Inventions - A Visual Encyclopedia (DK - Smithsonian)

Inventions









a visual encyclopedia











































































US_001_Half_Title.indd 1 16/03/18 3:41 PM

US_002-003_Title.indd 2 08/03/18 3:09 PM

s mi t h s o n i an


Inventions











a visual encyclopedia










































































US_002-003_Title.indd 3 16/03/18 3:41 PM

Contents





DK London
Senior Editor Carron Brown Senior Art Editor Rachael Grady
US Editor Megan Douglass US Executive Editor Lori Cates Hand
Editorial team Ann Baggaley, Ashwin Khurana, Camilla Hallinan, EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS 6
Jessica Cawthra, Sarah Edwards
Art Editors Chrissy Barnard, Louise Dick
Jacket Designer Surabhi Wadhwa-Gandhi Jacket Editor Claire Gell
Jacket Design Development Manager Sophia MTT Early tools 8
Producer, Pre-production Gillian Reid Senior Producer Angela Graef Farming 10
Managing Editor Francesca Baines Managing Art Editor Philip Letsu
Publisher Andrew Macintyre Inventing the wheel 12
Associate Publishing Director Liz Wheeler Traveling by road 14
Art Director Karen Self Design Director Phil Ormerod
Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf Sailing the seas 16
Sailing ships 18
DK Delhi
Senior Editor Sreshtha Bhattacharya Senior Art Editor Ira Sharma Archimedes 20
Project Editor Priyanka Kharbanda The beginnings of industry 22
Editorial team Ankona Das, Neha Ruth Samuel, Rupa Rao, Vatsal Verma
Art Editors Heena Sharma, Mansi Agrawal, Sachin Singh, Shailee Khurana Early mechanical devices 24
Jacket Designer Juhi Sheth Jackets Editorial Coordinator Priyanka Sharma Designing the future 26
Senior DTP Designer Harish Aggarwal
DTP Designers Sachin Gupta, Mohd Rizwan, Vikram Singh, Bimlesh Tiwary The power of gunpowder 28
Picture Researchers Nishwan Rasool, Deepak Negi Gunpowder weapons 30
Managing Jackets Editor Saloni Singh
Picture Research Manager Taiyaba Khatoon The printing revolution 32
Pre-production Manager Balwant Singh Writing and printing 34
Production Manager Pankaj Sharma
Managing Editor Kingshuk Ghoshal Managing Art Editor Govind Mittal Zhang Heng 36

Written by John Farndon, Jacob Field, Joe Fullman,
Andrew Humphreys, and Giles Sparrow MAKING THE MODERN WORLD 38
Consultant: Roger Bridgman
First American Edition, 2018 Tools 40
Published in the United States by DK Publishing Tools workshop 42
345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
Feeding the world 44
Copyright © 2018 Dorling Kindersley Limited Working the land 46
DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC
18 19 20 21 22 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Construction 48
001–308571–July/2018 Alfred Nobel 50
All rights reserved. Industrialization 52
Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above, no part Smart production line 54
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, Powering up 56
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without the prior Renewable energy 58
written permission of the copyright owner.
Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited Nicola Tesla 60
Plastics 62
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 978-1-4654-5838-4 (Hardcover) Man-made materials 64
ISBN: 978-1-4654-7369-1 (Paperback) Buying and selling 66
DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk for sales Money 68
promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: Online superstore 70
DK Publishing, Special Markets, 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 At the office 72
[email protected]
3-D printing 74
Printed and bound in China
Robots 76
A WORLD OF IDEAS: Helpful robots 78
SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW The robots are coming! 80

www.dk.com
GET MOVING 82

Bicycle 84
Two wheels 86
Skating on air 88
Established in 1846, the Smithsonian—the world’s largest museum, education and
research complex—includes 19 museums and galleries and the National Zoological Park. Motorcycles 90
The total number of artifacts, works of art, and specimens in the Smithsonian’s collection Cars for the masses 92
is estimated at 154 million. The Smithsonian is a renowned research center, dedicated
to public education, national service, and scholarship in the arts, sciences and history. Cars, cars, cars 94






US_004-005_Contents.indd 4 16/03/18 3:43 PM

Henry Ford 96 A quick bite 198
Pick a car! 98 Vacuum cleaners 200
Public transit 100 James Dyson 202
On the road 102 Recorded music 204
Sail power 104 Listen to the music 206
On the water 106 Games and pastimes 208
Boats and ships 108 Video games 210
Navigating at sea 110 The flushing toilet 212
Going underwater 112 Keeping up appearances 214
Floating carriers 114 Time to relax 216
Taking to the skies 116 In the closet 218
The Wright brothers 118 Fasteners 220
Jets to solar planes 120
Other flying machines 122 IN GOOD HEALTH 222
Drone deliveries 124
Railroads 126 Looking inside 224
On the tracks 128 Marie Curie 226
Flying train 130 Better diagnoses 228
The Stephensons 132 Anesthetics 230
Medical marvels 232
COMMUNICATION 134 Microscopes 234
War on germs 236
Developing treatments 238
The telegraph 136
Measuring time 138 Super mold 240
Telling the time 140 Vaccinations 242
The telephone 142 Louis Pasteur 244
Dental health
246
Taking a call 144 New body parts 248
Smartphone 146
The supercomputer 148
Radio 150 SPACE 250
Listen to the radio 152
Connecting continents 154 Studying the stars 252
The camera 156 Telescopes 254
Snap away! 158 Atacama observatory 256
Cinema 160 Galileo Galilei 258
Television 162 Satellites 260
Big screens 164 Watching over Earth 262
Written communication 166 Communication 264
Bright lights 168 Space debris 266
The computer 170 Rockets 268
Home computers 172 Rocket race 270
World Wide Web 174 Manned spaceflight 272
Ada Lovelace 176 Manned missions 274
Space stations 276
Living in space 278
AT HOME 178 Space agencies 280
Space technology for Earth 282
The light bulb 180 Robotic probes 284
Lighting up the world 182 Pushing the boundaries 286
Fish and solar power 184
Thomas Edison 186 Ingenious inventors 288
High voltage 188 Glossary 292
The battery 190 Index 296
Washing 192 Acknowledgments 302
Kitchen devices 194
Keeping cool 196






US_004-005_Contents.indd 5 08/03/18 3:17 PM

EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS
















































EARLY





BREAKTHROUGHS






















US_006-007_Early_breakthroughs_Opener.indd 6 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Simple stone tools were EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS
probably the first things
invented by our ancestors.

Other great ideas such as
the wheel changed our
lives forever.

















US_006-007_Early_breakthroughs_Opener.indd 7 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Early tools Flint arrowhead,
c. 4000 bce




Our earliest human ancestors appeared in Africa more
than two million years ago. Scientists gave them the Latin

name Homo habilis, which means “handy man,” because
they are believed to have made and used stone tools—the
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS increasingly complex tools for a variety of tasks. invented were wooden spears tipped
very first invention. As humans evolved, they developed

HUNTING FROM
A DISTANCE
Ax was shaped
Humans needed weapons for
by chipping flakes
STONE TOOLS
off a stone
hunting. Among the first weapons
Early people made tools by striking round
pieces of stone, such as flint or quartz, with
with sharp stones, developed more
another hard stone. This shaped the stones
into handheld tools that had a wide range than 400,000 years ago. These allowed
hunters to attack prey from a distance,
of uses, including chopping, scraping, which was safer than getting up close to
and engraving. The best-known early large and dangerous animals. Around
tool was the hand ax, which could 60,000–70,000 years ago, the first bow
be used to dig, kill prey, carve and arrow weapons were invented,
meat, and chop wood. which had an even longer range.


Harpoon made of deer
MAKING FIRE antler, c. 6500–4000 bce


Fire was vital for cooking food as well Hand ax from around
as providing warmth and light. More 1.5 million years ago
than 6,000 years ago, probably in Egypt, Egyptian copper
workers
prehistoric people invented the bow
drill for lighting fires. The device was
rotated to cause friction, which produced
enough heat to burn small particles.



Drill held steady
in one hand
Bow moved
backward and
forward to turn Bowstring holds
the drill drill upright




Drill rotates
against base
Pipes send air from
bellows into fire.
Heat caused by
friction burns
particles of base.


8




US_008-009_Early_tools_Main.indd 8 08/03/18 3:09 PM

METAL TOOLS Copper blade bound
to a wooden shaft
By around 3500 bce, people in Europe, Asia, and with leather strings
Africa were using metal. This was a far better material
than stone because it was easier to shape and work
with and kept a sharper edge. At first, metalworkers
used copper and bronze, but from 1200 bce they Prehistoric
copper ax
started to use iron. Metal could be used to make Bronze cutting edge
many things, including weapons, armor, agricultural
equipment, jewelry, nails, and cooking pots.


Bronze Age
sickle

WOW! EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS



The earliest stone
tools, known as the Iron Age
“Oldowan toolkit,” sickle
are 2.6 million
years old. They This sickle would have been
were found in attached to a wooden handle.
the Olduvai
Gorge in Africa.
▶ FARMING TOOLS
While sickles were commonly used for
harvesting cereal crops, axes were used
to clear forested areas for farming.
MELTING AND MIXING These three examples show copper,
bronze, and iron tools.
Before metals can be made into anything,
they have to be “smelted.” In this process,
metal ores (rocks that naturally contain metal)
are heated over a very hot fire to remove
unwanted substances. Once people had
found out how to extract metals, they went
on to discover that mixed metals could create
a stronger material, called an alloy. The first
alloy invented was bronze, which was made
by adding tin to copper.


High heat beneath pan of
ore separates out copper.






Bellows








9




US_008-009_Early_tools_Main.indd 9 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Farming BETTER CROPS
Ancient farmers found out that
by planting only the largest
and best wild species they
For thousands of years, our ancestors were could gradually improve their
crops, a system known as
hunter-gatherers, constantly roaming the
domestication. In the Middle
land to hunt animals and collect wild plants East, people grew wheat or
barley developed from wild
for food. Around 12,000 years ago, people
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS farming communities. This settling-down was maize (corn), which was
grasses. In the Americas,
in the Middle East began to live in settled
the most important crop
domesticated by 7000 bce.
process was known as the “Agricultural
Revolution,” and it gave people a more
◀ PRIMITIVE TO MODERN
certain supply of food. By 500 bce,
The primitive type of corn (left)
agriculture had spread across most
much bigger modern corn (right).
of the world. was developed to become the






THE FERTILE CRESCENT
The first farmers lived in the region of
MESOPOTAMIA Mesopotamia in modern-day southern Iraq.
Mediterranean Sea Tigris This was located between two rivers—the Tigris
and the Euphrates—where crops grew well in
Euphrates
Western Syrian the rich soil and domesticated animals thrived.
Desert Nile Desert
By 9000 bce, farming had spread across the
EGYPT Red Sea
ARABIAN Middle East in a crescent-shaped area that
PENINSULA
INDIAN reached into Egypt.
OCEAN
Fertile Crescent






HARROW
One of the first important
farming inventions was the
harrow. This rakelike tool
was used after plowing
to break up the soil and
smooth out the surface.
It made planting crops
easier. The first harrows
were made of wood, but
later, iron was used.




10




US_010-011_Farming_Main.indd 10 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Pulled by animals, often in pairs, PERSIAN QANAT
the plow could quickly slice
through hard soil.
Water is essential to farming. In dry regions, some kind of system
is needed to bring water to agricultural areas. In the early first
millennium, the Persians did this by building underground canals.
Called qanats, these canals sloped gently, helping gravity move
the water. A qanat was usually around 3 miles (5 km) long, but
Model of a some measured more than 40 miles (65 km).
Sumerian plow
Shaft is used for
PLOW maintenance. Watered area
The plow was developed in East Asia Qanat carries water
by 5000 bce. It was a blade attached to a for distribution.
wooden frame that prepared soil by cutting EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS
through the top layer, which brought nutrients
to the surface. Plowing created trenches, This well is the main
called furrows, where seeds were planted. source of water.
Qanat outlet






▼ SOIL PREPARATION Clay model of a granary,
Farm implements, including the harrow, China, c. 150 bce
were usually hitched to oxen, like this one,
or horses. Such animals were domesticated to
help with farmwork and were used for food.




Storing grain
above ground
level helps to keep
it dry and at the
right temperature.



Second level
could be reached
by a staircase.












GRANARY
In around 9000 bce, the first grain stores,
or granaries, were built in what is modern-
day Jordan. These buildings were designed
to store dry grain and other crops, such as
rice, so they wouldn’t spoil. People needed
places to store crops that they didn’t want
to eat or sell right away.
11




US_010-011_Farming_Main.indd 11 09/03/18 4:06 PM

Inventing the wheel






The wheel is one of the most important things ever invented, although
no one knows who first thought of it. Originally, wheels helped potters Wooden peg
keeps the axle
to make perfectly round pots. Then, around 3500 bce, someone in place.
had the idea of using them to move people and materials around
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS it easier for people to travel, trade, and work.
on land. The wheel completely changed everyday life, making






Crosspiece holds the
ROLLER AND SLEDGE
planks together.
Before the wheel, heavy objects were sometimes
transported using the “roller and sledge” method.
The sledge was a platform placed on top of a number
of round logs. As people dragged the sledge along,
others continually moved the last roller to the front.
It was hard work, but the load shifted.

Rolling creates less friction (force created
when two surfaces touch) than sliding.













Ancient Egyptian workers
moving a load to build pyramids




POTTER’S WHEEL
The Mesopotamians, who lived in the region
known today as Iraq, are believed to be the
first people to make wheels, possibly as early
as 5000 bce. These wheels were disks of
stone or clay used in pottery making. Wet
clay was placed on the wheel,
which was then turned
by hand while the potter
shaped the clay into
pots or other vessels.


Wheel
Ancient Egyptian
model of a potter
12




US_012-013_Inventing_the_wheel_Main.indd 12 08/03/18 3:09 PM

DISK WHEEL
The earliest wheels to be used for
transportation were solid disks made from
wooden planks. They were attached to simple Handle used
carts, wagons, and chariots that were pulled for pushing or
by horses or oxen. Travel on these vehicles pulling cart
would have been rough and bumpy.

Chinese
wheelbarrow


WHEELBARROW
The wheelbarrow may have been invented either EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS
in ancient Greece between the 6th–4th centuries
bce or in China during the 2nd century ce. While
the Greek wheelbarrow had a wheel toward the
front, as many barrows do today, the Chinese
placed the wheel in the middle.

PRAYER WHEELS
Prayer wheels are an important
part of Buddhism, one of the
world’s major religions. These
wheels are hollow metal
cylinders containing a scroll
printed with a mantra (a holy
verse or phrase). Buddhists
believe that spinning the
wheel, or letting it turn in
the wind, is the same as
saying a prayer out loud.





WHEEL AND AXLE

In most vehicles today, the wheels driven by the engine are attached
to cylindrical shafts, or axles. When the vehicle moves, the shafts and
wheels rotate together. The axles of the other wheels are attached to
the vehicle and move with it. On the earliest vehicles, all the axles were
attached to the wheels.

2. The wheel
slides smoothly
around the axle.



1. The axle
moves with 3. The wheel
Model of wheel shaped the vehicle. rolls, so there
from three wooden is little friction.
planks, c. 2000 bce
13




US_012-013_Inventing_the_wheel_Main.indd 13 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Traveling Early wheeled cart


■ What? Two-wheeled vehicle
■
■ ■ Who? Unknown
by road Among the earliest land vehicles were
■ Where and when? Mesopotamia, c. 3000 bce
■
simple two-wheeled carts that were pulled
by one or two large domesticated animals
The use of wheeled vehicles for movement on land such as oxen or horses. They were
developed in several different places,
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS were usually pulled by animals (although sometimes Europe and Asia), and Eastern Europe,
began more than 5,000 years ago. These vehicles
especially Mesopotamia (now mainly
in Iraq), the Caucasus (a region between

people did the hauling themselves). There were
at around the same time. Later, the
use of wheeled carts spread further,
various types of early carts and wagons, some of
reaching Africa and Asia.
which carried passengers and goods while others
were designed for use in warfare.
Cart pulled by oxen




War wagon


■ ■ What? Sumerian battle chariot was pulled by onagers (Asian animals
■ ■ Who? Unknown similar to donkeys) and used to carry
■ ■ Where and when? Mesopotamia, c. 2500 bce
important leaders into battle. The
The Sumerians, people whose homeland wagon also provided a platform Terra-cotta figurine from
is modern-day Iraq, invented a war wagon on which soldiers armed with an ancient site in the Indus
with four solid wooden disk wheels. It javelins could stand. Valley (in Pakistan), c. 2400 bce






































War wagon depicted on a decorated box from the ancient Mesopotamian city of Ur, c. 2500 bce
14




US_014-015_Travelling_by_road_Main.indd 14 02/04/18 3:38 PM

Trade wagon Egyptian chariot


■ ■ What? Covered wagon The cover ■ ■ What? Two-wheeled chariot
■ ■ Who? Unknown protected the ■ ■ Who? Unknown
goods or
■ ■ Where and when? Eurasia, c. 2500 bce ■ ■ Where and when? Egypt, c. 1600 bce
passengers.
Four-wheeled wagons were common Chariots were the racing cars of the
across Europe and Asia by ancient world. These small, two-wheeled,
2500 bce. Hitched to teams of horse-drawn vehicles usually carried just
powerful animals, they could two people. The Mesopotamians were the
transport very heavy loads. first to develop chariots, but the Egyptians
Such wagons had a protective made improvements by using spoked
cover and were ideal for use by people Model of a covered wheels instead of solid wooden ones.
wagon, c. 2400–2300 bce
trading goods or riding as passengers. This reduced the vehicle’s weight and
made it swifter and easier to drive. EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS





Yoke pulled by two horses




▲ LIGHTWEIGHT WAR CHARIOT
War chariots, built to be fast and highly
steerable, provided a mobile platform
that carried archers rapidly around
the battlefield. Platform for driver
and archer


Light, spoked wheels
allowed for greater speed.


Coach services


■ ■ What? Stagecoach bus. With their shock-absorbing springs,
■ ■ Who? Unknown and traveling on improved roads, coaches
■ ■ Where and when? Europe, 17th century ce
offered a less bumpy ride than earlier
The stagecoach, which first appeared in vehicles. Stagecoaches remained an
Britain, provided regular services over set important form of transport until the
routes between stops like a modern-day mid-19th century, when they were
replaced by the railways.

Carriage A closed coach
carries passengers
■ ■ What? Raeda or goods inside.
■ ■ Who? Unknown Team of
■ ■ Where and when? Rome, 2nd century bce four horses
The Romans built a road network across
their empire. For traveling, they used the
raeda, a four-wheeled vehicle pulled by
up to 10 horses or mules. This could carry
several passengers and their luggage,
taking loads of around 750 lb (350 kg)
and covering up to 15 miles (25 km) a day.

Engraving of a stagecoach, 19th century
15




US_014-015_Travelling_by_road_Main.indd 15 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Sailing the seas






People first started traveling by water more than 10,000 years ago. To begin
with, their boats were simple canoes and rafts propelled with oars or poles.

Over time, vessels became bigger and more complicated, fitted with sails of
fabric or animal skin to capture the power of the wind. This made longer
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS they were and in which direction they were heading. At the top, a
voyages possible, so people had to invent devices that told them where






THE TRIREME
A ship mainly powered by three
mirror reflected
rows of oars, the trireme also had
one or two sails. It was developed
while at night
a fire was lit.
by either the Greeks or Phoenicians sunlight by day,
in around 700 bce and it enabled
both civilizations to travel and trade
across the Mediterranean Sea.





GUIDING LIGHT
Lighthouses warn ships of dangers ahead and
help guide them to safety. The first was built on
Pharos, a small island near the Egyptian city
of Alexandria, in 280 bce. Sometimes
called the “Pharos of Alexandria,” it
stood around 360 ft (110 m) high and
The three ranks of rowers were was one of the seven wonders of the
positioned so their oars did not
strike each other. ancient world.






POLYNESIAN STICK CHART

The Polynesian peoples navigated
across the vast expanse of the
South Pacific, sailing between
islands that were hundreds of
miles apart. They mapped the
position of islands, atolls (rings
of coral), and ocean currents using
charts made of strips of dried
coconut leaf, wood, and shell. Model of
the Lighthouse
of Alexandria

16




US_016-017_Sailing_the_seas_Main.indd 16 08/03/18 3:09 PM

IN THE RIGHT The compass’s The device is held by this ring.
DIRECTION needle works
only if it can
The compass was spin freely. NAVIGATING SEAS
invented in China in the Early mariners calculated
3rd century bce. Modern their position at sea with a
instruments have a device called an astrolabe that
magnetized needle at the measured the angle between
center that works with objects in the sky, such as the
Earth’s magnetic field, so moon, and the horizon. Ancient
it always points to the Greeks may have designed early
north. Early compasses Chinese compass, astrolabes around 200 bce and
mid-19th century
pointed south. From the they were definitely in use by the
11th century ce, sailors began 7th century ce. The astrolabe was
to use the compass at sea. then improved by Muslim EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS
astronomers who used
it to find the direction
Scale to measure
the altitude of of Mecca, their
stars or planets holiest city.
above the horizon








▼ MARINER’S ASTROLABE Rotating pointer
Invented in the 16th century ce, fixed to the center
this device gave accurate readings
on board ships at sea.











Viewing hole
through which the
stars were observed






Heavy bottom to keep
the device stable



















17




US_016-017_Sailing_the_seas_Main.indd 17 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Chinese junk Sailing ships


■ ■ What? Chinese sailing ship
■ ■ Who? Unknown
■ ■ Where and when? China, c. 2nd century ce
The first wooden sailing ships were built in Egypt
Early sailing boats, including junks, were
designed in China and are used across Asia around 5,000 years ago, but across the world,
even today. They had square sails, held in other civilizations produced similar
place by pieces of wood called “battens,” vessels. Until the 19th century, ships
which allowed each sail to be pulled open
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS Chinese junk by wind captured in cloth sails. The Sails were
or closed easily and quickly.
on sea voyages were mainly powered


Modern
vessels were used for trade,
exploration, and war.
usually
made of
woven
textiles.
















Longship

■ ■ What? Viking ship
■ ■ Who? Unknown
■ ■ Where and when? Norway, c. 9th century ce
The Norse people, also called the Vikings, of
Scandinavia developed the longship. Vessels
of this type were narrow and light enough to
navigate up rivers but strong enough for the
open sea. They could also navigate shallow
waters. A longship had one large central sail
and wooden oars for when there was little
wind to power the boat.


The mast supports
a big, square sail,
which is made from
wool or linen.











Model of a Viking longship
18




US_018-019_Sailing_ships_Gallery.indd 18 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Round ship Treasure ship


■ ■ What? Cog Sails were ■ ■ What? Chinese treasure ship
■ ■ Who? Unknown made of strips ■ ■ Who? Unknown
■ ■ Where and when? Northern Europe, of bamboo. ■ ■ Where and when? China, 15th century ce
c. 10th century ce
From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese admiral
One of the most common sea vessels Zheng He led seven “treasure voyages”
in medieval Europe was the “round ship.” across Asia and East Africa. His fleet
A common round ship was the cog. was made up of dozens of “treasure
This vessel had a design described as ships.” They had many sails and
“clinker-built,” meaning that the planks may have been around twice the
that made up the hull overlapped one size of European ships in use at
another. Cogs were mostly used for the same time. These huge vessels
trading because they were sturdy, Model of Chinese explorer carried treasures that displayed China’s
easy to build, and had lots of Zheng He’s treasure boat wealth and clever technology. EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS
space for cargo.



Completely armored ship


■ ■ What? Korean turtle ship
■ ■ Who? Unknown
■ ■ Where and when? Korea, 15th century ce
Model The Koreans were the first to cover
of a cog
a ship’s deck with armor plates Upper deck,
covered in
to protect it from enemy missiles. spiky iron plates
Their so-called turtle ships were
armed with many cannons. Some
were mounted with a dragon’s
head at the prow that belched
out a foggy gas to hide the
ship’s movements.




Dragon’s head
may have hidden
a cannon.
Model of a Korean turtle ship





Long-distance European ship


■ ■ What? Carrack
Some cogs were ■ ■ Who? Unknown
converted into ■ ■ Where and when? Europe, 15th century ce
warships and By the 15th century, the most common
had platforms
added to their type of ship in Europe was the carrack.
fore where It was a large vessel that could sail on
sailors stood rough seas and carry enough provisions
to fire arrows
and cannons for a long journey. The Italian explorer
at enemies. Christopher Columbus used a carrack
in 1492 for his voyage to America.
Replica of a medieval carrack
19




US_018-019_Sailing_ships_Gallery.indd 19 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Archimedes






One of the greatest ancient inventors, Archimedes was
also a brilliant mathematician and physicist. Born in the

Greek city of Syracuse in Sicily in 287 bce, it is believed
he was sent to Egypt to be educated. Archimedes invented
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS system that could lift enormous weights. His scientific
many important mechanical devices, including a pulley



writings are still useful to scholars today.





FIGHTING THE ROMANS
Archimedes screw being
When Rome attacked Syracuse in 214 bce,
used for watering land
it is believed that two of Archimedes’ Water pours into Cutaway model of
a channel at a
inventions were used to defend his home higher level.
city. The first used mirrors to focus the sun’s
Screw blades
rays on the Roman ships and set fire to them.
draw up water
The second, called the “iron hand” (below), as they turn.
was a crane with a giant grappling hook that
could grab the ships and capsize them.











ARCHIMEDES SCREW
Developed in Egypt for watering
land, this screw raised water from one
level to another. Archimedes may not have been Water source
at lower level
its inventor, but his use of the screw for pumping
water out of ships made the device well known.
Italian painting showing Archimedes’ The screw was like a corkscrew inside a hollow
grappling hook as a huge hand, 1600 cylinder. As it turned, it drew water upward.


LIFE STORY

287 bce c. 250 bce c. 225 bce 218 bce
Archimedes is born in He is believed to go to Egypt to He writes two other Second Punic War begins
Syracuse, Sicily, at the time study. Archimedes writes a paper on important works: On between Carthage and Rome.
a Greek city-state. His geometry called On the Measurement Spirals and On the Archimedes’ home, Syracuse,
father was an astronomer of a Circle, and another about fluids Sphere and the Cylinder. allies with Carthage.
and mathematician. called On Floating Bodies.



20




US_020-021_Archimedes_Inventor.indd 20 08/03/18 3:09 PM

TESTING GOLD FOR A KING ▲ EUREKA—I’VE GOT IT! EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS
The king of Syracuse suspected his new crown was not pure gold and Archimedes was the first to discover
that when an object is submerged, it
wanted it tested. Archimedes put the crown into a tub of water, noting loses weight equal to the amount of
that it displaced a greater volume of water than a piece of gold of the fluid it displaces. This insight is said
same weight. This showed the crown contained other, less dense metals. to have come to him in his bath.



214 bce c. 212 bce 75 bce
Roman forces The Romans capture and A Roman While visiting Sicily, the famous
begin to destroy Syracuse. They kill attacks Roman writer Cicero finds that
lay siege Archimedes, although they had Archimedes Archimedes’ elaborate tomb
to Syracuse. been ordered not to harm him. has fallen into disrepair, and
he has it restored.



21




US_020-021_Archimedes_Inventor.indd 21 08/03/18 3:09 PM

The beginnings




of industry WOW!






The invention of mechanical devices that took over much powered some early
Treadmills turned by
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS industrialization. The first machines were powered by water, machines. Working
people or animals
of the work of people or animals was an early step toward


wind, or the force of gravity, and did not need many people
on a treadmill
could be used as
to operate them. Major industries would not develop until
a punishment
the opening of factories employing large workforces in the
for criminals.
late 18th century.




▶ LARGEST IN THE WORLD
The most famous noria were located in Hama,
Syria. Seventeen can still be found there,
including this one that is 72 ft (22 m) in
diameter, the largest in the world.

Model of an ancient
Greek water pump
powered by animals Bronze containers
for holding water

















Animals helped to
turn the wheel.

EARLY MACHINES
From the 4th century bce, large wheels were
invented to do work such as pumping water or
driving machinery. It is uncertain where this first
happened, but India, Greece, and Egypt are all
possible. Some versions were powered by humans
or animals. However, it was more efficient to turn
the wheel using flowing water from a river or stream.
These waterwheels were the first machines to turn
a natural force into mechanical energy.


22




US_022-023_The_Begnining_of_industry_Main.indd 22 02/04/18 3:38 PM

TRIP HAMMER Water-powered cloth
By the 1st century bce, the ancient Chinese were using mill, 17th-century print
massive pieces of equipment called trip hammers to process
food, crush bamboo to make paper, or shape red-hot metal.
Too heavy to be lifted by a single person, a trip hammer
has to be raised by mechanical means. The earliest of these
devices were powered by waterwheels.

1. Flowing water
turns the wheel.
3. Lever mechanism
attached to the shaft
lifts up the trip hammer
and brings it down
onto molten metal. EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS








2. Wheel turns Trip hammer powered
a central shaft. by a waterwheel
POWERING MILLS
An important use of waterwheels was in
NORIA the making of cloth. The power of the
During the Middle Ages, Arab engineers invented a type of turning wheel drove machinery that could
waterwheel known as the noria. A noria raised water from spin thread and weave and finish materials.
streams or lakes so that it could be carried into homes for Before the invention of coal-powered
drinking or washing, or to farmland for watering crops. As the engines in the 18th century, cloth mills
wheel turned, hollow chambers around the rim scooped up had to be located near running water.
the water and emptied it into a trough to be piped elsewhere.






HOW WATERWHEELS WORK
Blades or buckets are positioned around the rim of a
waterwheel. As falling or flowing water strikes them,
it turns the wheel. The rotation turns an axle at the
center of the wheel that is linked to machinery.



Water strikes Direction of
blades or wheel’s rotation
paddles set
on the rim,
pushing the Direction
wheel around. of flowing
water





Wheel partly submerged
in running water



23




US_022-023_The_Begnining_of_industry_Main.indd 23 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Early mechanical




devices






Once people had settled down in permanent towns
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS to help them with their everyday tasks, such as
and villages, they began to invent and build devices



processing food. Many of the most important early
devices were for producing materials that could be

made into clothes. People mostly used them in their
own homes or in small workshops.







First handloom A woman in India turns a
spinning wheel to produce thread
■ ■ What? Weaving loom
■ ■ Who? Ancient Egyptians
■ ■ Where and when? Egypt, c. 5000 bce Rotary quern
Cloth is made by intertwining lengths of
■ ■ What? Hand mill for grinding grains
thread placed at right angles to each other.
■ ■ Who? Unknown
The handloom was invented to make this
■ ■ Where and when? Southern Europe,
process easier and quicker. Early looms c. 600 bce
were simple frames that held vertical
threads (called the warp) firmly in position, Quern-stones grind cereal grains such as
while horizontal threads (called the weft) wheat into flour. The rotary quern consists
were woven through them. Model of a handloom of two circular stones, one placed on
used by early European top of the other. The bottom one, called
people, 800–600 bce the “quern,” does not move. The top part,
or “handstone,” has a handle attached so
it can be rotated. As the quern turns, it
First drawloom crushes the grain that is fed in through
a hole in the center.
Figure harness
■ ■ What? Pattern weaving loom
■ ■ Who? Ancient Chinese Wooden
■ ■ Where and when? China, c. 400 bce Rotary querns handle
are still used to turn
The drawloom, which allowed in some parts handstone
greater control over the threads of the world
than the handloom, was invented to
weave highly patterned cloth, mainly Hole for
silk. The key part was an arrangement grain
called the “figure harness” that lifted
individual warp threads. Drawlooms
were large devices, often 13 ft (4 m)
long, and required two people to
operate them.
24




US_024-025_Early_mechanical_devices_Gallery.indd 24 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Treadle wheel Long fibers of wool or flax

■ ■ What? Foot-powered spinning wheel
■ ■ Who? Unknown
■ ■ Where and when? Germany, c. 1533 ce
As the spinning wheel developed, a
foot-operated board called the “treadle”
was added. Pressed up and down by
the operator’s feet, the treadle’s rocking
motion drove the spinning wheel round. Wooden
The raw fibers were held on a rod attached wheel
to the treadle wheel, leaving the operator’s
hands free to guide the thread. EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS




An 18th-century wheel
known as a “saxony” Foot treadle






▼ WIND POWER
First spinning wheel These types of windmill could not
be used for industry because they
did not produce as much energy
■ ■ What? Hand-turned spinning wheel as coal-powered engines.
■ ■ Who? Unknown
■ ■ Where and when? Probably India, c. 600 ce
Before materials such as cotton or wool
can be woven they need to be spun into Sail
threads. Early people used to do this by
Central shaft is
pulling out and twisting the fibers of the
connected to a
raw material between their fingers. This gear system.
time-consuming task was greatly speeded Body of mill
could be turned
up by the invention of the spinning wheel.
to face sails into
The hand-turned wheel twists fibers into the wind.
thread, which it winds around a stick
called a “spindle.”



Vertical-axis mill

■ ■ What? Post mill
■ ■ Who? Unknown
■ ■ Where and when? Northern Europe, c. 1200 ce
The most common use of windmills was
to grind grain into flour, but they were
also used for other purposes, such as
pumping water. As the sails of a windmill
turn in the wind, gears inside the mill use
the rotational force to move mechanical
parts. A post, or vertical-axis, mill had a
large central shaft that allowed the sails
to be moved to face the wind.






US_024-025_Early_mechanical_devices_Gallery.indd 25 02/04/18 3:38 PM

EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS















































































US_026-027_Da_Vinci_DPS.indd 26 08/03/18 3:09 PM

DESIGNING THE FUTURE EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS
The Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) is famous
not only for his paintings, but also for his numerous
inventions. His many designs include a helicopter, a
parachute, and an armored tank. Pictured here are his
sketches and notes on the workings of water pumps,
water wheels, and gears.











US_026-027_Da_Vinci_DPS.indd 27 08/03/18 3:09 PM

The power




of gunpowder






During the 9th century ce, scientists in China produced
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS must have come as a surprise because they were trying
gunpowder—the first explosive material. Their invention



to make something quite different. However, the
powerful force that they created was rapidly put to

use for launching weapons, blowing things up, and





Modern Chinese creating spectacular displays of noise and color.
Painting of Chinese families
firecrackers enjoying a celebration with fireworks


THE INVENTION
OF GUNPOWDER
Medieval Chinese scientists
invented gunpowder by accident
when they were mixing chemicals
together in the hope of finding
a life-lengthening potion. The
ingredients of the mixture were
saltpeter, charcoal, and sulfur.
Within a few decades of its
discovery, gunpowder was
being used in weapons of war.














FIREWORKS
The first fireworks came from China. People
simply threw gunpowder into a fire to enjoy bright
sparks and loud bangs. The next step was to stuff
gunpowder into a hollowed-out bamboo stick and
light an attached fuse. When the burning fuse ignited
the gunpowder, the tube shot into the air and exploded
in the sky, just like firework rockets do today.






US_028-029_The_power_of_gunpowder_Main.indd 28 02/04/18 3:38 PM

FIRE-LANCES Sometimes bits of metal or pottery
were added to the explosive charge.
In around 950 ce, people began
to understand the destructive power
of gunpowder. One of the first
weapons propelled by gunpowder
was the fire-lance, which was an
explosive charge attached to a pole.
The charge was created by filling a
bamboo cylinder with gunpowder.
When lit with a fuse, the cylinder
would explode in the direction of the
enemy, sending flames shooting out. EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS






WOW!


Adding metals to
the gunpowder in
fireworks makes
sparks of different
colors: copper
for blue, barium
for green, calcium
for orange.
Fire-lances used in
warfare, China, c. 1000 ce


HAND CANNON GREEK FIRE
The earliest version of the The Chinese led the medieval world with explosive weapons, but they
handgun was invented in were not the first to use chemicals in warfare. The Byzantine Empire
China in the 13th century. (centered in the area of modern-day Turkey and Greece) invented a
Known as a hand cannon, it substance called Greek Fire in around 672 ce. It was a thick, flammable
was loaded by dropping stone liquid that burned even on water, making it deadly in sea battles. Its
or iron balls down its barrel. secret recipe probably included oil, sulfur, and saltpeter.
Gunpowder was packed into
a chamber at the back of the
hand cannon, where there
was a small hole to place
a lit fuse. When the
gunpowder was
ignited, it exploded,
blasting out the
ammunition.






Chinese bronze A 12th-century manuscript showing Byzantine
hand cannon, 1424 sailors using Greek Fire
29




US_028-029_The_power_of_gunpowder_Main.indd 29 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Gunpowder Arquebus


■ What? Hook gun
■
■ ■ Who? Unknown
weapons 15th century
■ Where and when? Northern Europe,
■
Serpentine was
attached here.
German
By the 13th century, knowledge of how to be fired from the chest or shoulder. It
arquebus, c. 1500
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS to the rest of Asia and into Europe. People consists of a metal tube fitted to a wooden
make gunpowder had spread beyond China
The arquebus was the first gun to


soon saw how this deadly invention could be
stock, or handle. Its name comes from an
Old French word meaning “hook gun,”
used as a weapon. As armed forces began to
because many models had a hook on the
barrel to hold the weapon steady against
use gunpowder in increasingly powerful and
a support. The gun was fired with an
accurate firearms, warfare changed rapidly.
S-shaped lever called a “serpentine” that
lowered a lit match into a pan of gunpowder,
creating a flash.
Earliest known picture of a fireball from
a 10th-century Chinese wall painting Flash pan
carrying gunpowder
Fire chariot
Matchlock
musket,
■ ■ What? Rocket launcher c. 1750s
■ ■ Who? Chinese
■ ■ Where and when? China, 14th century Matchlock firearm
Although the Chinese were the first
to invent simple rocket launchers, the ■ ■ What? Arquebus with matchlock mechanism
Koreans developed a more powerful ■ ■ Who? Unknown
weapon called the hwacha, or fire ■ ■ Where and when? Northern Europe, c. 1475
chariot—a two-wheeled cart on which The matchlock made firing weapons quicker.
was mounted a rectangular wooden frame. It was a trigger-controlled device that used
This frame was loaded with singijeon, or a spring to move a lit match toward a
fire arrows, each carrying a gunpowder gunpowder charge placed at the rear of
charge timed to explode when an arrow the weapon. This set off a small explosion,
struck its target. The largest hwacha could which produced high-pressure gas that shot
launch 200 fire arrows all at once, at down the barrel, forcing out the ammunition.
a range of 330–1,475 ft (100–450 m).
First fireball


■ ■ What? Grenade WOW!
■ ■ Who? Medieval Chinese
■ ■ Where and when? China, 11th century
Reloading early
A fireball, or grenade, is a small bomb
that can be thrown by hand. Early fireballs, firearms such as the
first developed in China, were hollow clay musket took a long
or metal vessels filled with gunpowder. time: even the
Attached to the fireball was a paper fuse, best-trained
which was lit and left to burn down until soldiers could fire
it ignited the gunpowder, causing the no more than five
weapon to explode. times a minute.
Hwacha
30




US_030-031_Gunpowder_weapons_Gallery.indd 30 08/03/18 6:37 PM

A piece of a mineral called
pyrite created the sparks
that fired the gun.
▼ HOW IT WORKS
A wheel lock works by
rotating a steel wheel against
a sparking material, causing
friction and sparks that ignite
the gunpowder.
Handgun

■ ■ What? Pistol easier to shoot with. Once
■ ■ Who? Unknown loaded, handguns could be
■ ■ Where and when? Europe, 16th century fired with one hand and also
During the early 16th century, smaller used while on horseback, but early
firearms were developed. Although not models could fire only a single shot German EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS
as accurate or powerful as longer-barreled before they had to be reloaded. wheel lock
weapons, their smaller size made them handgun, 1590


Percussion cap


Long barrel ■ ■ What? Firearm with percussion cap was pulled, it moved a part called the
■ ■ Who? Unknown “hammer” that struck the percussion cap,
■ ■ Where and when? US/northern Europe, sparking off the gunpowder charge and
Flintlock firearm c. 1820 firing the ammunition.
The percussion cap was a small metal
■ ■ What? Musket with flintlock mechanism cup filled with an explosive mixture of
■ ■ Who? Unknown chemicals called “fulminate” and sealed ▼ FIRING AWAY
■ ■ Where and when? Northern Europe, c. 1550
with foil. When the trigger of the gun Dressed as soldiers in the American
The flintlock mechanism was used in Civil War of the 1860s, these riflemen
a type of gun called a musket. When the Percussion-cap mechanism are firing percussion-cap weapons.
trigger was pulled, it struck a flint
against a piece of steel, creating a
spark that ignited the gunpowder.
Some muskets were “rifled,”
which meant that grooves
were marked on the inside
of the barrel to make the
bullet spin and travel
toward its target with
greater accuracy.





Sling, which
Flint could be used
to steady
the aim





Baker rifle, a type
of flintlock gun,
1802–1837




31




US_030-031_Gunpowder_weapons_Gallery.indd 31 08/03/18 6:37 PM

The printing




revolution






The invention of printing was one of the biggest leaps forward
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS information and ideas, they had to write out every copy of a text
in human history. Before, when people made records or spread



by hand. Printing did the job much faster and produced a lot of
copies more cheaply and accurately. The earliest known printing

dates back to 3rd-century China. However, the first printing
system using mass-produced type appeared

in Europe in 1439.
Lever tightens wooden plates
together, bringing inked type
into contact with paper.
Wooden frame
METAL MOVABLE TYPE holds paper ready
Movable type is a system where for printing.
molds of separate letters (or
characters) are used to print
text. The first-ever movable type Metal type
was made in China in the 11th
century ce, using clay or wooden
character molds. Later, people
found that metal was the best
material for making type.





In movable type,
separate characters
are moved around
to make up the text
that the person
operating the press
wants to reproduce.



Jikji, the oldest surviving book printed
using metal movable type, Korea, 1377

GUTENBERG PRESS
The German Johannes Gutenberg set up the first European
printing press in 1439. His most successful invention was
a method of rapidly casting metal type molds in large
quantities. Gutenberg could print 250 pages per hour. The
first book he produced was a Bible. Printing spread across
Europe, and books became cheaper to make and buy.
32




US_032-033_The_printing_revolution_Main.indd 32 08/03/18 3:09 PM

INTAGLIO PRINTING
In 15th-century Germany a
new type of printing called
intaglio was invented. This
process uses images cut into
a metal plate often made of
copper or zinc and covered in
ink. The plate is pressed into
paper, creating sunken
areas that hold the ink. EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS
Copperplate printing press



CHIAROSCURO
◀ HAND PRESS
Gutenberg set up his press WOODCUT
with metal type that could In this technique, invented
be arranged to print any in Germany around 1509, an
page, and used a specially
developed thick, sticky ink. image’s outline is carved into
a wood block, and then further
blocks are carved with additional
details. The blocks are pressed
in turn onto paper, each block
overprinting the image made
by the one before. The result is
a picture with contrasting areas
of light and shape that make an
image look three-dimensional.
Chiaroscuro is an Italian word
meaning “light-dark”.

Chiaroscuro print of a ceiling
design with three angels
When the image is
printed, it appears in
reverse on the paper.
LITHOGRAPHY
Invented by the German
Alois Senefelder in the 1790s,
lithography is based on the fact
that oil and water do not mix.
A greasy substance is used to
draw an image onto limestone,
which is then dampened with
water. When ink is spread on
the stone it sticks only to the
grease, and the image is
A solid wood framework pressed onto paper.
held the press steady Lithography printing
during printing. in a workshop
33




US_032-033_The_printing_revolution_Main.indd 33 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Writing




and printing






Ancient peoples first invented writing to
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS signs, symbols, or letters. Records could
record information and thoughts through



be kept, and people could communicate
without meeting. The later invention of

printing meant that multiple copies
of a document with words and pictures

could be reproduced much faster and
more accurately.



The first writing


■ ■ What? Cuneiform
■ ■ Who? Sumerians
■ ■ Where and when? Mesopotamia, 3100 bce
The ancient Sumerians were among
the first people to live in organized
towns and soon needed a system
to keep track of the goods they
traded, the animals they kept, and
the taxes they paid. They invented
a style of writing that used wedge-
shaped marks made on clay tablets
with a stylus. Today, this is known
as cuneiform. Within 400 years, signs
Early cuneiform representing words were in use Script on
across Mesopotamia. turtle shell


Papyrus Oracle bone script


■ ■ What? Writing surface ■ ■ What? Earliest known Chinese writing
■ ■ Who? Ancient Egyptians ■ ■ Who? Ancient Chinese
■ ■ Where and when? Egypt, 3000 bce ■ ■ Where and when? China, 1200 bce
The ancient Egyptians developed a new In ancient China, people tried to foretell the future by
writing surface. This was made from the carving questions onto animal bones (usually ox) or
inner stem of the papyrus plant. The plant turtle shell. These bones were heated until they cracked,
was cut into strips, which were laid together and the patterns of the cracks were read as answers to
to form sheets, moistened, and dried. They the questions. The characters used on oracle bones
Ancient Egyptians
were written on with a reed pen and ink. used a pictorial script represented words, not speech sounds, and are the
called hieroglyphs. first known example of Chinese writing.
34




US_034-035_Writing_and_Printing_Gallery.indd 34 08/03/18 6:37 PM

The first phonetic alphabet The Phoenicians were traders of the ancient Mediterranean.
They invented an alphabet—a writing system simpler than
■ ■ What? Written alphabet cuneiform or Egyptian hieroglyphs. The Phoenician alphabet
■ ■ Who? Phoenicians had 22 characters, which were the first written symbols to
■ ■ Where and when? Mediterranean, c. 1500 bce record speech sounds rather than words.







Phoenician
inscription on
a cylindrical base,
c. 600–500 bce EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS



Paper making Quill pen


■ ■ What? First paper ■ ■ What? Writing tool
■ ■ Who? Probably Ts’ai Lun ■ ■ Who? Unknown
■ ■ Where and when? China, 105 ce ■ ■ Where and when?
Europe, c. 500 ce
Before paper, people mainly wrote on materials such as
wood, animal skins, or fabric. A Chinese court official The feathers of large birds such
called Ts’ai Lun is thought to have been the first to make as the goose and the swan were
paper. Using mashed plant fibers that were pressed and used as writing implements for
dried, he created a cheaper and lighter writing surface. hundreds of years, right up to the
early 20th century. They were light to
hold, and the trimmed and sharpened
quill tip made writing easy. The hollow
feather shaft held the ink.




Most writers stripped away
the lower part of the feather
to make it easy to hold.


Sharpened point
Early Chinese paper


Block printing

■ ■ What? First printing
■ ■ Who? Unknown
■ ■ Where and when? China, 600 ce
In block printing, the mirror images of the text and
pictures are carved into a piece of wood. The wood
is inked and pressed onto paper, which prints the page
the right way round. This technique was first mainly
used to print Buddhist texts, and eventually entire
books were made this way.

Part of the Diamond Sutra, the
earliest surviving printed book,
produced in China in 868 ce
35




US_034-035_Writing_and_Printing_Gallery.indd 35 08/03/18 3:09 PM

Zhang Heng



▼ EARTHQUAKE INDICATOR
The most famous of Zhang’s inventions
One of the greatest scientists in Chinese history, Zhang was his seismoscope, or “earthquake
weather vane,” that could tell the direction
Heng combined being an inventor with a career as in which an earthquake had occurred.

a government official. He rose to become China’s
Each dragon head faces
chief astronomer, as well as an important advisor
a different direction.
EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS was also a famed mapmaker, poet, and artist.
to the Emperor. As if this was not enough, Zhang






WATER-POWERED
Rings were
ARMILLARY SPHERE
positioned to mirror
An armillary sphere is a framework
objects in space.
of rings that was used to understand
how planets and stars move the movement of
through the sky. Zhang’s big
idea was to use a waterwheel
to power the sphere’s
machinery so that it
turned automatically,
making one rotation
a year. Bronze urn
Pendulum inside drops a
ball through the dragon’s head
Replica of Zhang
Heng’s armillary facing the direction of the quake.
sphere, 1439
Figure always points
to set direction.
NAVIGATIONAL CHARIOT
Zhang may have also invented a device to indicate
direction. This was a “chariot” with a figure on top that
could be positioned to point in any direction. A complicated
Model of a
system of gears meant that no matter what path the chariot navigational
followed it continued to point in the same chariot from China,
direction, similar to the way a compass does. 2700–1100 bce



LIFE STORY

78 ce 95 ce 108 ce 112 ce
Zhang Heng is born near He leaves home to go to While working as a Zhang Heng is
Nanyang, a city in central Luoyang, China’s capital local official, he begins summoned by the
China. His father died at the time, to study at to publish papers about Emperor to work as an
when Zhang was just the Imperial Academy. astronomy and mathematics. official at the imperial
10 years old. court in Luoyang.



36




US_036-037_Zhang_Heng_Inventor.indd 36 08/03/18 3:09 PM

MAN OF LEARNING
Zhang Heng’s work on mechanical devices was
much admired by many Chinese scholars and inventors
who followed him in later centuries. Zhang was also
highly thought of for his astronomical studies and
observations. He made a catalog of 2,500 stars
and more than 120 constellations. Zhang is
pictured here with his earthquake indicator. EARLY BREAKTHROUGHS






























































120 ce 125 ce 132 ce 138 ce
He publishes The Spiritual He describes his armillary Zhang Heng introduces He retires from official duties
Constitution of the Universe. sphere and helps to make one of his most famous and returns home to Nanyang for
This includes his theory a mechanical cart with an inventions to the a short time. Zhang Heng is recalled
that Earth is at the center odometer, an instrument for imperial court: the by the Emperor to the capital, where
of the Universe. calculating distances traveled. earthquake indicator. he dies in 139 ce.



37




US_036-037_Zhang_Heng_Inventor.indd 37 02/04/18 3:38 PM

MAKING THE MODERN WORLD














































MAKING THE





MODERN WORLD

























US_038-039_308121_Making_Mod_World.indd 38 08/03/2018 17:16

Ever since the Industrial MAKING THE MODERN WORLD
Revolution, technology has

progressed at a rapid pace.
From the steam engine to
robots, these inventions
have changed how we
live, work, and play.


















US_038-039_308121_Making_Mod_World.indd 39 08/03/2018 17:16

Tools SCREW-CUTTING LATHE
A lathe spins metal against a tool to
give it a circular shape or cut a screw
thread. This could be done by hand
The onset of the Industrial Revolution in the but, in the 1790s, the Englishman Henry
Maudslay and American David Wilkinson
1760s required a new set of tools beyond
invented lathes separately, in which
the basic hammers and chisels of old. The the tool was driven by a screw geared
MAKING THE MODERN WORLD more power, more speed, and more precision moves the tool as the grips and rotates
to the lathe.
scale and volume of production, using new
materials including metals, now required



than a human alone could achieve.


The headstock
A lead screw
CIRCULAR SAW
Traditionally, logs were sawed by hand using a pit saw, with
an up-down motion. This was slow and inefficient. In 1813,
Tabitha Babbit, a member of a Shaker community in the workpiece rotates. the workpiece.
US, introduced the first circular saw in a saw mill, which Timber is pushed through a circular saw
that requires more power to operate than
was powered by water. a hand saw, but cuts much faster.























































US_040-041_308121_Tools.indd 40 23/04/2018 12:34

STEAM HAMMER
When English engineer Isambard
Kingdom Brunel started work
on his ship SS Great Britain, he
discovered that hammering out the
giant shafts for its paddle wheels
was beyond human ability. Scottish
engineer James Nasmyth came
up with the idea of a giant steam-
driven hammer. He made the first
in 1840 and patented it in 1842.



Workers feed a red-hot MAKING THE MODERN WORLD
piece of iron into a steam
hammer, which pounds
the metal into shape.



The jaw is adjusted by a
rotating screw just under it.
SPANNER FORCES
ADJUSTABLE SPANNER
When someone rotates a spanner, they apply a An adjustable spanner has a movable jaw,
twisting force called torque. If force is applied which allows it to be used with different-sized
further from the point of rotation, torque is greater nuts and bolts. The English agricultural
and the spanner is easier to turn.
engineer Richard Clyburn is credited with
its invention in 1842, while he was working
Force is applied to the at an iron works in Gloucester, UK.
end of the spanner.
The metals are melted so
they can be bonded
together on cooling.



The further from the nut the
force is applied, the greater
the torque.



SPIRIT LEVEL
A bubble in a liquid always rises to the highest
point. In an upward-curved level tube it will settle
at the center. This was recognized by the French
scientist Melchisédech Thévenot, who invented ARC WELDING
the first spirit level in 1661. Spirit levels have been
Since ancient times, blacksmiths have used
used by builders ever since to ensure their work concentrated heat to bond metals together.
is perfectly horizontal or vertical. A yellow-colored liquid
is used for easy reading. In 1881, French inventor Auguste de Méritens
invented a way of using electricity to create
enough heat to melt metals that would then
be joined when cooled, in a process known
as arc welding.
Modern spirit level giving vertical, horizontal, and angle readings
41




US_040-041_308121_Tools.indd 41 08/03/2018 17:16

Tools workshop






The 19th and 20th centuries saw the development of
a wide variety of tools that help us work more quickly,

accurately, and efficiently. These tools have revolutionized
MAKING THE MODERN WORLD the use of computer control and lasers paved the Pocket tape measure
home improvements, allowing people to measure things

precisely and fasten them together securely. In industry,



way for new and improved cutting tools.





Tape measure
The measurement on the ruler is
shown on an electronic display.
■
■ Who? William H. Bangs
■ ■ What? Retractable pocket tape measure Typical tape measures have 25 ft (7.6 m)
of tape. A locking button allows a length of
■ ■ Where and when? US, 1864
tape to be held in position out of its case.
Retractable tape measures can fit into a Sliding the button makes a spring pull the
pocket or toolkit, but contain enough tape tape back into its case and wind it around
to measure distances of several yards. a coil so it can be stored conveniently.





Electric cordless
hand drill

Digital caliper
The drill bit
rotates to cut a
hole in a surface.


Micrometer
The trigger allows the user
■ ■ What? Micrometer screw gauge to start and stop the drill.
■ ■ Who? Jean Palmier
■ ■ Where and when? France, 1848
A caliper measures the distance between Electric drill
opposite sides of an object. In 1848, Jean
Palmier received a patent for the micrometer ■ ■ What? Drill driven by an electric motor
screw gauge, a type of caliper that uses ■ ■ Who? Arthur James Arnot and William Blanch Brain
a screw to accurately measure very small ■ ■ Where and when? Australia, 1889
objects. The object is placed between a fixed Arthur James Arnot and William Blanch Brain invented
frame and a screw. Measuring the rotation the first drill to be powered by an electric motor, which
of the screw as it moves toward the object was faster and more efficient than existing drills. This
shows how far it has moved forward much first electric drill wasn’t portable, but the portable
more precisely. Modern-day calipers show handheld drill was invented just six years later, in
distances on a digital display. 1895, by German brothers Wilhelm and Carl Fein.

42




US_042-043_308121_Tools_workshop.indd 42 08/03/2018 17:17

Allen wrenches in Phillips screwdriver
different sizes
■ ■ What? Cross-headed screwdriver and screwdrivers. Cross-headed screws were
■ ■ Who? Henry F. Phillips and particularly useful on automated car
Thomas M. Fitzpatrick assembly lines, as they could take greater
■ ■ Where and when? US, 1936
turning force and provided tighter fastening.
In the 1930s, Henry F. Phillips and Thomas With their cross-shaped tips, Phillips
Allen wrench M. Fitzpatrick invented cross-headed screws screwdrivers fit securely into screw heads.

■ ■ What? Hexagonal socket wrench
■ ■ Who? William G. Allen The cross-shaped tip fits
■ ■ Where and when? US, 1910 securely into the screw,
making it easy to turn.
Created by the Allen Manufacturing
Company in 1910, the Allen wrench is
used to drive bolts and screws with MAKING THE MODERN WORLD
hexagonal sockets in their heads. It is also
known as a hex key. Allen wrenches drive
screws right into the surface that they are
fastening, keeping the surface smooth.
Modern Phillips
screwdrivers

CNC milling machine


■ ■ What? Computer-controlled cutting machine
■ ■ Who? John T. Parsons
■ ■ Where and when? US, 1940s
Milling is a process that uses a circular
rotating cutter to cut into materials in several
different directions, creating a variety of
shapes. Milling machines have existed since
the early 19th century, but in the 1940s,
engineer John T. Parsons was the first person
to consider using the earliest computers to
control the milling process. CNC (computer
Water-cooled CNC numerical controlled) milling machines cut
milling cutter
more precisely than manual machines.

Laser cutter Laser level


■ ■ What? Carbon dioxide laser ■ ■ What? Laser level
■ ■ Who? Kumar Patel ■ ■ Who? Robert Genho
■ ■ Where and when? US, 1964 ■ ■ Where and when? US, 1975
The laser, which produces a narrow, highly concentrated beam of A laser level projects horizontal
light, was invented in the early 1960s. In 1964, engineer Kumar Patel and vertical beams of light which
discovered that carbon dioxide gas could create a laser beam that can then be compared with a
was intense and hot enough work surface. Laser levels are used
to cut through metal. Carbon in the construction industry so that
dioxide lasers are still widely builders can make sure they are
used today in cutting and working on perfectly horizontal
welding, and for delicate surgical surfaces or along straight lines.
procedures such as eye surgery.

Laser level on
Metal laser-cutter a building site
43




US_042-043_308121_Tools_workshop.indd 43 08/03/2018 17:17

Feeding





the world






MAKING THE MODERN WORLD The ancient Romans preserved food in would be useless if we were not able to keep ourselves
Every invention made, from hunting tools to computers,
CANNED FOOD

healthy enough to use them. Food is essential for
containers lined with rust-resistant tin.
survival, and as Earth’s population has grown, it has
In 1810, the Frenchman Nicolas Appert
developed tinned cans to preserve food
become even more vital that humans find effective ways
for Napoleon’s army. In 1823, the tin can
above, which contained roast veal, was
of producing ever-greater quantities of nourishing food.
made for a British voyage.




THE SEED DRILL
Growing crops used to be very hard work, with farmers
laboriously scattering seeds in the field by hand. In 1701,
Englishman Jethro Tull changed all that with his invention of
the seed drill. Pulled along by a horse, this machine carved out
neat furrows, then dropped seeds into them, which proved to
be a very efficient way of growing crops.



This worker carefully
transplants seedlings
into empty pots at
this modern-day
hydroponic farm.
Many farmers came to
witness the Jethro seed
drill in action.





































US_044-045_308121_Feeding_the_world.indd 44 08/03/2018 17:17

PEST CONTROL
In 1939, Swiss chemist Paul Müller
discovered that a chlorine-based
chemical, commonly called DDT,
killed insects but had little effect on
warm-blooded animals. DDT was
used widely in agriculture for years,
but today it has been replaced by
more effective and safer pesticides.








A helicopter sprays potatoes MAKING THE MODERN WORLD
with pesticide in the UK
WOW!

HYDROPONICS Nearly 30 percent of the global
In 1929, American researcher population works in agriculture,
William Gericke grew tomato making it the single largest
vines 25 ft (7.6 m) long using industry in the world.
just high-nutrition minerals mixed FERTILIZERS
with water. This way of growing In 1909, German chemist Fritz Haber
plants without soil became known succeeded in capturing nitrogen
as hydroponics. In the 1930s, from the air to form ammonia, which
vegetables were grown this way could be made into plant fertilizers.
on soilless Wake Island in the Another German chemist, Carl Bosch,
Pacific Ocean, to supply refueling developed this method for large-scale
passenger airliners. Today, NASA is ammonia production in massive
experimenting with hydroponics for factories (above). Since then, this
potential plant cultivation on Mars. breakthrough has led to a huge
increase in food production globally.














GM CROPS
In 1969, American biochemists
discovered how to alter living things
(to add more flavor, for example) by
splicing the genes of one organism
into another. The first genetically
modified (GM) food approved for
sale was the Flavr Savr tomato
(above), produced by the
US company Calgene in 1994.

45




US_044-045_308121_Feeding_the_world.indd 45 08/03/2018 17:17

Working the land






People have always been looking to come up with inventions that
would make farming more efficient. If the greatest game-changer was

the plow, then the second most significant innovation was the motor
MAKING THE MODERN WORLD Threshing machine McCormick’s reaper at work
engine, which offered far more power than horses, and drove tractors,

combine harvesters, and all manner of heavy farming machinery.









What? Steam-driven thresher
■
Who? Andrew Meikle
■
Where and when? UK, 1788
■
Farm laborers used to thresh wheat by
hand, beating the harvested corn with sticks
to separate the grain from the stalks and its
outer covering, known as chaff. In 1788,
Scottish millwright Andrew Meikle invented
a machine that could do this quicker. It
was powered by a separate steam engine.

Mechanical reaping machine

■ What? Horse-powered reaper Without mechanical help, harvesting requires many
■ Who? Patrick Bell people. In 1826, Scottish farmer Patrick Bell invented
■ Where and when? UK, 1827 a machine that could be pulled behind a horse to cut
and gather crops. A few years later, in the US, Cyrus
McCormick came up with a similar machine, which
he patented in 1834 and sold in the thousands.
Funnel releases
smoke.
1860 thresher

Flywheel stores
energy created
Steam-powered tractor by the engine.


■ What? Mobile steam engine
■ Who? Charles Burrell
■ Where and when? UK, 1856
In the 1790s, stationary steam engines Large steel
were used on farms to power threshing rear wheel
machines. A self-moving steam engine
was exhibited in 1842, but Englishman
Charles Burrell built the first practical
steam-powered tractor that could
cope with rough farm terrain in 1856.
1908 Marshall traction engine
46




US_046-047_308121_Working_the_land.indd 46 26/03/2018 10:55

Cattle-proof fencing Gasoline-powered tractor


■ What? Barbed wire basic design for barbed wire in 1868, ■ What? Froelich tractor
■ Who? Joseph Glidden but Joseph Glidden improved upon ■ Who? John Froelich
■ Where and when? US, 1874 the idea, and patented it in 1874. ■ Where and when? US, 1892
He helped turn America’s Great
Barbed wire made large-scale cattle In 1892, John Froelich invented a gasoline-
farming more practical by massively Plains into profitable powered farm vehicle. It was not a success,
reducing the cost of enclosing land, farming country. but his 1914 model was better received.
because it was much cheaper and Sharp barbs Seeing its potential, the John Deere
easier to erect than wooden fences. keep cattle company bought Froelich’s business.
American Michael Kelly invented the at bay.










Lightweight tractor Froelich’s MAKING THE MODERN WORLD
1892 machine
■ What? The Ivel
■ Who? Dan Albone Self-tie baler
■ Where and when? UK, 1903
The Ivel was created by ■ What? New Holland baler
the English manufacturer and ■ Who? Edwin Nolt
inventor Dan Albone, and is widely ■ Where and when? US, 1937
considered to be the first successful tractor designed to replace horses. It was Early machines compacted hay, but
described as a lightweight, gasoline-powered agricultural motor for general purpose. farmhands had to bind the bales manually.
In 1937, American farmer Edwin Nolt built a
Combine harvester self-tying hay baler. The idea was picked up
by the New Holland Machine Company and
■ What? Self-propelled harvester In 1836, in the US, Hiram Moore put into production.
■ Who? Holt Manufacturing built and patented the first
■ Where and when? US, 1911 combine harvester—pulled by
horses—capable of reaping,
Modern threshing, and winnowing grain.
combine In 1911, the first self-propelled
harvester harvester was produced
by the Holt Manufacturing
Company in California.
A tractor tows a modern baler
Crop-spraying drone


■ What? Agras MG-1 Crop-spraying drone
■ Who? DJI in China, 2017
■ Where and when? China, 2015
Farmers have long used aircraft for spraying
crops with pesticides, but it is expensive.
“Dusting” by drone, however, is cheap and
efficient. In 2015, Chinese drone company
DJI exhibited a crop-spraying drone, called
the Agras MG-1, which can fly for 12 minutes
at a time, before needing to be refueled.







US_046-047_308121_Working_the_land.indd 47 26/03/2018 10:55

Construction






For most of human history, construction was largely
about piling things on top of each other, whether brick

or stone, to create a building. Wood was commonly used
MAKING THE MODERN WORLD kinds of structures possible. Engineers were able to build
for roofing. New materials in the 19th century—first

iron, then steel, concrete, and sheet glass—made new



lighter and more versatile buildings more quickly. Most
significantly, they could build much, much higher.































IRON BRIDGE
Steel provides a much stronger
In 1779, Englishman
framework than stone or brick,
Abraham Darby built the which allows for taller buildings.
world’s first iron bridge
(above), to the design of
English architect Thomas
Pritchard. Iron was a WOW!
material previously too
expensive to use on a large Rising to a massive 2,717 ft
scale, but new methods of (828 m), the world’s tallest
production brought prices building is the 160-story
down. The bridge’s 100-ft Burj Khalifa in Dubai, UAE.
(30.5 -m) arch spans the High-rise construction
workers bolt together
Severn River in Shropshire, steel girders to form the
England. It is still used today. supporting structure
of the skyscraper.




48




US_048-049_308121_Construction.indd 48 08/03/2018 17:17