitter
Be part of history Share your views and opinions online /AllAboutHistory @AboutHistoryMag © Alamy
3
CONTENTS
Welcome to All About History
ANNE BOLEYN
46 WetelltheuntoldstoryofHenryVIII’ssecondwife,and
theloveaffairthatchangedthefaceofEngland
INDUSTRIAL
12 The people and inventions t
the way we live and work
14 Timeline
Fromthefirst-eversteamenginestoth 46
mass production of the Ford Model T
16 How To…
Buildarailway,completewithsteelbri
and underground tunnels
18 Anatomy of
A19th-centurycoalminer,inthedays
before hard hats
20 Hall of Fame
Tenofthemostinfluentialfiguresof
18thand19thcenturies
22 Inside History
Discoverwhatdailylifewaslikefor
20
working-class families
24 Top5Facts
CharlesDickenswasanauthor,
magician and social pioneer
26 Day in the Life
Of a child labourer, wearing their fing
to the bone in a textile factory
FEATURES
54 The Terracotta 70 10 superstars
Warriors that time forgot
Meet the Chinese emperor who built a The ancient Olympians and silent-
clay army to protect him in the afterlife movie stars you never knew existed
62 Vikings: raiders or 78 Churchill’s
traders? Toyshop
Was there a more civilised aim to the Unbelievable inventions that helped
Vikings’ seemingly barbaric attacks? the Allies win World War II
Be part of history www.historyanswers.co.uk /AllAboutHistory @AboutHistoryMag
4
EVERYISSUE
06 Defining
Moments
History as you’ve never seen it,
including a Marxist game of golf!
28 Greatest Battles
Learn how Robert I defeated the
English in the Battle of Bannockburn
26 32 Eyewitness
The day Nelson Mandela became
president, told through the eyes of a
child who witnessed it unfold
36 Bluffer’s Guide
36 Find out what really caused the Wall
Street Crash with these fast facts
38 Heroes & Villains
We tell the story of Emmeline
Pankhurst, the activist who helped
54 secure the British vote for women
42 Through History
Medical instruments from the past
that are sure to make you squirm
86 Book Reviews
The latest additions to the history
bookshelves rated or slated
92 History Answers
Learn how long the shortest war
ever lasted, and discover what really
happened to the Normans
78 94 Your History
A World War II Wren tells of her
experiences at Bletchley Park
98 History vs
6 Hollywood
Did the writers of The Other Boleyn
Girl stick to the facts?
ENJOYED THE
MAGAZINE?
SUBSCRIBE &
SAVE 25% Page 44
62
6
AFTER GETTYSBURG
Three unidentified men stand on top of Seminary Ridge
shortly after the Battle of Gettysburg, the bloodiest battle
of the American Civil War. It is also considered the most
important of all the war’s battles, as the Union victory
over the Confederate forces put an end to their
attempts to invade the North.
1863
© Jordan Lloyd
7
8
CASTRO AND GUEVARA
PLAY GOLF
No one knows exactly when this surreal event took place,
and no one really knows why it happened, as Castro had
previously declared golf a sport of the bourgeoisie. Some
say that the Communist duo did it to mock President
Eisenhower, who reportedly stood them up for a
game of golf, while others argue they were
sending him a message of peace.
ca 1960
© Alamy
9
UK MINERS’ STRIKE
Picketers face police as ‘scabs’ return to work in the coal
mines, despite a nationwide strike. The strike was a reaction
to the Thatcher government’s announcement that it
would close 20 mines, leaving 20,000 people jobless.
Violence often broke out between picketers and
police, resulting in over 11,000 arrests.
1984
10
© Corbis
11
A childcouldspend12hoursaday
tying cotton threads together, at
great risk to their fingers
The first steam locomotives
appearedatthistime,
transforming the way we travel
Contrary to belief,
Thomas Edison
did not invent the
lightbulb,buthe
didinventalong-
lasting version
Theperiodsawaboomincanal
building, as an easy method was
needed for transporting cargo
Darby’s casting methodsmade
the production of iron steam
engines possible
Jethro Tull’s invention
ofthe seed drill
marked the start of
mechanised farming
The Clift
Bridge, designe
st
Coalwasinhigh
demand, and as a
result mines got
deeper and even
more dangerous
The sick, orphaned and elderly
weresenttoworkhouses, where
they were often cruelly treated
Industrial Revolution
The Etruria Works
Bridley’s original Bridgewater Canal BRITAIN 1769
aqueduct over the River Irwell
Innovative potter and
abolitionist Josiah Wedgwood
opened his Etruria factory
beside the route of the Trent
and Mersey Canal. Though
incomplete at the time,
Wedgwood saw the value of
canal transport to distribute
his products. And inside the
factory, he introduced methods
that greatly increased worker
THE FIRST TRANSPORT SYSTEM BRITAIN 1761 output. Wedgwood broke
The transportation of heavy goods was vital for the Industrial Revolution down the potter’s skills –
to take hold. Canals – man-made rivers deep enough to take barges laden throwing, shaping, firing and
with cargo over long distances – were seen as the answer. The Duke glazing – allocating each task
of Bridgewater employed novice engineer James Bridley to construct a to a specialist worker. This was
canal to carry coal from his mines in Lancashire to Manchester. Opened ‘division of labour’, a method Celebrated potter Josiah
in 1761, it was a great success. More canals followed, resulting in a canal of production later copied in Wedgwood
network that linked the major industrial centres of the country. numerous industries.
Industrial Revolution timeline O Engines, O Donkey work O Worlds
The functions
engines
collide
everywhere of the spinning Richard
O Theheatison O Shuttle work O Inaspin In collaboration jenny and the Arkwright sees
Acoke-fuelledblast Wool-mill manager The invention with Matthew water frame the potential of
furnace is developed John Kay invents the of the spinning Boulton, Watt are combined Watt’s engines.
by Abraham Darby. flying shuttle. The jenny is credited begins the by Samuel He is among
Smelting iron ore device weaves yarn to James manufacture of Crompton into the first cotton-
becomes cheaper, greatly mechanically rather Hargreaves. steam engines one machine. mill owners
improving production of thanbyhand. 1764 in Birmingham, It’s called a to use one for
cast iron goods. 1733 England. spinning mule. production.
1709 1774 1779 1786 Richard Arkwright
Spinning jenny model at Museum
of Early Industrialisation,
Wuppertal, Germany
1709 1720 1750 10 1770 1780
O Head of steam O Just add water O Enter James Watt O Watt again O Loom for
Thomas Newcomen Following Adding refinements, Further experiments improvement
builds his atmospheric collaborations with such as a separate lead James Watt Another textile industry
steam engine – the others, Richard condensing chamber, to to adapt his steam innovation comes
first commercially Arkwright patents Newcomen’s machine, engine. He changes its from inventor Edmund
successful such his water frame. It Scottish inventor Watt up-and-down pump Cartwright when he
machine – used to is a spinning device designs a more efficient motion to a rotary makes the power loom to
pump water from deep powered by a water steam engine. motion for more aid weaving.
coal mines. 1712 Newcomen’s engine in wheel. 1769 1769 efficiency. 1781 1785
diagram form James Watt
The Luddite riots Brunel’s Great Britain
BRITAIN 1811-1815 BRITAIN 1843
The Industrial Revolution The achievements of civil engineer
brought change, but also Isambard Kingdom Brunel were
unrest. Skilled workers facing astounding. One of his finest was to
job losses by the drive to design the SS Great Britain. The vessel
mechanisation began breaking is considered to be the forerunner of
into factories to smash up modern ships because it was the first
machines. The mythical King to combine three elements; it was built
Ned Ludd was the supposed of metal, it was powered by engine,
Luddite leader. The rioting and it was driven by a screw propeller.
became so bad that the Launched in 1843, it was the longest
government passed a law passenger ship in service until 1854.
Rage against the machine: making machine-breaking a SS Great Britain, by pioneering It survives today as a visitor attraction
Luddites in destructive mode crime punishable by death. photographer Henry Fox Talbot – in Bristol.
possibly the first photo of a ship
14
Industrial Revolution
The first passenger
Coalfields in
FUEL OF THE train service
19th-century
Britain
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
BRITAIN 1900
As the number of steam
engines and furnaces grew,
the demand for coal increased
rapidly. It was in plentiful
supply in Britain, though
changing from surface
extraction to deep-shaft mining
was necessary to expand
production. Mining coal was
dangerous, with mine owners
often ruthlessly exploiting a The train takes the strain
workforce that included women BRITAIN 1830
and children until the 1842
The 56 kilometres (35 miles) of track between Liverpool and
Mining Act. Nevertheless, coal
Manchester was the first successful railway line in Britain. Opened in
production continued to climb
1830, it was designed tocarrypayingpassengersaswellascargo.It
– 10 million tons were mined in
made the transportation of goods and raw materials between industrial
1800, that figure rising to over
Manchester and the seaport of Liverpool cheaper and easier, signalling
200 million tons by 1900.
the end of the line for canal transport.
O Across the O Spark of genius O Man of steel O A shining light O The Wright
globe The principle of The first Prolific inventor stuff
In the USA, Eli electromagnetic cost-efficient Thomas Edison Brothers Wilbur
Whitney makes induction is process for refines the and Orville
the cotton gin. discovered by converting pig light bulb into Wright build
The ‘engine’ Michael Faraday. iron into steel a reliable, long- and fly the
separates seeds His research is patented by lasting light first controlled,
from raw cotton, demonstrates inventor and source. His powered
which was that electricity can engineer Henry entire electric aeroplane.
previously done become of practical Bessemer. utility system Orville pilots
by hand. technological use. Michael 1854 soon follows. their Flyer for 12
1794 A cotton gin displayed 1831 Faraday 1879 OneofEdison’sfirst seconds. 1903
at Eli Whitney Museum, demonstration light bulbs
Connecticut
1790 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900
1908
O The locomotion O Need for speed O Astitchintime O Let’s talk O Driven to succeed O Mass production,
Three years after Robert Improving on Elias Despite claims German mechanical mass consumption
demonstrating his Stephenson, Howe’s lockstitch from Elisha engineer Karl Benz, TheModelTcaris
Puffing Devil steam sonofGeorge sewing device, Gray, Scottish- spurredonbywife manufactured by
carriage, Richard Stephenson, Isaac Singer born scientist Bertha, develops Henry Ford. It is
Trevithick runs a wins a speed trail develops the first Alexander Graham the first practical affordable for many
steam locomotive contestwithhis truly practical, Bell is credited car powered by an duetoassembly-line
Replica of Trevithick’s onrailsataWales ‘Rocket’ steam successful sewing with inventing the internal combustion mass-production
locomotive at the National ironworks. 1804 engine. 1829 machine. 1851 telephone. 1876 engine. 1885 The 1885 Benz Patent methods. 1908
Waterfront Museum, Swansea Motorwagon
The first computer Bulk steel
BRITAIN 1837 production
Many engine designs from the BRITAIN 1865
Industrial Revolution were never Steel output increased greatly
built. Perhaps the most astonishing when Bessemer’s converter
device not constructed at the time method was improved by the
was the analytical engine of Charles open-hearth process. Devised
Babbage. His vision was for a huge by Carl Wilhelm Siemens and
brass, steam-powered, mechanical developed by Pierre-Emile Martin,
digital computer. Only much later, it was easier to control and allowed
when modern-day computer for large amounts of scrap iron and
designers began development, did steel to be melted and refined. Bulk
it become clear that Babbage had steel production from the Siemens-
Part of Babbage’s analytical anticipated almost every aspect of German-born engineer Carl Martin process meant a greater use
engine displayed at the their work. Wilhelm Siemens worked
Science Museum, London mainly in Britain of steel in construction.
15
Industrial Revolution
How to
A COUNTRY DESPERATE
FOR A NEW TRANSPORT
SYSTEM, BRITAIN, 1830
STEPHENSON’S ROCKET
Chimney
The tubes feed into the chimney so
that the hot gases can be expelled.
Connecting rod
Movement of the pistons is transferred
to the wheel via a connecting rod, and
forward motion is achieved.
5 DISTINCTIVE
GWR FEATURES
PADDINGTON STN Fed up with the slow and costly canal system,
industrialists wanted to receive and distribute their
materialsandgoodsquicker.Tohelptheircause, Cylinder Firebox Boiler
1854
Designed by Brunel, the glass-roof
structure supported by three theaffluentwerenotgoingtorejecttheideaof Steamfromthe The Rocket’s Using25tubesto
wrought-iron arches is considered travelling the country in something other than a heated water in firebox is separate heatwaterinthe
an architectural masterpiece. horse and carriage either. The time was right for theboilerpasses from the boiler. boilerisavery
into the cylinders, Hot gases from the clever innovation.
something new, something no one had thought
WHARNCLIFFE possible before. The time was right to imagine an whereitforces fire pass through They greatly
movement of the
the boiler via 25
increase the
VALLEY VIADUCT entirely original form of transport – the railways! piston within. copper tubes. amount of steam.
1837
The viaduct carries the railway
across the Brent Valley. It was the
first to be built with hollow piers.
THAMES BRIDGE
1839
Two brickwork arches form
the bridge across the river at
Maidenhead. They were the
flattest, widest arches of any bridge
when constructed.
SONNING CUTTING
1840
The route through Sonning Hill
was hand-dug over two years, with
spoil removed in wheelbarrows and
horse-drawn carts.
Secure backing for the project Identify and survey your route
BOX TUNNEL You might have the ideas but you probably won’t have PeopleandproductswanttobemovedfromAto
01themoney,because financinganewformoftransportis 02B. It is your role to devise the best route for doing it,
1841
Considered an impossible expensive. Luckily, merchants and industrialists, the instigators so you must study and survey the landscape. There will be
engineering task when begun in ofchange,arefarfrompoor,andwillencouragefurther settlementstoswerve,riverstocrossandhillstoavoid–or
1839, the tunnel under Box Hill is investment from family and business contacts. They’ll also have tunnel through! Remember, gradients are the enemy! Steam
2.9km (1.8mi) long.
friends in Parliament to help secure government approval. locomotives are improving, but the flatter your line, the better.
16
Industrial Revolution
4 FAMOUS…
How not to… behave at a railway opening
William Huskisson, MP for Liverpool, was among the honoured guests at RAIL SERVICES
the opening of the Liverpool to Manchester Railway in 1830. The event
began with a number of locomotives leaving Liverpool in convoy. The lead PACIFICRAILROAD
engine, with Prime Minister the Duke of Wellington on board, stopped about
halfway along the route at Parkside Station. Dignitaries were asked not to 1869, USA
leave their respective trains, but Huskisson did so to speak to Wellington. He ThislineranfromSanFranciscoto
approached the Duke’s carriage and they shook hands. Distracted, however, Iowa.Beforeitwasbuilt,travellers
Huskisson was unaware of an approaching engine on the adjacent line. would have to risk life and limb
This was Stephenson’s Rocket, and when Huskisson saw it he panicked. He crossing deserts, mountains and
attempted to clamber into the carriage, but fell in front of the engine. One rivers to get to their destination.
of Huskisson’s legs was completely crushed. He was taken by train to Eccles
and received medical attention, but died shortly after, earning him dubious
notoriety as the first passenger killed on a public railway.
TRANS-SIBERIAN
1891, RUSSIA
Built to encourage development
in Siberia, the Trans-Siberian
Railwayisthelongestinthe
worldat9,289km(5,772mi)long.
Build bridges and tunnels Gauge it correctly
Some natural obstacles cannot be avoided, so your Time to lay rails, but how wide should they be? Other
03line will inevitably have to go over or under them. 04railway projects are underway; it benefits everyone if
Bridges and viaducts to span valleys, although challenges your line can connect with them. Surprisingly, the brilliant FLYINGSCOTSMAN
in themselves, are relatively straightforward compared to engineer Brunel erred when choosing a wide gauge for his Great
1862, BRITAIN
19th-century tunnelling. Longer stretches require bore holes, Western Railway. At considerable cost, his original track was The first express train service
along with a force of thousands of brave workers. fully converted to the standard gauge – 143.5cm (4.7ft) – in 1892. between Edinburgh and London
took 10.5 hours. Now it takes less
than half that time.
ORIENT EXPRESS
1883, FRANCE
This name of this long-distance
service has become synonymous
with luxury travel and intrigue.
Passengers boarding in Paris
could travel as far as Istanbul.
Engines and rolling stock Create an iconic train
Robert Stephenson’s Rocket has just won a competition Once the line is up and running, strive to improve,
05to find the best engine. Better buy your first engines 06offering passengers and companies sending cargo a fast
from his company, then. They’ll need maintenance and and reliable service. Operating a unique express train will help
repairs, so a railway works is a good idea. You can even start to build your brand. For example, clever marketing saw the GWR
© Peters & Zabransky
build your own engines and rolling stock there. Position it well London to Exeter express renamed the Flying Dutchman after
and it will contribute enormously to your line’s success. the horse that won the Derby and St Ledger races in 1849.
17
Industrial Revolution
CAP
OIL-WICKLAMP WARNING: RISK OF HEADACHE
Electric lamp hard hats were not invented until 1914, so
SMALL BUT DEADLY during the 19th century the hats worn by miners were either
Invented in Scotland in 1850, the oil-wick, or cloth miners’ caps or everyday felt hats. Early versions would
‘teapot’ lamp, was small enough to attach to feature a metal plate with a small hole for a candlestick or
the miners’ caps in place of the traditional lamp. Because of the lack of protection, many miners were
candle. This was just as dangerous, though, injured or killed due to head injuries.
as the naked flame could cause flammable
gases in the rocks to explode. The safety lamp,
which became known as the ‘Miner’s Friend’,
featured wire gauze that acted as a barrier
between the heat and any lurking gases.
LUNCH BOX
PERFECTFORACANDLELITLUNCH
Allminerswouldcarryametal
snaptinattachedtotheirbelt
to take their lunch down into
thepit.Cornishversionswould
feature multiple compartments,
with a section filled with tea
thatcouldbeheated,another
with the main course and
PERSISTENTCOUGH the last with a dessert. Some
variations even had a teacup
OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS attached to the lid.
Miners were at risk of
developing a variety of
dangerous and life-limiting
illnesses and deformations.
Children who worked in
the mine often experienced
stunted growth, and the WELL-WORN CLOTHES
long days down in the
depths could also lead to COVEREDINSOOT,MUDANDGREASE
curvature of the spine,
crippled legs and skin Although coal miners were paid well for
irritations. Most common theirbackbreakingwork,finesandthecost
of all were conditions like of equipment could eat into their wages.
bronchitis, rheumatism and Themainfocuswasprovidingfoodfortheir
black lung disease from families,soclothingwasnotapriority.Most
exposure to coal dust. minerswouldweartheireverydayattirein
themines–apairofoverallsandashirt–
which quickly became dirtied and ruined.
THE
Anatomy
of
TOOLS
PICKING THE RIGHT
EQUIPMENT FOR THE JOB
The tools carried by miners ACOALMINER
would depend on their jobs,
with older children and women
working to push the tubs of
coal around the mine. The men
would cut the coal straight from
the coalface with pickaxes and
HARD WORKERS DIGGING IN THE
then load it into small wagons
with shovels.
DIRT TO POWER THE NATION
GREAT BRITAIN, 19TH CENTURY
© Kevin McGivern
18
RD
TH
FRIDAY 3 APRIL–MONDAY 11 MAY 2015
WINSTON CHURCHILL
CAPTURE THE OF OUR ISLANDS
PLAN YOUR FESTIVAL BREAK AT:
VISITCHANNELISLANDS.COM
Industrial Revolution
Hall of Fame
INDUSTRIALPIO
Meetthegiantsofindustrywhotransformed
big b
strial
was
mass-
sthe
hind
Bessemer held at
least 129 different sprocess
patents in his lifetime olten pig
duction.
he expan
ilway lin
only in B
M BRUNEL
d with the development
ch weight as Isambard
nch engineer Mark
ointed chief engineer of
uilt a network of tunnels,
an engineering pioneer,
-standing problems,
a navigable river. He
ing steamships and
Brunel’s innovation led
est ships the world had
w, develop and trade in
James Hargreaves
ENGLISH 1720-1778
The mechanization of the textile
industry was a major force behind
the Industrial Revolution. James
Hargreaves contributed massively to
this empire with his creation known
as the spinning jenny. When the
demand for cotton yarn outstripped
the capabilities of the one-thread
spinning wheel, Hargreaves created
a multi-spindle spinning frame that
could work eight or more spools
at once. Hargreaves set up shop in
Trevithick stood at a tall Nottingham – a centre of the textile
188cm (6’2”) high and was
known as the Cornish Giant industry – where his invention quickly
found success and popularity.
ndustrial Revolution
Stephenson
wasfondof
Richard Arkwright growing straight
ENGLISH 1732-1792 cucumbers in a
GEORGE STEPHENSON
A figure so influential he is known by straight glass ENGLISH 1781-1848
many as ‘the Father of the Industrial tube Known as the ‘Father of Railways’, Stephenson saw
Revolution’, Arkwright’s inventions
Britain develop from a land of farms into one of
and ingenuity helped
factories, contributing hugely to the transformation.
industrial age. Arkwr
While Stephenson created a safety lamp for use in
new processes in yar
coal mines, known as a ‘Geordie’, he is remembered
and was the first to u
most for his innovations on the railway. A skilled
steam engine to pow
engineer, Stephenson created the first public
machinery. Arkwrigh
railway line to use steam locomotives (and
innovation in combin
created the locomotives as well), and even drove
power, machinery
the first train. The success of his locomotive
and labour led to
‘Rocket’ inspired countless constructions of
the creation of the
railway lines and locomotives across the
modern factory
country, helping make Britain the wealthiest
and the boom of
country in the world.
the British cotton Arkwright’s family did
textile industry. not have enough money
to send him to school so Watt’s first business was a scientific
he was taught to read and instrument repairing business at the
write by his cousin JAMES WATT University of Glasgow
SCOTTISH 1736-1819
ELI WHITNEY
AMERICAN 1765-1825 Although the unit of measurement ‘Watt’ is named in his
While the industrial revolution was blasting honour,itwashisimprovementsinsteamtechnologythat
broughtWattfameandsuccess.Whileworkingasanengineer,
full steam ahead in Britain, America too was
Watt was sent a steam engine to repair. When reassembling
experiencing the start of its own industrial
it,hedevisedawaytomakeitmoreefficient.Hedesigneda
revolution, and one of the key figures of that
separate condensing chamber that reduced steam loss. With
revolution was Eli Whitney. It was Whitney’s
hisnewdesign,Wattbegantomanufactureengines,andhis
invention of the cotton gin that
company soon became the most important engineering firm
completely
inthecountry.Theefficiencybrou
way cotton
fundamental in bringing the Indus
Although W
helped to s
economy o Samuel Crompton
the unfortu ENGLISH 1753-1827
reinvigorat
Despite not being credited in his lifetime,
which was Samuel Crompton invented a machine
helping to b that helped revolutionise industry. When
Revolution his father died, a young Crompton learned
to spin yarn to help provide for the
many histo
family. However, the shortcomings of the
creation of
spinning jenny he used inspired him to
gin to the o create something better. In 1779 he made
of the Ame Crompton was too poor to the spinning mule – a machine that spun
apply for a patent so never
Civil War. received any profit from yarn used for the manufacture of muslin.
his invention By 1834 it became a fully
automatic machine.
Whitney’s invention, the cotton Owen
gin, was a bitter-sweet addition
to the cotton industry left Britain for
ROBERT OWEN the United States
WELSH 1771-1858
With the rapid increase of industrialisation in 1824 where he
Hargreaves kept his set up an ill-fated
creation a secret for during the revolution, demand was high,
many years pay was low and working conditions were 1,000-member
terrible. This prompted a period of social and colony
economic reform, and one of the first men
to consider worker welfare was Robert
Owen. His pioneering work included
shortening the working day, introducing
a minimum wage, improving his
workers’ living conditions and even
creating the first national union.
While Owen’s union collapsed, his
ideas helped develop the modern
cooperative movement.
© Alamy
21
Industrial Revolution
Attic
Beds in the attic were
mainly rented out to
single workers, but
sometimes it was occupied
by more than one family.
WORKING-
CLASSHOME
HOW TO LIVE LIKE COMMON
PEOPLE, LATE-18TH CENTURY & 19TH Outdoor
CENTURY, ENGLAND toilet
Back-to-back houses
didn’t have their own
bathroom. Instead, one
outdoor toilet would
have been shared
he Industrial Revolution saw a huge
between seven houses
influx of workers from the countryside – that’s around 60
to the cities, over a very short space people in total!
of time. The cities needed more
T affordable housing – and they needed
it fast. The solution was back-to-back houses.
These were small, terraced homes where
around nine adults and children lived, slept
and ate together in incredibly cramped
conditions. With few building regulations,
houses were often poorly constructed and
suffered from damp and bad drainage. Those
who could only afford cellar dwellings lived
in the worst conditions, as damp would seep Washing
to the lowest part of the house, and Working-class people
basements were often flooded by would wash in a tin bath
overflowing cesspools. in front of the kitchen
range. Clothes would be
washed in a bowl and
dried using a mangle – an
invention of the Industrial
Revolution.
22
Industrial Revolution
‘‘ Houses suffered
from damp and bad
drainage, and basements
were often flooded by
’’
overflowing cesspools
Bedroom
An entire family slept in
one room, with two or
three children sharing a
single bed. Girls and boys
as young as four would be
sent out to work.
Living room
One room served as a
kitchen, dining and living
room. Here, multiple
workers and families ate
together. A typical meal
consisted of bread and gruel.
Walls
These were thin and badly built. Noise
travelled easily through the walls, not to
mention the damp and sewage.
Back to back
In order to provide
as much housing as
possible, homes were
built back to back
and in terraced rows.
Very few had a yard.
Drinking water
While some homes were lucky
enough to have access to a well and
pump, for many people the only
solution to getting fresh drinking
Basement water was leaving out a bucket to
collect rainwater.
This was the
cheapest part of the
house to rent. It was
dark, damp, and
© Sol 90 Images
reeked of sewage.
23
Top5facts
CHARLES
DICKENS
CELEBRATED WRITER FOR
ALL SOCIAL CLASSES
01 POLITENESS
WAS NOT HIS FORTE
Hans Christian
Andersen deeply
admired Dickens,
and even dedicated
a book to him. But
when Andersen stayed
with Dickens and his
family in 1857, he may
have overstayed his CHARLES DICKENS
English,
welcome, as Dickens 7 February 1812 - 9 June 1870
inscribed on the guest Known as the greatest
Brief Victorian novelist,
room mirror: “Hans Bio Dickens experienced a
difficult start in life as
Andersen slept in this he was forced to leave
school and work in a factory
room for five weeks when his father was thrown
in prison. Wildly popular in his
which seemed to the life and today, his novels such
as Hard Times portray a dark,
family AGES!” critical view of the industrial
revolution, and the pain it
wrought upon common people.
Dickens wasn’t He was a hero People were Death and corpses
02 only a writer 03 When Dickens was 04 obsessed with 05fascinated him
As well as being a writer, Dickens involved in a train derailment, he reading his books Dickens was obsessed with corpses
was also an enthusiastic conjurer. He evacuated his carriage and tended Well before Harry Potter, Dickens’s and death, considering it the
performed his magic show on the to the wounded for hours. He novels created mania among the ultimate, most threatening mystery.
Isle of Wight for a group of friends comforted the dying with brandy population. People gathered at the He often spent time visiting morgues
and gave himself the stage name, and a hat filled with water, while docks to await chapter 71 of The Old to study corpses and commented
‘The Unparalleled Necromancer Rhia also saving some lives. He only Curiosity Shop and demanded the “Whenever I am at Paris, I am
Rhama Rhoos, educated cabalistically just remembered to retrieve his ship’s captain reveal the protagonist’s dragged by invisible force into
in the Orange Groves of Salamanca manuscript for Our Mutual Friend fate, which apparently produced a the morgue.” He even spent one
and the Ocean Caves of Alum Bay’. before he left the scene. collective groan. Christmas and New Year’s day there.
© Corbis
24
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Industrial Revolution
Day in the life
ACHILDLABOURER
RISKING LIFE AND LIMB TO BRING HOME
A PITTANCE, GREAT BRITAIN,
19TH CENTURY
A British census conducted in 1841 reported that almost 107,000
children were employed in the textile industry alone. The reason
for this sudden boom in child labour was no mystery. As industry
moved from the fields to the factories, families poured into the
cities to find employment. For the factory owners, children were
the obvious choice for their new workforce; not only were they
small enough to move under the machines, but they could
also get away with paying them less than adults, though
their workload was equal. Although laws were
eventually passed, child labour continued in
Europe well into the 20th century.
GO TO WORK
All children would need to be at the mill at
6am, and 5am during busy periods. One form of
punishment for tardiness was to be ‘weighted’.
This involved a heavy weight being tied
to the offender’s neck, then they were
forced to walk up and down the factory.
There were even cases of children
being dragged to the factory naked,
holding their clothes, to ensure they
would not be late even by a minute.
The families who moved from
WORK TIRELESSLY the country to the cities were
Tasks appointed to children varied forced to live in cramped and
polluted conditions
depending on their size, gender and age. The
youngest and smallest children would work
as scavengers, squeezing under the machinery
while it was still in motion to pick up scraps of
cotton that had fallen to the floor. ‘Piercers’ were
small girls who mended broken threads. The most
common employment of children was to keep the
machines oiled, working and supplied with thread.
EAT LUNCH “Anyone who was
Child labourers would only get 30 minutes to eat
lunch. Because they would need a lot of energy, found disobeying these
their diet was high in carbohydrates. Common
foods were oatcakes, porridge, gruel and beer. rules or slacking would
Meanwhile, water would be difficult to get because
much of it was polluted, and milk and dairy
products were often too expensive. be brutally punished”
26
Industrial Revolution
11-year-old Nannie Coleson made $3 a week
as a looper in the Crescent Hosiery Mill,
Tennessee, at the start of the 20th century
GET AN INJURY
The Industrial Revolution filled the factories with
large, heavy and dangerous new equipment.
Although these machines increased efficiency, they
posed great danger to the children who worked
with them. Not only did the heavy amount of dust
encourage respiratory diseases, but children would
also suffer stunted growth and severe back pain.
Those working in mills could bruise, skin or even
lose their fingers on the dangerous machinery. It
wasn’t until the Factory Act of 1833 that conditions
began to improve.
Lord Shaftesbury was a social COLLECT WAGES
reformer who campaigned for The most attractive thing about child workers
children’s rights during the is that they were far cheaper than their adult
Industrial Revolution
alternatives. As there was no legislation in place,
child wages varied widely during the Industrial
Revolution. On average child workers were paid
about ten to 20 per cent of the equivalent adult’s
wages – while men could earn 15 shillings (75
pence) a week, children earned just three shillings
(15 pence).
ATTEMPT ESCAPE
Many of the children who worked in these
dangerous factories were orphan apprentices
who received no wages, but instead were paid in
inadequate food, shelter and clothing. Because
sometimes these orphans would attempt to escape,
they were locked up when not working. Any
children who did run away could be sent to prison,
and rebellious would-be runaways had shackles
riveted to their ankles to prevent any further
chance of escape.
RECEIVE PUNISHMENT
Factories operated with a very strict set of rules,
and anyone who was found disobeying these rules
or slacking would be brutally punished. Verbal
abuse and beatings by supervisors were very
common, and there were reports of children being
beaten so brutally that they later died as a result of
their injuries. A brutal punishment for girls proud
of their hair was haircutting, and children found
slacking were held by their legs and dipped into
cisterns filled with water.
How do we know this? WORK INTO THE NIGHT
Child labourers would often work until nine or ten
Child Workers And Industrial Health In Britain by Peter Kirby at night; on Saturdays they could even work until
deals specifically with the occupational health of children
employed in the factories during the period, while Childhood midnight. When the 1833 Factory Act was passed,
And Child Labour In The British Industrial Revolution by Jane set working hours finally came into effect, with
Humphries provides an account of working-class childhood. children aged nine to 13 only allowed to work eight
The investigations carried out prior to the passing of the hours, 14 to 18-year-olds no more than 12 hours, and
Factory Acts provide clear information about the appalling
conditions children were working in. There is also a wealth those under nine were prohibited from working at
of interviews with child labourers of the time, most notably all. This also brought compulsory education of two
those interviewed for the Lion newspaper. hours a day into effect.
© Alamy
27
Greatest Battles
Stirling Castle
The English king, Edward II, was marching
to the relief of his strategically vital castle at
Stirling, which was pledged to King Robert
Bruce of Scotland if the English force did
not arrive in time. Edward’s appearance in
Scotland forced Bruce to put his numerically
weaker army into the field.
The cavalry undone
TheimpetuousEnglishleaderspurredhis
horsemen into the advancing Scots infantry
before King Edward’s archers could cause
any damage, and the mounted knights made
little impression on the Scots line, with many
horses trying to turn away from the bristling
wallofpikes.Mostofthosethatmadeitwere
impaled, unhorsing their riders.
The Scots advance
The Scots advanced from their right flank
with King Robert’s brother, Edward Bruce,
leading his schiltron (or shield-wall) toward
the English. Though suggesting a straight
line, a schiltron was in fact a fluid formation
and King Robert had trained his men well,
instilling a discipline in his infantry that was
© Andrew Hillhouse
rare during this period.
28
English in chaos
As the English vanguard crashed
against the Scots pikes, men
BATTLE OF
were thrown to the ground, but
the ranks behind the front line
also pushed forward causing an
almighty press, leaving no room
for those trying to retreat. The
field at Bannockburn became a
killing ground. BANNOCKBURN
SCOTLAND 23-24 JUNE 1314
t was Philip Mowbray, England’s custodian of 24 June proved pivotal. As the English forces
Stirling Castle, who precipitated the Battle of massed, Bruce gave the order to attack. The
Bannockburn in midsummer 1314. The previous Scots infantry was formed in schiltrons (shield-
year, the king of Scotland, Robert Bruce, had walls), flexible phalanxes bristling with pikes that
I attacked English strongholds within his realm, outreached the English lances. They were split into
his brother assaulting the strategically vital fortress four units, with the king’s brother, Edward Bruce,
at Stirling. Mowbray then offered a chivalric deal. If leading the army from the right flank. On his left
the Scots lifted the siege, he’d keep his men inside came Thomas Randolph, with Douglas alongside
the castle, ceding the crossing at Stirling Bridge, him. Robert Bruce held his men in reserve on the
thereby allowing the Scots to harangue other left with his squadron of cavalry led by Robert Keith.
outposts. If no English relief force arrived within one Hostilities began with an exchange of arrows,
year, Mowbray would surrender the castle. though the first clash came when the English
Now, in the summer of 1314, King Edward II cavalry moved forward. Gilbert de Clare, Earl of
marched to the castle’s relief and Bruce knew he Gloucester, considered it his honour to lead the
must prevent their arrival. Even so – and despite attack, though the king had given no such order. As
psychologically important skirmish victories against the knights trotted up the slope toward the Scots,
Edward’s vanguard on 23 June – the night before the the impetuous Gloucester broke into a charge and
decisive engagement at Bannockburn, Bruce was soon the entire English vanguard was thundering
contemplating withdrawal from a strong position. toward the leading schiltron.
He had learned that avoiding pitched battle was The move was a lamentable failure, the heavily
the surest route to success. The English armies armoured knights making no impression against the
were larger than his own and boasted more tightly packed pike-men, and Gloucester was among
armoured knights. Only when boosted by reports of the first to fall. Horses were disembowelled and the
diminishing English morale did he finally elect to chivalry of England unhorsed. Moray and Douglas
face Edward on 24 June. brought their brigades forward against the remaining
One of the victories on the previous day was English divisions. Carnage ensued. Archers on the
Bruce’s own. Sir Henry de Bohun had spied the English right inflicted losses on the Scottish left, but
Scottish king out in front of his men, his crown Keith’s cavalry soon dispersed them.
glittering in the sunlight. Bruce was astride his With the English knights in chaos and their
palfrey, while Bohun rode his warhorse and knew infantry yet to engage, the Scots pressed home the
if he could strike Bruce down, the battle would be advantage with the famous charges of the ‘gillies’, a
won. Bohun spurred his charger forward. Bruce mob of camp followers who joined Bruce’s reserve.
carried only an axe, yet still he met his foe, nudging The remaining English forces broke and fled, many
aside his lighter horse just as Bohun passed and drowning as they sought to cross the waters of the
bringing down the axe on his enemy’s helm, Bannockburn. Edward II fled to Stirling as Scotland
splitting his skull. Bruce had struck the first blow. had inflicted upon England its greatest-ever defeat.
29
Greatest Battles
Bruce makes
England 01 his move
At daybreak, King Robert gives
the order to attack the assembling
English army, the honour belonging
TROOPS 14,000
tohisbrother,EdwardBruce,who
moves his schiltron forward with
CAVALRY 3,000
Moray and Douglas following in a
stepped march. Once out in the
open the Scots army, to a man,
falls to its knees and prays to God.
EdwardIIisheardtosay,“Those
men kneel to ask for mercy.” It is
mercy they seek, but from God, not 06
from the English.
02 Gloucester bids for glory
EDWARDII As the Scots take up arms again the English
cavalrybegintotrotforwardwithsome
chroniclers reporting a brief exchange of 07
LEADER arrows from the archers on both sides.
Edward II inherited the Plantagenet The impetuous Earl of Gloucester spurs
empire of England, Wales, Gascony, forward his destrier in a bid to claim
Ponthieu and Aquitaine. thegloryofleadingtheassault,even
Strengths Had military experience thoughthekinghasgivennoorders 09
in Scotland and boasted the toattack.Oncewarhorsespickup
strength of an entire empire. pace,afullchargeisineffect.
Weakness Aweakkingandnot 04
militaryminded.Manyofhisnobles, 03 The bloodbath
andindeedhiswife,despisedhim.
begins
The first wave of English
horsemen crashes
against the Scots’ hedge
of pikes and they make
no impression, the
air filling with cries
of horses and men
HEAVYCAVALRY and the snapping
of spear shafts.
Some horses shy
KEY UNIT
The 13th and 14th-century horseman away from bristling
wasthebattletankofhisday,his walls of spears but
simple strategy to charge the enemy. such is the press,
Strengths A bludgeoning charge there is nowhere
was devastating for infantry.
Weakness Fought as individuals. for them to turn.
Vulnerable to massed ranks of Gloucester is
spearmen,aslongastheyheldfirm. among the first
of the great English
knights slain.
05 THE PRESS IS ON
In the chaos of battle, the English
The Scots English knights in the ranks 06 archers
04 move in engage
With Edward Bruce behind Gloucester continue to Only after the English have
THEWARHORSE holding the English van, push forward. A hacking and taken terrible punishment is
Moray and Douglas bring there room for the archers
KEY WEAPON jabbingmeleeensues,withthe
up their brigades and on their right to harass
The destriers of the English cavalry
were bred from French and Spanish attack the remaining horseman having no further the left flank of the Scots.
stock and were more powerful than English divisions, which Some archers succeed only
the palfreys used for everyday riding. are thought to have momentum to use their lances in hitting their own knights,
Strengths Strong enough to wear
cloth and toughened leather. bunched in a solid mass and proving easy targets for the though a barrage of arrows
Weakness Could be spooked, given the narrowness of does begin to fall among
especially when facing bristling pikes. the battlefield. Scots’ hedgehogs of pikes. the Scottish schiltrons.
30
Greatest Battles
The battle is won Scotland
10 Perhaps sensing the charging
camp followers are another Scots
army reinforcing their brethren, the TROOPS 6,000
remaining English knights sense
the battle is over and the Earl of CAVALRY 500
Pembroke and Sir Giles de Argentine,
08
detailed to protect King Edward,
take their important charge north
toward Stirling, while the remainder
of the army is put to rout, the Scots
savouring a killing spree as English
men and horses clog the ford
across the Bannockburn waters.
The day belongs to the Scots.
ROBERTBRUCE
LEADER
Crowned king of Scotland in 1306,
10 Robert Bruce knew his fiscally
inferior country needed to avoid
02
pitched battles.
05
Strengths A master of guerrilla
warfare: had a steely determination.
Weakness Many of his noblemen
stillpreferredtoallythemselves
03
withthemorepowerfulEnglishking.
01
THE SCHILTRON
FOR MORE GREAT BATTLES SEE
KEY UNIT
Many Scottish knights dismounted
to form the nucleus at the centre of
these shield walls. Plus, the Scots
infantry were more used to warfare
than their English counterparts.
Strengths A hedge of pikes was
effective against a cavalry charge.
Weakness The schiltron was
susceptible to attack from archers.
ISSUE 12, ON SALE NOW
0
08 INFANTRY ge
07 Keith’s With th lry fighting a
desperat and hopeless cause with
cavalry assault PROVE IMPOTENT
Robert Keith with his The larger part of the English thewrongtacticsandweapons, and
small contingent of being pushed back onto the boggy
horsemen proves how infantry does not engage at all ground behind them, the ‘small THEPIKE
effective cavalry could folk’ or camp followers, separated
be when used against and the vast majority remain on KEY WEAPON
infantry, and his charge from the main Scots army, suddenly Theextrafewfeetofferedbyapike
into the English archers the opposite side of the waters charge onto the battlefield. Bruce gavethemenapsychologicalboost
sends them scurrying would not want serfs killing English andBrucehadtimetotrainhismen
back toward their army’s of Bannockburn, unable to see knights who could be held for in their use against cavalry.
rear where they are valuable ransom, but they bowl Strengths 5.5m (18ft) pike could
lambasted, and even a path through the massed extendfurtherthanaknight’slance.
attacked, by their fellow muddle of cavalry in front. into the melee with their crude Weakness Not every Scot in the © Alamy;Thinkstock;SayoStudio
foot-soldiers. weaponry, no doubt eager for booty. schiltrons carried the elongated pike.
31
Eye Witness
MANDELA BECOMES PRESIDENT
Soldiers try to control a passionate
crowd during one of Nelson Mandela’s
election campaign rallies
32
Eye Witness
MANDELA BECOMES PRESIDENT,
SOUTH AFRICA, PRETORIA, 10 MAY 1994
Written by Dom Reseigh-Lincoln
‘‘ Iknewwith the
GILLIAN KERRUISH
Gillian Kerruish
wasbornin
South Africa’s absolute conviction of a
northern capital
Pretoria in 1984
and has lived in
atleasthalfof the country’s child that this would be
provinces. Apart from a trip
to Switzerland when she was
aged seven, Gillian has not left
the borders of South Africa.
She lives in Johannesburg, the greatest day of my
where she works as a
receptionist at a law firm. She’s
also studying to be a sworn
translator in Mandarin Chinese. entire life ’’
outh Africa was changing. After three centuries coalition,andthetwoworkedtirelesslytobringthe
of white government, the 25th largest country in nation out of the shadow of apartheid and into a new
the world was on the precipice of a new political age of racial equality. Four years later, and Mandela was
and social age. For 46 years the ruling National voted in as the head of a government that had, in a
SParty had gripped the country in the chokehold very different form, stolen his freedom 30 years earlier.
of apartheid, a system of racial segregation that elevated It was a stark reversal of fortunes and the rest of the
the white minority Afrikaners while treating black South world waited with baited breath to see how the next
Africans like second-class citizens on their own soil. chapter in South African history would play out. It was
Sanctioned by trade embargoes and vexed by an internal a momentous occasion and Gillian Kerruish, aged nine
resistance that wasn’t averse to using violent guerrilla years old at the time, was there in person to see the
tactics to destabilise white control, South Africa was fast country’s first black head of state address the world.
becoming a powder keg on the verge of igniting. “Oddly enough, while I have spent more than half
That change came not in the form of one man, but my life in Cape Town, it was a sheer stroke of luck that I
two. The first was Frederik Willem de Klerk, a previously was living in Pretoria in 1994,” says Gillian. “I was living
conservative white member of the National Party who in Cape Town, when my parents divorced. But I then
surprised many in government when he chose to head moved to Pretoria with my father, enrolling at a local
up the ‘verligte’ (‘enlightened’), a new movement that public school soon after. The first time I became aware
believed that the apartheid had a half-life that was slowly of anything properly political was a few months before
running out. When he became state president of South when the headmistress called a special assembly and
Africa in September 1989, de Klerk knew that drastic told us that for the first time in our country’s history
action was needed to transition the country into a non- we would have a fully free and fair presidential election.
racist nation. By February 1990, he did just that - he I was only a child so this meant nothing to me in the
lifted the ban on the African National Congress (ANC) greater scheme of my life. But I could tell that something
and African Communist parties and released one of the big had just happened.”
country’s most iconic figures. That man was Nelson Something big had indeed happened. So big in fact it
Mandela. Imprisoned on charges of terrorism for 27 would either unite the country or rip it apart as the more
years, Mandela had become a symbol of South Africa’s extreme elements of each racial denomination fought to
suppressed black citizens. gain a foothold on the country’s future. When Mandela
The unity between South Africa’s progressively liberal chose to run for de Klerk’s own position at the beginning
leader and the face of black nationalism was a powerful of 1994, he sent out a powerful statement to the world:
33
Eye Witness
MANDELA BECOMES PRESIDENT
Mandela’s road at the time (although they were several grades ahead of
me).Theheadmistressthenwentontoannouncethat
to presidency severalschoolshadbeenselectedtoprovideacertain
number of children to stand at the foot of the Union
Building stairs. I don’t know how my school selected
EDT
O Long-awaited release
11 Feb 1990 the20childrenwhowent,butIwasluckyenoughto
Nelson Mandela, aged 71, is freed
from prison after 27 and a half beoneofthem.Itwasthemostexcitingthingthathad
years of imprisonment. happened to me all year.”
That feeling of excitement and anticipation had
sweptthewholenationwitharecord19,726,579votes
O The ban lifts
Feb 1990 cast.Mandela’sANCtriumphedwithapowerful62
State president de Klerk also
lifts the ban on Mandela’s ANC percentofthevote.Itthenformedagovernment
(African National Congress).
Following the political isolation South Africa endured of National Unity with its two political rivals and
undertheapartheidmovement,Mandelaunderstoodthe drastically reestablished the political makeup of the
importanceofgoodrelationswithworldleaderssuchasUS
O Guerrilla campaign abates president Bill Clinton National Assembly (South Africa’s equivalent of the
7 Aug 1990
The ANC suspends its campaign HouseofCommons).Onthemorningof10May1994
of guerrilla warfare against
apartheid after 30 years. Mandela arrived at the Union Buildings (South Africa’s
South Africa was ready to embrace change. The general governmentalseat)inPretoriaandwasswornintooffice
election that followed was a pivotal turning point in in front of 4,000 politicians and dignitaries from around
O Mandela leads
5 July 1991 SouthAfricanhistory.Forthefirsttimeever,allraces the world. South Africans of every race and background
After a successful global tour,
Mandela is unanimously elected couldcastavote.Theelectionwasaheatedaffairwith were celebrating and Gillian can still recall it vividly.
as the leader of the ANC. three main parties in contention (the Inkatha Freedom “Ontheday,theorganisersbussedalltheselected
Party led by Mangosuthu Buthelezi, the National children to a stadium nearby. There were probably only
PartyledbyFWdeKlerkandtheANCheadedupby acouplehundredofusfromeverywalkoflife,butitfelt
O Devastation in Boipatong
17 June 1992
300 armed men attack the Mandela). South Africa’s political landscape had changed like a lot more. We were lined up by height and were
settlement of Boipatong, killing drasticallyinthefiveyearsanditwaspermeatingevery allwearingnewT-shirtswiththenewSouthAfrican
over 45 people.
corner of society. flag, new shorts and new takkies (RSA for ‘trainers’).
“Duringschoolassemblyoneday,ourheadmistress Then we were bussed to the Union Buildings, where
O Chris Hani is killed went on to congratulate the granddaughters of Madiba people in military uniforms were lining the road.
10 April 1993
Chris Hani, leader of the South (this was Mandela’s tribal name and was the one South Theotherdignitarieswerealreadyarriving,sowegot
African Communist Party is
murdered by a white man. Africans used most when referring to him),” recalls an interesting view of important people that I didn’t
Gillian. “The two girls were actually at school with me recognise at the time.”
O Shared Nobel Peace Prize
15 Oct 1993
De Klerk and Mandela accept a “ All I knew was that this man, climbing out of
Nobel Peace Prize for efforts to
the car, was going to be someone important”
form a multinational government.
O A new constitution
18 Nov 1993
Negotiations between white and
black leaders eventually settle on
a new, amended constitution.
O An equal vote
April 1994
After 46 years of apartheid, black
South Africans are legally able to
vote. Mandela runs for president.
O Victory for ANC
27 April 1994
With Mandela as its figurehead,
the ANC wins with more than 62
per cent of the vote.
O Mandela’s inauguration
10 May 1994
Mandela is sworn in as first black
president of South Africa before
4,000 politicians and dignitaries.
O Mbeki follows for the ANC
16 June 1999
Thabo Mbeki succeeds Mandela
in another victory for the ANC.
O Legacy and Mandela’s death
5 Dec 2013
Mandela continues to campaign Nelson Mandela and his wife Winnie after his
for international cooperation, but release from Victor Verster prison
passes away at the age of 95.
34
Eye Witness
MANDELA BECOMES PRESIDENT
Where did it happen?
Presidential seat
Completed in 1913,
Jacaranda City the Union Buildings
So called for the thousands are the official seat
of purple-blossom jacaranda of the South African
trees that line its streets, government as well as
Pretoria is one of three serving as the offices
capital cities in South Africa. of the president.
Sworn into office
Before meeting the
crowds outside, Nelson
Mandela was officially
sworn in as president
in front of a gathering
Addressing the masses 4,000 dignitaries from
Over 100,000 South Africans gathered 140 countries.
in the grounds of the Union Buildings to
celebrate the first black president in 300
years of white rule.
Stood by the stairs leading down from the front of gone, whisked away by the men in suits. To be honest, I Mandela’s
the Union Buildings, Gillian had a front row seat to felt a little bereft that us children hadn’t had more time lasting legacy
the hysteria building around her. Over 100,000 people with him. We were all sad to see him go.”
gathered in the grounds in the front of the buildings, Mandelawouldthenmoveonandmakehisspeech Mandela’stimeasSouthAfricanpresident
whooping and waving flags in anticipation for Mandela’s to the crowds gathered before and the rest of the mayhaveonlylastedfiveyears,buthis
influence as a peace activist and a symbol
arrival. Media outlets from across the world gathered watching world, citing, “the depth of the pain we all
fornationalunitynotonlyleftitsmarkon
nearby, eager to capture two unique moments: the carried in our hearts as we saw our country tear itself South Africa, but the rest of the world as
culmination of South Africa’s first true democratic apart in a terrible conflict,” as one of the driving forces a whole. Upon leaving the crowds at the
election and the inauguration of its first black president. behind his campaign to lead South Africa forward. Union Buildings in Pretoria, a mountain
The atmosphere itself around nine-year-old Gillian was “Never again shall it be that this beautiful land will ofatasklayaheadofhim.Mandelanot
onlyhadtoproveSouthAfricawasnot
charged as Mandela approached the crowds. again experience the oppression of one by another and
another rogue African state ruled by gun
“They were getting more restless and alert, making suffertheindignityofbeingtheskunkoftheworld,”he runners and warlords, but reassure white
some last minute adjustments. There seemed to be remarked.ByappointinghispredecessordeKlerkasthe SouthAfricansthatthecountry’sfirstblack
more men in black suits on the road in front of us,” says deputy president, Mandela helped foster a new political president would not spearhead a campaign
of reprisals in the wake of apartheid.
Gillian. “Then a black car pulled up, and the military lady ecosystemforSouthAfrica.Itwasfarfromperfect,and
By appointing his predecessor FW de
in front of me stood to attention. For a second or two it would be a long and painful road to finally shake off Klerkasdeputypresident,Mandelawas
nothing happened, then a man in a black suit came to theshadowofapartheid,butitwasajourneyMandela able to initially appease white citizens,
the car and opened the door. The black children around wouldrelishfortherestofhispresidencyandhislife. while his reluctance to follow the elitist
me were already starting to cheer and dance up and “Whenitwasalldone,afterthespeechandthe landreformsofRobertMugabe’snew
Zimbabwean regime helped accelerate
down, and I can remember wondering what they knew awe-inspiring jet flyover, we were bussed back to
the removal of foreign sanctions. Some
that I didn’t because they obviously knew who this school. When I got home, I realised that my father of Mandela’s critics have accused him of
‘Madiba’ person was. I was a little jealous that I had no and grandmother had stayed home and watched the sacrificing economic recovery for social
reason to be as excited as them. All I knew was that this entire thing on TV. My father hugged me hard, and my reconciliation, but his reforms and legacy
have no doubt helped South Africa in
man, who was climbing out of the car, was going to be grandmotherwascryinghappytears.Itwasatthatpoint
distancing itself from decades of damaging
someone important.” thatIrealisedthat,smallasitwas,Ihadbecomeapart racial segregation.
“All of this became unimportant when I saw him. of history.”
And the first thought I thought was: ‘He looks like my
oupa (RSA for ‘grandfather’)!’ He was smiling his now Have you witnessed a
famous smile, and began waving to us as we waved our
flags and shouted, ‘Well done, Madiba!’ I knew I could landmark event in history?
trust him. I knew he was good. I knew with the absolute Tellusaboutitat… ©Corbis;GettyImages
conviction of a child, that this would be the greatest day
of my entire life,” recalls Gillian fondly. “And then he was [email protected]
35
Bluff er’s Guide
Wall Street Crash
UNITED STATES, 1929
The not-so Roaring
Twenties…
Although the postwar 1920s
periodofjazzandexcessis
oftenportrayedasaperiod
of opulence, this is not
strictlytrue.60percentof
the population earned less
than the basic minimum of
$2,000ayeartoliveon,and
thegapbetweenrichand
poor was huge. People were
buying new consumer goods
likefridges,typewritersand
carsoncredit,whichledtoan
inflated economy, which in
turn inflated share prices.
What was it? What caused it? Mass suicide?
AlsoknownasBlackTuesday,theWall The stock market seemed like a surefire bet,. It’s commonly believed that many traders
Street Crash occurred in late-October People would borrow money from banks to buy reacted to the crash by throwing themselves
1929andwastheworststockmarket stocks, and then the stocks were used as collateral out of high windows, with mass suicide
crashintheUnitedStates’history.The for the loans. So many people were doing this sweeping through the wealthy who had lost
crash subsequently plunged much that it created a debt of billions of dollars. When everything. Newspapers at the time helped
oftheworldintoasevereeconomic the market began to dip around 4 October, people to sensationalise these accounts, but actually
depressionthatlastedtenyears,and panicked and it led to mass selling as traders tried this is not true. Of the 100 suicide attempts
hasevenbeenlinkedtoWorldWarII. to scrape anything for their losses. that year, only four were linked to the crash.
36
Bluffer’s Guide
WALL STREET CRASH
Key figures
Stockbrokerclerkscatchup
Richard Whitney
1888-1974
PresidentoftheNewYorkStock
Exchange,hetriedtoinjecta
largeamountofmoneyintothe
The slippery slope market,tonoavail.
The first signs of an oncoming collapse were on 3 September when Roger Babson
the market rose and fell sharply. When it dipped dramatically on 1875-1967
Economist who warned in
4 October, the ripples of panic began and by 29 October there was September 1929 that “sooner
mass panic on the market floor. People were hollering, screaming or later a crash is coming, and
and clawing at each other’s collars as investors hurried to get out of it may be terrific.”
the market. The selling record on this day stood for 40 years. Irving Fisher
1867-1947
Thelinktowar Mass unemployment Economist whose reputation
suffered when he proclaimed
The impact of the Wall Street Crash was felt worldwide, the stock market had reached
especially in Europe. When the USA had a strong financial Less than one per cent of Americans “a permanently high plateau”
prior to the crash.
position through the 1920s, it loaned Germany vast sums actually possessed stocks at the
of money. Following the crash the USA recalled those William C Durant
loans; this devastated Germany’s economy and created a time, but the crash meant business 1861-1947
Attempted to demonstrate
period of social and political desperation. This encouraged owners didn’t have enough money confidence in the stock market
people to be drawn to radical policies and politicians, such by buying large quantities of
as those of the Nazi Party. to run their companies, forcing stock; a costly failure.
Last-minute bailout businesses to close and people to Clarence Hatry
Several of Wall Street’s top bankers made efforts to lose their jobs. In turn this meant 1888-1965
British investor whose arrest led
revitalise the market. Richard Whitney, vice president of people couldn’t afford to buy to the London Stock Exchange
the Stock Exchange, bought 10,000 shares in US Steel Crash, which contributed to the
above the current price. Although this worked, the relief consumer products and factories Wall Street Crash.
was short-lived. On 29 October William C Durant and the also went bust, causing more
Rockefeller family attempted a similar move, but the crash
hadgainedtoomuchmomentumtobestopped. unemployment and poverty. Key events
Meanwhile in the Many banks did not The London Crash
have enough money
Soviet Union… to lend to businesses 20 September 1929
The London Stock Exchange
After the crash, countries all over the world suffered
crashes, weakening US
their own crashes and bankruptcies, but one country was
brokers’ optimism in
spared from this – the USSR. The Soviet Union was not investment overseas.
only a Communist state with a planned economy, but it
was also very isolated from the world economy with little A failed bailout
19 October 1929
international trade, leaving it largely unaffected by the
Investments by the Rockefeller
worldwide depression. family and William C Durant fail
to stop the decline.
From prosperity to poverty Market goes into
free-fall
The crash sparked a run on US banks, 24 October 1929
with crowds forming outside to 13 million shares are traded, with
losses as high as $5bn reported.
withdraw all their savings. Banks in Bankers pour money into the
market to try and save it.
trouble were forced to call in their
Black Monday
loans, borrowers who had lost it all 28 October 1929
The slide continues with a
on the stock market were unable record loss of 13%.
to pay and their property was Black Tuesday
repossessed. Many previously 29 October 1929
Mass panic selling leads to 16
wealthy citizens were forced to million shares being traded.
$14bn is lost and millions of ©Alamy;Corbis
sell their treasured possessions. people lose their savings.
37
Heroes & Villains
EMMELINE PANKHURST
“Pankhurst
believed that the
women’s right to
influence policy-
making was
the only way
society would
be reformed”
Emmeline
Pankhurst was
sent to finishing
school in Paris. Her
headmistress felt girls’
education should be
as thorough as
boys’
38
Heroes & Villains
Emmeline
Pankhurst
Discover the makings of a militant as we look back
Emmeline Pankhurst being arrested at
on the incredible story of the suffragette leader King’s Gate in May 1914 in her attempts to
reach Buckingham Palace. Many others
were arrested and adopted hunger strikes
Life in the time
Written by Jodie Tyley
of Emmeline
Pankhurst
Time before chocolate
Food was bland and the working class lived
on a diet of bread, butter and potatoes – meat
was a luxury. In the late 19th century, however,
e are here, not because we are law- suffrage meeting,” she wrote in her autobiography, canned food became available for the first
breakers; we are here in our efforts to be My Own Story. “Returning from school one day, I time, several new biscuits were invented
law-makers.” Those immortal words by met my mother just setting out for the meeting, and (including the digestive in 1892), and the first
Emmeline Pankhurst encapsulated the I begged her to let me go along.” chocolate bar was made in 1847.
WSuffragette Movement. As their iron-willed Her childhood was a happy one, surrounded
leader, she fought for women’s right to vote in the by a loving family in a comfortable home, but she Poor education
It wasn’t until 1870 that the state took
United Kingdom – by any means. The motto was couldn’t help but sense the inequality between responsibility for education in Britain. Before
“Deeds, not words”, and a campaign of vandalism, genders. It started when Pankhurst and her brothers
then, churches were tasked with providing
violent protests and arson reigned. Pankhurst saw were sent to school. While her father spent a great schools for poor children. In 1880, school
it as her duty to break the law in order to draw deal of time discussing the boys’ education, hers became compulsory for five to ten-year-olds,
attention to the reasons behind her actions; and her sister’s were scarcely mentioned but there was a charge for all but the poorest
a belief that would see her arrested on at all. While feigning sleep one night, children until 1891.
countless occasions and even cause she overheard her father mutter, No weekends
a rift within her own family. She Born on 15 July “What a pity she wasn’t born a
argued that unless women were 1858, Pankhurst lad.” His words stuck with her In the early 19th century, everyone had
Sunday off but the weekend wasn’t truly born
given political power, the laws claimed her birthday for days before she concluded until the 1890s when most workers gained
of the country wouldn’t have was 14 July, Bastille that men saw themselves as a half day holiday on a Saturday! Until then,
an equal standard of morals. Day, which marks the superior to women, and that people were only given a few paid holidays
Articulate and strong, Pankhurst start of the French she didn’t regret her sex one each year under the Bank Holiday Act of 1871.
would enter the history books Revolution bit. “I suppose I had always been
for influencing how women were an unconscious suffragist,” she Birth of the printing press
The steam-driven printing press was invented
perceived within society – a role she reflected. “With my temperament in 1814 and enabled newspapers to become
seemed almost destined to fulfil from an and my surroundings, I could scarcely
commonplace. By 1896, the Daily Mail had
early age. have been otherwise.” hit the shelves, where it has remained in
Much of Pankhurst’s political education took Before Pankhurst joined the fight, suffrage – the Britain ever since. Its style was deliberately
place at her home in Manchester, England. Her right to vote in political elections – had been stirring sensational to appeal to less-educated readers.
parents Robert Goulden and Sophia Crane were for years. In 1866, a group of women presented a
involved in many social movements such as the petition to MPs and an amendment to the Reform Railway revolution
abolition of slavery, and her grandfather had even Act was proposed. It was defeated in Parliament by Getting from A to B became much easier
when the railway boom took off in the 1800s.
been in the crowd at the Peterloo Massacre in 1819. 196 votes to 73 and women’s suffrage groups started The first major railway was from Liverpool to
Unsurprisingly, she was barely into her teens when to form all over the country. In 1897, 17 of these Manchester, where Emmeline Pankhurst lived.
a young Emmeline Pankhurst followed in their groups banded together to create the National Union This opened in 1830. By 1890, the first electric
footsteps. “I was 14 years old when I went to my first of Women’s Suffrage Societies. Led by Millicent underground trains were running in London.
39
Heroes & Villains
EMMELINE PANKHURST
The Poor Law Members of the Women’s Social
and Political Union campaigning
for women’s suffrage in Kingsway
The 1800s saw
the introduction
of the Poor Law
– a lifeline to the
impoverished.
According to the
law, each parish had
to set money aside
for those who were
unable to work.
However, changes
to the law in 1834
saw the cost of
looking after the
poor dramatically
reduced. The Poor
Law Amendment Pankhurst
Act meant that money was only given to made a
the poor in exceptional circumstances and,
if they wanted help, they had to go to a controversial switch
workhouse and earn it. Food and shelter was in 1926, from the
given in exchange for manual labour, but the Independent Labour
conditions were so dreadful that only the truly Party to the
desperate would turn to this solution. Conservatives
Emmeline Pankhurst would witness Fawcett, they were characterised or leave without a home or hope.
the horrors first-hand, after joining the by their peaceful campaign It was these women who stoked the
Independent Labour Party and being elected
as Poor Law guardian in Chorlton-on-Medlock tactics, holding public meetings and fire in Pankhurst, giving her the fervent
in Manchester, England. “The first time I distributing posters and leaflets, but without belief that the women’s right to influence
went into the place I was horrified to see progress. Pankhurst, however, would wash her hands policy-making was the only way society would be
little girls seven and eight-years-old on their of this approach when she founded the Women’s reformed. “Women have more practical ideas about
knees scrubbing the cold stones of the long Social and Political Union in 1903. relief… than men display,” she said.
corridors,” she said. “I found that there were It was the horrors she witnessed while working During this time, Pankhurst was supported by
pregnant women in that workhouse, scrubbing
floors, doing the hardest kind of work, almost as a Poor Law guardian that drove her to believe her husband, who did a great deal to bolster her
until their babies came into the world.” At that “Deeds, not words” was the only way forward. beliefs. As a radical liberal barrister 24 years her
once, she began to use her position on the The regular visits to the Manchester workhouses senior, Dr Richard Pankhurst was a socialist and stoic
board of guardians to try and change these exposed her to many elderly women who had been supporter of the women’s suffrage movement. They
conditions for the better. This activism lit a fire domestic-servant class, unmarried and who had lost married in 1879 and became a formidable team.
that would spur her on to becoming the leader their job only to wind up with no other option than Together, they founded the Women’s Franchise
of the suffragettes.
to slave away in the workhouse. Pregnant women League – an organisation that strived to secure the
would be separated from their babies after two vote for women in local elections. But tragedy soon
weeks if they wanted to remain in the workhouse, struck as Richard Pankhurst’s untimely death left
One of
her homes Defining moment
in Manchester Birth of first child
was opened as the 22 September 1880
Pankhurst Centre, a
RichardandEmmelinePankhurst’sfirstchild,Christabel,
museum and a space
is born less than a year after their marriage. Christabel
for women to growsuptobeveryclosetohermother,co-foundingthe
congregate Women’sSocialandPoliticalUnionandspending15years
workingalongsideher.Othersiblingsnoticethebond,as
youngerdaughterSylvianotesin1931:“Shewasourmother’s
favourite;weallknewit,andI,forone,neverresentedthe
fact.” In 1959, Christabel writes Unshackled: The Story Of
Timeline HowWeWonTheVote,andlaudshermother’sdedication.
1858
O Born O Married O Women’s O Richard dies O WSPU is launched
Emmeline Pankhurst After returning from Franchise League Richard Pankhurst dies Pankhurst forms the National
is born in Moss Side in finishing school in Paris, begins suddenly of stomach Women’s Social and Political Union
Manchester, England, she meets the lawyer Emmeline Pankhurst ulcers, leaving Emmeline in Manchester, with the help of
to parents that are very Richard Pankhurst, who and her husband and five children. In his her eldest daughter. Their motto
politically active. She shares her views on found the Women’s lifetime, he did much is “Deeds, not words” and their
has11siblings,butthree women’s suffrage. They Franchise League, for women’s suffrage, aim is to win the vote for women.
tragically die before the marry in Salford. aiming to give including writing the The women-only activist group is
ageoftwo. 18 December 1879 women the vote in Married Women’s Property independent of government and
15 July 1858 local elections. Act of 1870. political parties.
1 January 1889 5 July 1898 October 1903
40
Heroes & Villains
EMMELINE PANKHURST
Pankhurst
her alone with five children to was encouraged strong enough to be re-arrested. everybitascapableastheirmalecounterparts,
support. In spite of such odds, she to run for the House Theseactssplitpublicopinion, taking on important industrial roles, from working in
threw herself whole-heartedly of Commons, but particularly when suffragette munitions factories to labouring on farms.
into the suffrage movement and insisted her daughter Emily Davison walked on to the Society’sattitudestowardsthesexes finally
later, so would her daughters. A Christabel would be course at the Epsom Derby and started to change and on 10 January 1918, the
crucial step was transforming the a better choice wastrampledbyKingGeorge Representation of the People Act was passed. This
Women’s Franchise League into V’s horse, dying four days later. granted the vote to all ‘respectable’ ladies over
a women-only activist group – the Pankhurst later wrote that Emily 30-years-old who were householders or married
Women’s Social And Political Union. “clung to her conviction that one great tohouseholders.Tothisday,historiansstilldebate
It was Emmeline Pankhurst’s eldest daughter tragedy, the deliberate throwing into the whetheritwastheGreatWarthatbroughtaboutthe
Christabel who persuaded her mother that the breachofahumanlife,wouldputanendtothe victory for the suffragettes, or whether the pre-war
WFL she had set up some 14 years before had intolerable torture of women.” politicalmovementshouldtakethecredit. Some
fallen hopelessly out of touch. She had inherited What would put an end to the militant activism, also argue whether the militant campaign did more
her parents’ indomitable values and became a however,waswar.On4August1914– justdaysafter harmthangood.Eitherway,EmmelinePankhurst
leading member of the WSPU, and in 1905 was one the First World War broke out – Pankhurst and her did a great deal to draw attention to her passionate
of the first suffragettes to be thrown in prison. Her daughterorderedatrucebetweentheWSPUandthe beliefthatwomendeservedtobeequal.
crime was interrupting a Liberal Party meeting, government. Considering it their patriotic duty, they Sadly,shediedinthemonthbeforetherightto
shouting demands for women’s votes and reportedly channelledtheirenergiesintohelpingthewareffort votewasextendedtoallwomenover21yearsof
assaulting a police officer, but the acts of the WSPU and subsequently all suffragettes were released ageon2July1928–finallyonaparwithmenin
would grow to be much more violent, eventually from prison. As Pankhurst pointed out, there was theUnitedKingdom.Justtwo yearsafter herdeath,
using arson as a tactic. It proved a step too far for nousefightingforavotewhentheremightnot Pankhurst’s efforts were commemorated with a
two of Pankhurst’s daughters, Adela and Sylvia, and be a country left in which they could cast one. statue in London’s Victoria Tower Gardens. At the
they left the activist group. Those who remained So as men went to fight overseas, the suffragette unveiling, a crowd of former suffragettes gathered to
cut phone lines, sent letter bombs and attacked the leadersvolunteeredtotaketheirplace.Itwasan paytheirrespectstosuchadedicatedfootsoldierof
home of Chancellor David Lloyd George. “I have unexpected opportunity to prove that women were the feminist movement.
never advised the destruction of life, but of property,
yes,” admitted Pankhurst. “The acts of the WSPU would grow to be much
In 1912, she was sent to Holloway Prison for
smashing windows, a place she described as “at moreviolent,eventuallyusingarsonasatactic”
once the stuffiest and the draughtiest building”
she had ever set foot in. While in prison, however,
suffragettes were not recognised as political
prisoners because the government didn’t see their
actions as such. To protest against what she saw
as unjust and lengthy sentences (three months for
breaking a window, for instance), Pankhurst went
on hunger strike, resulting in violent force-feeding.
She wasn’t alone in her actions and the government
retaliated with the ‘Cat and Mouse’ Act, where
striking prisoners were released until they grew
Defi ning moment
Demanding votes
21 June 1908
500,000 activists storm Hyde Park in London
demanding votes for women. Prime Minister Asquith
is unmoved, angering members of the WSPU. After
the rally, 12 women gather in Parliament Square to
speak on women’s rights but are stopped. Two WSPU
members, Edith New and Mary Leigh, hurl rocks at the
EmmelinePankhurstin1911,jeeredbya
windows of 10 Downing Street. Pankhurst is pleased,
disapprovingcrowdinNewYork © Alamy
despite denying WSPU involvement.
1930
O Hunger strikes O The Conciliation Bill O Truce O Votes for men O Emmeline dies O Commemorated
The WSPU protest When the Conciliation Two days after the and women Emmeline Two years after her death,
against what they Bill that would have outbreak of the First The Pankhurst dies Emmeline Pankhurst is
perceived as unfair given women the vote World War, Emmeline Representation just weeks commemorated with a
prison sentences is dropped, Pankhurst and Christabel call of the People Act before the vote statue in London’s Victoria
by going on hunger starts a protest in an immediate halt to grants votes to is extended to Tower Gardens. A crowd
strike. Police officers anger. Over 100 suffrage activism and all men over the all women over of radicals and former
resort to violently women are arrested support their country age of 21 and to 21 years of age, suffragettes gather to
force-feeding the and charged for in the war effort. women over the on 2 July 1928. celebrate her.
women using tubes. disturbing the peace. 4 August 1914 age of 30. 14 June 1928 6 March 1930
1909 18 November 1910 6 February 1918 © Alamy
41
Through History
MEDICAL DEVI
These torturous-looking instruments and Abu
al-Qas
machines were actually designed to save lives! Al-Zahr
936-1013, A
Al-Zahrawi devoted
advancement of med
advocate of cauterisatio
over 200 surgical instru
TREPAN 6500 BCE, EUROPE
forceps – drastically dec
Thesedays,ifwehaveaheadachewe
mortality rate. He wa
cantakeanaspirin,haveaglassofwater, physician to describ
and it usually disappears within an hour pregnancy and the f
the hereditary
or two. But in Neolithic times, the cure was
haemoph
alotmoregruesome.Aholewascutinthe
skullofthepatienttoexposetheduramater–the
brain’stoughouterlayer.Thiswasdoneusinga Speculums barely
trepan,whichinNeolithictimeswassimplyapiece diverged from this
of flint attached to a wooden shaft. In some parts Roman design until
the 20th century
of the globe, trepanning is still used today to treat
mental disorders.
IRON LUNG 1928, USA
These were among the first life-support
machines, gaining fame for saving polio
victims whose breathing muscles had been SPECULUM 79 CE, ITALY
paralysed by the disease. They consisted Though the eruption of Mount
of an airtight chamber connected to an Vesuvius destroyed the lives of
air pump. Air was sucked in and out of thousands of Roman people, the
thechamber,causingthepatient’slungs artefacts recovered from the ash-
to contract and expand, allowing them to covered city of Pompeii provide
breathe. Many polio patients recovered after a never-before-seen insight into
The first iron lung
was made from spendingonlyminutesinsideanironlung, the lives they led. This includes
partsofvacuum while other less fortunate victims spent their medicine. Several surgical
cleaners entireliveslookingattheworldthrougha instruments have been found
mirror attached to the top of the machine. here, including this terrifying
Neolithic trepans looking speculum. Roman
were made from flint
or shark’s teeth gynaecology was relatively
primitive, and physicians even
“ Rather than treat a toothache with believed that a woman’s womb
antibiotics, infected teeth would have to could ‘wander’ around the body,
wreaking havoc on her internal
be pulled out using a dental key” organs and causing hysteria.
OSTEOTOME 830, GERMANY
1
In the days before general anaesthetics, amputations
were incredibly painful and incredibly dangerous.
Bones were often splintered and the tissue around
The chain carried sharp
them damaged by the harsh impact of a hammer teeth that could easily cut
and chisel or the jolts of a saw. Surgeons needed to through hard bone
find a way to speed up the procedure and reduce
the risk of complications. The solution came
in the form of the osteotome – a device
with a chain and sharp cutting teeth that
was cranked manually. What this
device was, in fact, was the
first-ever chainsaw.
42
Through History
REDUCTION DEVICE 5TH CENTURY BCE, GREECE
Hippocrates is considered the father of Western medicine,
anddetailedtheoldestknownmethodfortreatinga
This 16th-century dislocated shoulder. He developed a ladder-like device,
bullet extractor was across which the injured arm was slung and then pulled
made of steel and
had ornate handles downward with significant force. In the 16th century,
French royal surgeon Ambroise Paré reintroduced
Hippocrates’method,anditisstillusedtoday.
BULLET
Hippocrates’
ladder allowed
EXTRACTOR
him to relocate
16TH CENTURY, EUROPE a dislocated
LITHOTOME 1780, BRITAIN
Theintroductionoffirearms This long, claw-like instrument shoulder with ease
to the battlefield in the early- wasinsertedupthe
13th century changed the Ambroise urethra and into
face of warfare. Until Paré the bladder. The
theinventionofthis 1510-1590, FRENCH surgeon would
revolutionary device, A barber surgeon – doctor who treated then use it to grip
soldiers on the battlefield – he served a
only bullets close to
number of French kings. He is considered onto small bladder
the surface of the skin a pioneer in surgical techniques and stones and pull them
couldberemoved. battlefield medicine, having discovered out, or use the blade Hippocrates
This bullet extractor it was better to treat wounds with
turpentine than cauterising them. He to cut up larger ones so 460-370 BCE, GREEK
allowedsurgeonstodig also invented several instruments theycouldbeweedout.Thisall This Ancient Greek physician is
much deeper. It consisted and prostheses, including happened while the patient was perhaps the most important figure
ofahollowrodcontaining artificial eyes. awake – undoubtedly in a lot of pain! in the history of medicine. He founded
the Hippocratic School of Medicine,
ascrew,whichcouldbe Thesurgeonalsohadtomakesure separating medicine from philosophy and
lengthened or shortened using the they didn’t slice the bladder in the magic and making it a profession in its
handle at the top. The instrument process, or the patient may have own right. Today, many newly qualified
doctors take the Hippocratic Oath,
wasplacedinthewoundandthe bled to death. in which they promise to do no
screw lengthened in order to harm to their patients.
pierce the bullet and remove it. This 18th-century
lithotome had a spring-
loaded, mahogany handle
Al-Zahrawi revolutionised
howsurgerywasperformed
with the invention of many CIRCUMCISION SCISSORS
new tools
10TH/11TH CENTURY, MUSLIM SPAIN
Medieval surgeon Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi
transformed circumcision from a religious
ritual to a surgical procedure. He invented
several medical instruments, and is believed
to have been the first to use scissors in Newer CT scanners can
produces 3D images of
surgery. He favoured these over the use of
our insides
knives in circumcision, as he said they made
the cut more even. CT SCANNER PRESENT, BRITAIN
The pinnacle of modern medicine, the CT
scanner allows doctors to see detailed images
DENTAL KEY 1800-1840,FRANCE of our insides. It was originally designed to
If you’re scared of the dentist, just thank your take pictures of the brain, and the first time
lucky stars you weren’t born in the 19th century! it was used in 1971 it revealed a brain tumour
Rather than treat a simple toothache with in a 41-year-old patient. Now doctors can use
antibiotics, infected teeth would have to be pulled them to detect all kinds of abnormalities in
out using a dental key like this one. The ‘claw’
This dental key is any part of the body. It works by beaming
would be tightened around the tooth, and then made of silver and X-rays through a person, which are then
rotated as if the user were turning a key in a ivory, and probably received by the machine and the information
originated in
lock. This procedure would have been extremely France sent to a computer. This then processes the
painful without the use of anaesthetics, and information to create an image. © Alamy; Corbis; Getty Images
patients often had to be restrained.
43
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Follow the romantic beginning and disastrous
end of the love affair that rocked the very
foundations of England itself
Written by Frances White
he sun streamed down on the brisk spring All these things she uttered, but not once did she and queen beloved by the population. But Henry
morning as a figure emerged near from admit her guilt for the crimes she would die for. had been anything but loyal to Catherine, and had
four-turreted White Tower of the Tower of Her words were so sweet, her manner so graceful, already fathered his illegitimate son Henry Fitzroy
London. The crowd that had gathered there that many gathered there shed a tear for the before Anne was in the picture. In fact, it had been
T were oddly quiet; they watched silently as condemned woman. Anne’s sister, Mary, who initially caught the king’s
the slender woman passed through them. She She wished farewell to her weeping ladies, and attention, and he conducted an affair with the
was dressed in a loose, grey gown, so dark it was removed her headdress, tucking her long, thick older Boleyn sister that may have resulted in two
almost black, with a red petticoat underneath. hair under a coif. As she knelt upright, one of her more children. When Henry was first drawn to
An ermine mantle was draped around her neck, ladies came forward and tied a blindfold over her Anne, it is highly likely that he desired her simply
and her long dark hair was tied above her head, eyes. She began to mutter under her breath “Jesu as another mistress. But she had other plans.
exposing her thin, dainty neck. Two of her ladies receive my soul; O Lord God have pity on my The new lady in waiting was a captivating
accompanied her as she climbed the scaffold that soul”, over and over again. She prayed silently as figure. Having recently returned from serving the
had been erected for the day’s sombre event. Her she received her husband’s final gift, a swordsman French Queen Claude, she boasted an elegance
steps were strong and firm, her countenance steely of Saint-Omer; he had given her the mercy of a and poise that instantly created a stir. Her dark
and unreadable. sword in place of an axe. The executioner raised features were unfashionable for the time, but her
Although the strength of her steps was the sword high, its sharpened blade gleaming in deep brown eyes and unusual beauty caught the
remarkable for one facing her death, when she the sunlight, then brought it down upon her thin attention of more than just the king. Among those
turned to the crowd and spoke her voice trembled. neck. It was all over in a single stroke. The queen competing for her affections were Sir Thomas
However, her words rang out loud and clear. She was dead. Wyatt, an acclaimed poet, and Henry Percy, who
begged the people to forgive her if she had not It is portrayed, often unfairly, that Anne Boleyn even went as far as to secure Anne’s hand in a
treated them with gentleness, and then prayed descended on King Henry VIII like some sort of secret betrothal. However, all those with their gaze
that God would have mercy for those who had wicked, conniving temptress, luring him away fixed upon the enchanting young debutante soon
condemned her. She ended by praying for the with her dark looks and feminine charms from found themselves facing a rival they could not
king, who was a good, gentle, and sovereign lord. his almost 24-year-long marriage, young daughter hope to better – the king of England.
46
Anne Boleyn
ANNEBOLEYN
English, 1501-1536
Born to a respected
Brief but ambitious family,
Anne caught the
Bio attention of King
Henry VIII of England
while serving his wife in court.
The king’s desire to marry
Anne plunged the country into
the English Reformation, but
Anne’s tenure as queen lasted
just three years. After repeated
failurestoproduceamaleheir,
aplotconcoctedagainstAnne
led to her conviction, death and
worldwide infamy.
AN OBJECT OF LUST
Appearance Social standing Intelligence
Although opinion is divided on Anne’s true appearance, Although her father was descended from middle-class Henry was desperate to be seen as a modern,
she presented herself with great grace and manners. She tradesmen, through her mother Anne’s ancestry was cosmopolitan man and did everything to beat his rival
was dressed in the latest fashions and is consistently linked to Margaret of France and her husband, King King Francis I of France. Not only had Anne served in the
described as being elegant and sophisticated. Henry Edward I. Her ambitious father boosted the family French court, but she was also intelligent, witty and an
was captivated by the bewitching and fair persona Anne reputation at court and he entered the king’s most accomplished singer and musician; certainly a catch for a
presented at court. intimate circle. man looking to prove his suitability to the throne.
47
Anne Boleyn
A depiction of
Anne Boleyn
being condemned
to death
CROWN V CHURCH
KING HENRY VIII POPE CLEMENT VII
2MILLION FOLLOWERS OVER 75 MILLION
NUMBER OF
WEALTH
“If a man shall “Forbids Henry Hever Castle was the
childhood home of
take his brother’s to remarry until Anne Boleyn
wife it is an thedecisionof
unclean thing… ON DIVORCE the case, and
they shall be declares that if
childless” he does all issue
King Henry VIII quoting the Bible,Leviticus,
20:21, as justification for seeking a divorce will be illegitimate”
from Catherine of Aragon
PURPLE VELVET, ITALIAN AND STRICTPOPEATTIRE, CHOIR
DRESS–AWHITESILK
FRENCH FASHION, LARGE
PUFFED SLEEVES, FEATHERED DRESS SENSE
HAT, FUR MANTLE, MULTIPLE CASSOCK, SCULL CAP
EXPENSIVEPIECESOFJEWELLERY AND A LACE ROCHET
“For all the prelates at their “Forbids any one in England,
consecration make an oath universities, parliaments,
to the Pope clean contrary ON RELIGION courts of law, etc, to make
to the oath that they make any decision in an affair
to us, so that they seem to be the judgment of which is
his subjects, and not ours” reserved for the Holy See”
48
Anne Boleyn
TUDOR COURTSHIP
Get set up Shower her Show your Get married
As forced marriage in gifts commitment The marriage
is forbidden by the Once a suitable lady Known as betrothal ceremony itself is
Church, marriages has been chosen, or handfasting, a very public and
can’t strictly be a Tudor gentleman when the couple high-profile affair
‘arranged’, but will begin the first have agreed to in a church with
couples are often stage of courtship marry they will go the more guests
matched up by their parents to ensure in which he will visit her frequently and through a period similar to a modern- the better. Wedding dresses will usually
a suitor of acceptable social standing. bestow her with an array of valuable day engagement. This often involves be the bride’s best dress and, for those
Love matches do occur, but are only gifts to win her over. Ribbons, girdles a public ceremony where pledges are who can afford it, the ceremony will
really acceptable if the wealth of both and gloves can all be used to capture a made. After the betrothal the couple are be followed by a great feast with food,
is suitable. lady’s heart. allowed to begin sexual relations. music and dancing.
Henry prided himself on his image – he was in 1527, after a year of chasing her, he proposed
obsessed with his appearance and was constantly marriage to Anne, and finally she said yes.
attempting to prove himself as an accomplished, While we have reams of Henry’s love letters,
charismatic and capable leader. With his own claim and the extreme decisions that would follow his
to the throne emerging from the turbulent War of proposal as evidence of his strong feelings for
the Roses, he was determined to do everything in Anne, we can only speculate on what was going
his power to secure his and his descendant’s place on in the young woman’s head. She was under
as king. As models of the Renaissance man, Henry immense pressure from her ambitious father and
had a friendly rivalry with Francis I of France uncle to elevate the family name – something a
and did anything he could do to outmatch him. match with a king would no doubt achieve – but
Anne was trained at the French courts herself, the lengths to which Henry would go to ensure
and boasted all the glamour, exceptional skills and she became queen must have been captivating for
intelligence Henry wished to embody himself. He the younger daughter of a family with commoner
wanted her instantly. roots. Because Henry did indeed have great lengths
However, unlike her sister, Anne was not a weak- to travel, there was the small matter of his current
willed girl who would bow to the will of a wife, the now-infertile Catherine of Aragon.
man. Anne’s courtly education in the Henry, at least in the early part of his
royal palaces of the Netherlands reign, was well known as a devout
and France had given her grace, Catholic. He had even been
elegance and a beautiful named a so-called ‘defender of
singing voice – but it had also 17 love letters the faith’ by Pope Leo X, and
given her one other thing: Henry wrote to it was to the Bible he turned
knowledge of the game of to seek an annulment for his
courtly love. She knew what Anne have survived 24-year-long marriage to the
became of the mistresses and are stored mother of his only legitimate
of kings; she had witnessed child to date. He argued with
her own sister tossed aside in the Vatican Pope Clement VII that his
the moment his attention had Library marriage to Catherine, who
been drawn by another. She had been his late brother’s wife,
had already been denied the love directly went against the words in
of her sweetheart, Henry Percy, having Leviticus 20:21. But the Pope wasn’t a
been deemed unworthy by his father. fool; to allow the annulment would contradict
Henry’s obvious affections for her would provide the decision made by a previous infallible Pope to
the perfect opportunity to prove just how much allow the marriage between Henry and Catherine
she was worth. Anne did something no woman in the first place. Again Henry was told no and
before her had dared to do: she said no to the king. again he was denied Anne and the male heir he so
Rather than outraging him, Anne’s rejection badly desired.
spurred Henry to chase her more fervently. He Henry had heard enough ‘nos’ so on 23 May 1533
bestowed her with gifts, penned love letter after he took matters into his own hands and ordered
love letter, but the enchanting but strong-willed the newly elected and specially selected archbishop
woman still said no. When he offered for her to of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, to grant him the
be his official mistress, that too was rejected. She annulment he so desperately needed. That simple
was everything all the women in his life had never action would have consequences that would reach
been – rather than agreeing politely, she challenged far beyond Henry or Anne’s own life, forever
his opinions, debating with him on subjects such changing the religious and political landscape of
as theology. She was passionate, brash and fiery, the country, leading to the English Reformation.
and she had well and truly set Henry alight. There Breaking away from Rome was a rash, dangerous
was no doubt in his mind that such a young, virile and groundbreaking move, but Henry finally had
woman would bear him the male heir that would what he wanted – he was allowed to marry the
ensure the continuation of his line. Sometime enchanting Anne. And it was just in time, because
49
Anne Boleyn
ENGLISH she was already pregnant, and any child born out various mistresses beneath her nose, but Anne
reacted with extreme jealousy toward any woman
of wedlock could not be king – male or not.
Anne was paraded through the streets of London
REFORMATION in a grand ceremony; she sat upon swathes of that got close to him, as she herself was aware
how easily her husband’s gaze could travel. He had
fine cloth resting on two regal horses. She was
sacrificed his faith and rocked the very foundations
IN NUMBERS crowned with St Edward’s crown, a crown only of the country for her, but now Henry was not so
worn previously by monarchs, perhaps indicating
sure about Anne, and neither was anyone else.
the male heir she was presumed to carry in her The pressure on Anne at this point was
belly. Anne’s family immediately felt the boons of immeasurable. She was already aware of Henry’s
1 in 50 was in religious orders
their new powerful connection. Her father became affections toward Jane Seymour, one of her own
800 annual pension of £100. Spirits in the royal court gift from the king – she tore it from Jane’s neck
ladies in waiting, and when Anne witnessed her
Earl of Wiltshire, her cousin Earl of Ormond and
wearing a locket with a portrait of Henry inside – a
even Mary, Henry’s previous mistress, received an
with such force that her fingers bled. She was
were high, but beyond the palace gates the public
were unconvinced. In their eyes not only
desperate to cling to power, not only
for herself, but for the good of her
had Anne ousted a beloved queen,
the ripples created after the
only chance of keeping a grasp
on it relied on something
break with Rome; the people
religious houses taken over by Henry but she was also responsible for Anne was a family and her daughter, and her
needed something stable to
10,000 place their hopes in – they English translation Sadly for Anne, the pressure
completely out of her control.
champion of the
upon her was not about to
needed a male heir.
They would have to wait.
ease up, and she suffered
On 7 September 1533 Anne
a miscarriage in 1534, just
one year into her tenure as
to the son she, Henry and
monks, nuns, friars and canons lost their homes gave birth, but it was not of the Bible queen. Fate itself seemed
everyone else had expected. positioned against her when
£84,324,100 It was a daughter. She was Henry, and many others, there was
again in 1536 she miscarried
christened ‘Elizabeth’ in honour
another baby, this time a boy. For
of Henry’s mother, but this did little to
The amount the crown profited per year as a result of comfort his disappointment. The documents more than fate at work here, and he accused
the Reformation were changed, the tournament that celebrated Anne of seducing him with spells. The fact she
the birth of an heir cancelled and the people’s was unable to bear a healthy son was, apparently,
discontent grew. Doubts also began to grow in further proof that Anne was cursed. Considering
The years the
monarchy had Henry’s mind; not only had Anne failed to produce the public’s already poor opinion of her, it would
been trying the male heir she had promised him prior to their not take much for them to believe that Anne was
to suppress union, but also the qualities that had made the a harbinger of ill omens and quite possibly a witch
200 religious power young Boleyn girl so enchanting and desirable as sent to lead their king and country astray. Not only
30,000 a king. was also unable to produce a future king. Everyone
a mistress were proving unsuitable for the wife of
was she disobedient, fiery and opinionated, but she
was agreed – Anne needed to go.
After being married to Catherine of Aragon for
so long, Henry was used to having an obedient,
As Anne recovered from her miscarriage,
about plotting her downfall. Cromwell had his
but this. She would openly speak her mind and
The number of people who took part in the Pilgrimage of reliable and submissive wife. Anne was anything Thomas Cromwell, Henry’s chief minister, set
Grace against the Reformation express opinions contrary to Henry’s. Catherine had own reasons to fear the influence of Anne; the two
silently watched as Henry indulged himself with had argued where the money from the dissolution
THE HIGHS AND LOWS OF ANNE BOLEYN
Anne is born to
Thomas Boleyn and
Lady Elizabeth Howard, the
second daughter born to the
couple after Mary. The Boleyns Anne makes her
are a very respected family of Anne becomes maid of debutattheChateau
the English aristocracy. The honour to Queen Claude Vertpageant.Sheattractsthe
dateofAnne’sbirthisalso Anne is sent abroad of France. Here she develops attention of Sir Thomas Wyatt
argued to be 1507. to receive an education many of the skills that will later and Sir Henry Percy. She later
in Europe and joins the impress the king, such as art, Anne’s secretly betroths Percy, but it is
1501 schoolroom of Margaret fashion, etiquette and most father summons cut off by his father and Anne
of Austria. Here she learns importantly, the game of her back to England to enters into the service of
all the skills expected of a courtly love. marry James Butler to settle Catherine of Aragon.
Tudor noblewoman, such as a dispute over land and titles.
horseback riding, dancing, The marriage arrangements
singing and writing. 1515 come to a sudden halt, possibly 1522
because Thomas Boleyn has a
grandersuitorinmindfor
1513
his youngest daughter.
1522
50
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