monarchs
el, misunderstood and
sane kings and queens
WOLFPACK
JointhecrewofaWWIIU-boat
stalking the seas for prey
NEW YORK
The real story behind the 10
violent 19th-century gangs
GRUESOME
TORTURE
DEVICES
GLADIATOR † SLAVE † REVOLUTIONARY
nemanalmostbroughtthemighty
www.historyanswers.co.uk
Roman Republic to its knees
FALL OF THE FEARSOME BATTLE OF ISSUE 19
Joan of Arc BERLIN WALL AZTEC WARRIORS THE BOYNE
Busting 19 myths, 25-year anniversary WhatiftheAztecshad Two crowned kings fi ght
untruths and legends eyewitness account beaten the Spanish? itoutforthethrone
DIRTY OLD
LONDON
THE VICTORIAN FIGHT
AGAINST FILTH
LEE JACKSON
Lee Jackson guides us through the filthy streets,
squalid slums, injurious factories and dirty homes
of the Victorian metropolis, and introduces us to
Follow Lee Jackson on Twitter:
the heroes who fought against the tide of filth in
@VictorianLondon
nineteenth-century London.
‘Well illustrated, often wry, thoroughly researched
Visit Lee Jackson’s ‘30 days of filth’
and absorbing’ – Philippa Stockley, Evening Standard
blog tour: yalebooksblog.co.uk
40 b/w illustrations Hardback £20.00
YaleBooks tel: 020 7079 4900
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The fall of the Berlin
Wall led to Germany
becoming a united
country once again
– read an eyewitness
account on page 28
Welcome Issue 19
Somehistoricalfigureshavesuchamyriadof someonewhowasthereonthismomentous highlights
legendsandmythstiedtothemthatitcanbe day.ReadourEyeWitnessfeatureasthe
hardtoseparatethefactfromthefiction.Inour 25-yearanniversaryoftheWall’sfallapproaches. 34 GreatestBattles
latestaction-packedissuewedevotefeatures Onapersonalnote,thiswillbemylastissue In1690abattleinBoyne,
Ireland was fought between
totwoofthem:SpartacusandJoanofArc. aseditor.Thankyoutoeveryonewhoreadsit twomonarchs,theCatholic
JamesandtheProtestant
Spartacus,thegladiator-turned-rebellion- andforallofthefeedbackI’vereceived–mostly William. Its outcome would
leader,diedin71BCE,soit’sperhapsnot good,somethingswecoulddobetter!I’m decidethefutureofanation.
surprisingthatmuchofhislifeisamystery, proudofthemagazinetheteamproduceand WhatIf?
butJoanofArcdiedin1431,sotheamountof allofthehardworkthatgoesintoeveryissue. 44 The Aztec civilisation had
defeated the Spanish
misconceptionssurroundingherareharderto Thisreallyhasbeenadreamjob.
conquistadors led by
explain.Todiscover19mythsabouttheFrench Hernan Cortés and
iconturntopage68andjoinSpartacus’s developed new weaponry
and military tactics?
rebelliononpage52.
On9November1989awallthathaddivided 60 The Deadly Wolfpack
acountrysince1961camecrashingdown. Dive deep beneath the
waves with the crews of
ThefalloftheBerlinWallwasoneofthemost Germany’s WWII U-boats
importantmomentsinrecenthistory,and Andrew Brown as they stalk the oceans
looking for unsuspecting
we’vemanagedtosecureaninterviewwith Editor prey to attack.
www.historyanswers.co.uk Facebook Twitter © Alamy; Ian Hinley
Be part of history Share your views and opinions online /AllAboutHistory @AboutHistoryMag
3
CONTENTS
Welcome to All About History
52 Join the gladiator-turned-revolutionary as he fights
against the powerful Roman Republic
KINGS & QUEENS
12 Enter the lavish, opulent and frequently
dangerous world of kings and queens
14 Kings and Que
timeline 52
Fromtheearliestmonarchste
ofyearsago,throughtothetu
revolution and today’s media-h
16 Hall of Fame
Tenofhistory’smaddestmona
18 Top5Facts
IsabellaofCastile,akeyfigure
unification of Spain
20 Inside History
Takeatourofa13th-century
providing shelter and protect
queens and nobility
22 How To… 60
Keepcontroloffeudalbarons;
subtletyandstrengthisrequi
24 Day in the Life
Of a lady in waiting, looking a
queen’s needs and desires
26 Anatomy of
A mighty Zulu warrior king
FEATURES
60 The Deadly 76 History’s
Wolfpack Forgotten Heroes
Discover how these fearsome German The inventors, humanitarians and
boats hunted and what life was like on sports stars that deserve their place
board them during WWII in the sun
68 God’s Killer: Joan 84 Real-life Gangs of
of Arc New York
Busting 19 myths about the teen Slum gangs who battled for political
French icon of the Hundred Years’ War influence, power and prestige
Be part of history www.historyanswers.co.uk /AllAboutHistory @AboutHistoryMag
4
84
EVERYISSUE
06 Defining
Moments
Three pictures worth a thousand
words each
28 Eye Witness
A first-hand account of the day that
the Berlin Wall fell
76 32 Bluffer’s Guide
The Boston Tea Party of 1773 was
the catalyst for the American War of
Independence
34 Greatest Battles
Two monarchs fight for the crown in
the Battle of the Boyne
38 Through History
A visual tour through mankind’s most
cruel and unusual torture devices
40 Heroes & Villains
Sigmund Freud changed the face of
modern psychology, but his views
and methods were often controversial
44 What If
The Aztec Empire had defeated the
Spanish conquistadors?
48 What was it like?
40 The Easter Rising of 1916 saw Irish
nationalists using violence in their
quest for self-governance
44 92 History Answers
Which Allied pilot shot down the most
planes in WWI?
94 Your History
28 A reader shares with us the story of
her grandfather’s Burmese adventure
98 History Vs
Hollywood
Does Gangs Of New York adhere to
historyorgiveitagoodbeating?
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MAGAZINE?
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WHERE THERE’S SMOKE…
Boston firemen pose with their new fire engine that will
enable them to answer emergencies quicker. The first
informal fire service in America dates to 1647, but not until
the start of the 20th Century was a regular fire service
formed. Internal-combustion fire engines first arrived
in 1907, replacing steam-powered vehicles, which
had themselves superseded horse-drawn
fire trucks.
1920s
6
© Alamy
7
TUTANKHAMUN’S TOMB
Howard Carter and an Egyptian worker remove an item from
the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun, discovered by Carter and
the Earl of Carnarvon in the Valley of the Kings in Egypt. As
the pharaoh was only nine when he died, the tomb was
relatively small, but the wonders reignited interest
in Ancient Egypt. It remains the most complete
tomb of a pharaoh ever discovered.
4 November 1922
8
© Alamy
9
10
TROOPS LEAVE AFGHANISTAN
Soviet tanks and troops leave Afghanistan following a nine-
year war in the Asian country, which had started when
Soviet troops first entered the country in December 1979.
The Soviets had a long military history with Afghanistan,
competing with Britain for its territory in the 1800s.
The Soviet involvement heightened the tensions
of the Cold War and led to America secretly
arming many of the Afghan tribes.
February 1989
© Rex Features
11
Nine kings attended the funeral of
Throughout history Edward VII in 1910, including (from left
manykingshavelost to right): Manuel II of Portugal, Kaiser
theirheads,suchas Wilhelm II of Germany, George I of
Louis XVI in 1793 Greece and George V of Britain
during the French
Revolution
Kings & Queens
2 pages of supremely powerful
sovereign heads of states
This issue
14 Timeline IsabellaofCastileunitedSpainasa combinationofthreats,flattery
From ancient kings and queens nationandfundedthediscoveryof and marriage alliances
fighting bloody civil wars, through the New World
to modern monarchs contending 24 DayintheLife
with the relentless paparazzi 20 Inside History Ofaladyinwaiting,ensuringthe
A medieval castle, providing queen has everything she desires
16 Hall of Fame shelter and protection for
10 monarchs through the ages with monarchs and their subjects 26 Anatomy of
Ancient Egyptian
pharaohs ruled like questionable mental health AfearsomeZuluwarriorking
kings and were seen by 22 How to… leading his people from the front of
theirsubjectsasgods 18 Top5Facts Manage feudal barons through a the battlefield
12
King Juan Carlos of Spain
signs a paper as part of his
abdication in favour of his
son, Prince Felipe, on 18
June 2014
Dignitaries attend a
banquet for Sheikh Sabah
Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah
of Kuwait in Windsor Castle
on 27 November 2012
Crownsareoftenwonandlostin
TheSummerPalace battle–thispictureisadepiction
in Beijing served as
asummerresidence of 1485’s Battle of Bosworth, which
for Chinese emperors sawHenryTudordefeatRichardIII
for centuries
Since ancient times the
monarchyhavedisplayed
themselvesoncoins,
such as this one showing
QueenVictoriaofBritain
from 1887
The wedding of Prince William, Duke of
Cambridge, and Catherine Middleton took
place on 29 April 2011 – it is likely William
will one day be king of England
Not everybody believes having Atahualpa
a king and queenisagoodidea was the 14th
– here anti-monarchy protestors Incan king,
demonstrate during Queen Elizabeth and the last –
II’s Diamond Jubilee celebrations he was killed
by Spanish
conquistadors
13
Kings & Queens
Monarchy across history
The warrior queen
WALES 60 CE
THE DAWN
Queen of the British Iceni tribe,
Boudica was a Celtic monarch who
OF KINGS
SUMER 2900 BCE The city of Sumer is led a rebellion against the mighty
the site of the earliest
The first-ever recorded king Roman Empire. After her husband’s
known civilization
was Alulim, the first king of death the Roman invaders ignored his
Eridu and Sumer, in modern- wishes to leave the kingdom to his
day Iraq. Alulim is steeped in daughters, and instead publicly raped
legend and mythology and and assaulted them and their mother.
it is written that he ruled for In response, the queen led a revolt
28,800 years. This information that destroyed a Roman settlement,
was obtained from a causing the Romans to evacuate the
4,000-year-old cuneiform area. Boudica’s mighty force of 100,000
tablet discovered in the warriors killed an estimated 70,000-
early-20th century. Although 80,000 Romans and British in one
obviously not based wholly in of the bloodiest rebellions in history.
fact, it does prove that kings, However, she was eventually defeated,
and indeed monarchs, have after which Britain continued to be
existed almost as long as ruled as a Roman outpost rather than
humans themselves. by their own monarchy. During her reign Queen Victoria
was compared to Boudica
Monarchy timeline O The founder of the Constantine was O St Bartholomew’s number of dead vary
Estimates for the
Day Massacre
Byzantine Empire
the first-ever
Constantine the Great, Christian emperor King Charles IX and from 5,000 to 30,000
A battle of kings China united Roman emperor, his mother Catherine
Pharaoh Thumose III of QinShiHuangunifies establishes the city of de’Mediciinstigate
Egypt claims victory against China and becomes its first Constantinople, which themassacreof
the king of Kadesh in the emperor. His reign includes goes on to become one thousands of
Battle of Megiddo, the first thebuildingofthe first of the world’s largest citizens – mostly
recorded battle in history, versionoftheGreat Wall, and wealthiest cities Huguenots – at the
leading to the expansion of theTerracottaArmy and a between the 12th and height of the French
the Egyptian Empire. national road system. Qin Shi Huang searched 17th centuries. Wars of Religion.
15th century BCE 221 BCE for an elixir of immortality 324 1572
before his death
1000 BCE BCE 0 1000 1500 1600
1500 BCE
O One god O The unshakeable O WaroftheRoses O Prussia rises O The popular
Pharaoh Akhenaten and queen The houses of Lancaster Grand Master Albert of monarch
Queen Nefertiti first The one-eyed Queen and York fight for control the Teutonic Knights The Mughal Empire
introduce the concept Amanirenas of the of the English throne. founds the Duchy of triples in size and wealth
of a single god, build Kingdom of Kush, Yorkist King Richard III Prussia. He is the first under Emperor Akbar
the city of Akhenaton modern-day Sudan, is defeated by Henry European leader to the Great, winning the
and radically change the resists Roman rule and Tudor, who goes on to establish Protestantism as support of Muslim and
culture of Ancient Egypt. drives their forces from establish a lasting royal the official religion of his non-Muslim subjects
1375-1358 BCE Nefertiti reigned during her territory. 20 BCE dynasty. 1455-1487 Henry Tudor defeated lands. 1525 alike. 1556-1605
the wealthiest period of Richard III at the Battle
Ancient Egypt of Bosworth Field
The death and birth of England is conquered
monarchies ENGLAND 1066
GREECE 31 BCE When the childless King Edward
The Battle of Actium was the breaking the Confessor of England died,
point after years of mounting tensions it created a power void. Harold
between the pharaoh of Egypt, Godwinson was crowned, but in the
Cleopatra, her husband Marc Anthony Battle of Hastings his forces were
and Emperor Augustus of Rome. defeated and the king himself was
Augustus’s victory in a ferocious killed by William the Conqueror
sea battle led to the end of Egyptian and his army. William became
pharaohs and indeed the democratic the first Norman king of England,
Roman Republic. It cemented his own profoundly changing the country,
power in Rome, beginning the reign of forming close ties with France and
powerful Roman emperors that would laying the foundations for the future
Augustus’ reign marked a period of last centuries. William ordered the compilation of the English kingdom.
peace known as Pax Romana Domesday Book in 1086
14
Kings & Queens
The French Revolution saw immense political
upheaval and a shift from monarchy
HENRY DOES
IT HIS WAY
ENGLAND 1533
When Henry VIII of
England fell head over
heels in love with Anne
Boleyn he faced a problem;
still married to Catherine of
Aragon he need the Pope
to annul the marriage. Vive la revolution FRANCE 1789-1799
When the Catholic Church Years of bad harvest, poverty and social decline pushed the
denied him this, he French population to breaking point. After rioters stormed
founded the Church of the Bastille fortress with the aim of securing weapons and
England and initiated the gunpowder the uprising took to the streets with widespread
English Reformation. This arson and destruction. At the centre of the madness sat King
Protestant reformation Louis XVI and his wife, the loathed Marie Antoinette. On 10
thrust the country, and the August 1792 insurgents stormed the palace and arrested the
world, into a new political king, and in January the next year he was executed for crimes
age, breaking away from against the state. His wife followed him nine months later to
the power of the Catholic meet Madame Guillotine. Although the revolutionaries failed
Church and putting the Anne would later be to achieve many of their aims, the event profoundly affected
final religious authority charged with adultery, not only French history, but also marked the decline of many
incest and witchcraft
firmly with the monarchy. monarchies worldwide and the rise of nationalism.
O Aking’sexecution O TheZuluking O Victoria’s reign ends O Aroyal O Nepal abolishes
After his defeat during Zulu king Shaka Queen Victoria, the discovery monarchy
the English Civil War, unites many of the monarch who oversaw the The discovery of The latest
King Charles I is executed Northern Nguini expansion of the British the nearly intact country to date
and the monarchy people and the Empireintothelargestthe tomb of Pharaoh to get rid of their
is abolished. Oliver Ndwandwe into the world had ever seen, dies. Tutankhamun monarch is Nepal,
Cromwell is established Zulu Kingdom in Shehadbeenqueenofher sparks a which replaces
at the country’s ‘Lord what is modern-day country for an astonishing renewed interest the abolished
Protector’, but the South Africa and 63 years and is still the in Ancient Egypt. institution with
monarchy soon return transforms the army longest-serving monarch in Tutankhamun’s tomb had 1922 a parliamentary
to power. intoapowerfulforce. English and Scottish history. been entered at least twice republic.
1649 1816 1901 by ancient robbers 2008
1700 1800 1900 1920 1940 1970 2010 2014
O Russia’s great emperor O Meiji Restoration O Xinhai Revolution O Love vs the throne O Thelastemperor
PetertheGreatascends Aftertheemperorisbrought The last imperial dynasty Edward VIII abdicates Emperor Haile Selassie
to the Russian throne. His back into power in Japan of China, the Qing the British throne due of Ethiopia is deposed
reignmarksaperiodof after years of shogunate Dynasty, is overthrown to his desire to marry by the Derg, a group
cultural revolution (based rulefollowingacivilwar,the and the Republic of China adivorcedAmerican of low-ranking Soviet-
on the Enlightenment) that country experiences a rapid is established, ending socialite named Wallis supported military
transforms Russia into a period of modernisation into 4,000yearsofnear- Simpson; his brother officers, in a bloody
major European power. aworldpower. unbroken imperial rule. George VI replaces him. Haile Selassie’s remains coup d’état.
1721 1868 1911-1912 1936 were later discovered under 1975
a concrete slab
A royal slaughter Royal twilight Diamonds are
RUSSIA 1917 EUROPE 1940S a queen’s best
After the disastrous leadership of In the wake of WWII friend
Nicholas II during WWI the Russian many monarchs the UNITED KINGDOM 2012
tsar was forced to abdicate. He was world over were forced Crowned on 6 February 1952,
replaced by a provisional government, from their thrones. King Queen Elizabeth II celebrated
but mass unrest continued and Peter II of Yugoslavia was her diamond jubilee in
the Bolsheviks, a communist forced to abdicate when 2012. The only other British
revolutionary group, seized control of the communist leader monarch to celebrate 60
the country. On 16 July the tsar and Marshal Tito abolished years on the throne was
his entire family were led into their the monarchy in 1945. Queen Victoria in 1897. Events
basement and shot under the orders Similarly, King Michael of included a concert held in her
of Bolshevik leaders. The murders put Romania was threatened honour and a pageant that
a sudden and brutal end to hundreds with death if he didn’t give Queen Elizabeth said people included hundreds of boats
Rumours of the survival of
of years of Russian monarchy. Anastasia, the tsar’s daughter, up the throne in 1947. should not be “forced to sailing down the Thames.
have proven to be unfounded celebrate” her jubilee
15
Kings & Queens
Hall of Fame
MAD MONARCHS
Kings, queens and emperors wield great power, but this can be too much for some
– discover ten leaders whose position was a detriment to their mental health
Ivan IV
HENRY VI
RUSSIAN 1530-1584
ENGLISH 1421-1471
Ivan IV was the first to
Henry became the king of
crown himself tsar of
just nine months and grew Russia, but he is more
shy, withdrawn and pious commonly known as Ivan
unable to control the polit the Terrible. Although a
strong leader who expanded
plotting rife in medieval E
Russian territory, he was
mental breakdown lasting
known for his fits of rage,
one of the many sparks of which many believe were a
Roses, during which Henr result of the poor treatment
the Yorkists, won back his he received at the palace
following the death of his
deposed a second time in
mother when he was just
his forces had been defeat seven. His terrifying acts of
the king was found hiding brutality frequently astonished his own people, such as when
having suffered another m his army sacked Novgorod in 1570, in which up to 12,000
people died. His behaviour became increasingly erratic
Henry’s illness was episod
during his reign and one particularly violent outburst saw
Lancastrian cause relied
him kill his son with his own hands and beat his pregnant
heavily on his strong- daughter-in-law
willed wife, Margaret
of Anjou. Henry
eventually died in
captivity – possibly
at the hands of his
enemies – and the
Wars of the Roses
would finally be
brought to a close when
Henry Tudor triumphed a
the Battle of Bosworth, go
become Henry VII.
It is suspected that Joanna’s
husband’s death brought on
many dormant symptoms of
her mental illness
ALIGULA ROMAN 12-41 CE
rguably the most debauched leader of the Roman Empire,
aligula became emperor at the age of 25. A moderate ruler for
he first six months of his reign, he then became increasingly
adistic, as illustrated by the time he reportedly ordered a
ection of the Colosseum’s crowd to be thrown into the games
JOANNA OF CASTILE
rena and eaten by animals because he was bored. While CASTILIAN 1479-1555
there is no evidence that he actually made his horse Joanna succeeded to the thrones of Castile in 1504 and
consul, he frequently killed and tortured for Aragon in 1516, uniting the two crowns, a crucial step
‘Caligula’ amusement and behaved very erratically. toward the formation of modern Spain. However, she
was a Perhaps unsurprisingly, Caligula was the held little real power and was manipulated by both her
father and husband before their deaths. Her son Charles
nickname meaning first Roman emperor to be assassinated, was made co-monarch in 1517 and within three years had
‘little boot’, given but plans to restore the old Republic out Joanna confined to a convent. Although she remained a
by soldiers while the of the fledgling Empire failed and his titular queen, she was imprisoned for the rest of her life,
young nobleman was uncle, Claudius, was soon named the during which time her condition deteriorated. ‘Joanna the
Mad’ probably suffered from a severe clinical depression
on campaign in next emperor. brought about by her 35-year confinement.
Germania
16
Kings&Queens
Mustafa I’s deeply
traumatic childhood
doomed his short-lived
reign as sultan
CHARLES VI
Joshua Norton, the
FRENCH 1368-1422
Charles had been the first and so far only
king of France for 12 emperorofthe
United States
years when he suddenly
suffered a psychotic
episode while travelling
with his army, during
which he killed several
knights and almost
murdered his brother. Norton
From then on he suffered regular periods of mental wasamong
illness, sometimes believing he was made of glass thefirsttocallfor
and taking steps to protect himself from shattering. abridgeacrossSan
The power vacuum led to civil war as his family FranciscoBay.Attempts
members fought to seize control of the throne. After tohavetheBayBridge
Charles died, his son secured the throne, despite namedafterhim
the Treaty of Troyes promising it to Charles’s infant havesofarfailed
grandson, Henry VI of England.
“A traitor is Joshua Abraham Norton
everyone who ENGLISH 1819-1880
Hemaynothaveheldanyactualrealpower,butthatdidnot
does not agree stopmigrantJoshuaNortonproclaiminghimselfNortonI,
EmperoroftheUnitedStates,afterbeingdeclaredbankrupt
with me” whilelivinginSanFrancisco.Hewashumouredbythose
around him; currency issued in his name was accepted and
The thelocalpressprintedhisdecrees.WhenNortonwas
George III writers of committed for involuntary psychiatric treatment, public
theBible may protests successfully demanded his release. He died
in poverty but 30 000 people attended his funeral.
MUSTAFA I
haveconfused
Nebuchadnezzar with
OTTOMAN 1591-1639
It was normal behaviour for Ottoman sultans to kill
their brothers to prevent them from threatening Nabonidus, a later Nebuchadnezzar II
their position of power. Young Mustafa was spared Babylonian king
this fate, but was kept a prisoner under house arrest named in the Dead Nebuchadnezzar was the Babylonian king responsible
BABYLONIAN 634-562 BCE
(a system known as the cage) for 14 years, which Sea Scrolls for the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
understandably affected his mental health. Mustafa However, the Bible records that he suffered a seven-year bout
became sultan in 1618, but his strange behaviour of insanity as a punishment from God for his excessive pride,
during which he lived like a savage in the wild and was restored
included pulling the beards of his ministers and
to power upon his recovery. If the
giving coins to fishes, so he was deposed by his description in the Bible is true, it
nephew and put back in the cage. He became sultan A famous depiction of a is possible he suffered from
a second time in 1622, but his behaviour was little deranged Nebuchadnezzar either a rare psychiatric
improved and he was deposed again in favour of a by William Blake disorder or syphilis.
different nephew, Murad IV. Under house arrest yet
again, this time permanently, he died 16 years later.
ERIC XIV
George III SWEDISH 1533-1577
Eric XIV became king in 1560, and his mental instability,
combined with a massive inferiority complex, resulted
BRITISH 1738-1820
George III’s reig
mental health. inabizarreandvolatiletimeforhissubjects.Duringhis
episodes of del rule, arbitrary decisions and constant conflict with his
he was fit to ru own subjects reigned supreme, especially during the
The Madness Of Northern Seven Years’ War, when he tried to expand
his mental ecc
as one where G Sweden into a world power. Eric tried, and failed, to
greeted a tree, wooprettymucheveryqueenandprincessinWestern
it was the King Europe, including Queen Elizabeth I. He suspected
However, it is l almost every Swedish nobleman of plotting against Scholars argue over
whether his mental
many of these him, but his paranoia boiled over when he killed several illness began early in
were exaggerat his reign or after the
or made up by members of the powerful Sture family, convinced they Sture Murders
supporters of th were committing high treason. He was arrested by his
of Wales, who w brother and eventually poisoned to death in prison.
establish hims
17
Kings & Queens
Top 5 facts
ISABELLA OF
CASTILE
UNIFYING FORCE OF SPAIN AND
DEFENDER OF THE CATHOLIC FAITH
01 SHE WAS
THE FIRST
WOMAN ON A US
DOLLAR COIN
In 1893, just over 400
years after Columbus’s
fateful voyage, a coin
was issued in the United
States with Isabella’s
image on it. That same
year she also became the ISABELLA OF CASTILE
Spanish, 1451-1504
first woman featured on
a commemorative US Also known as Isabella
Brief the Catholic, Isabella
postage stamp, when she Bio was the queen of
Castile and Leon
from 1474 to 1504.
was shown alongside During her reign she cleared
Columbus on the eight- the kingdoms of enormous
debt, introduced a number of
governmental reforms, brought
cent stamp. the crime rate to the lowest in
years and was responsible for
the unification of Spain.
Columbus wouldn’t She created the Henry VIII was her She had a marriage
02 have found 03 Spanish Inquisition 04 son in law 05 prenuptial
America without her Isabella and her husband Ferdinand Of her seven children, two were When Isabella of Castile married
It was with Isabella’s backing that II established the notorious Spanish stillborn. Five lived to see adulthood, Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469 they
Christopher Columbus was able to Inquisition to ensure that Jews and one of whom was Joanna, nicknamed joined their two kingdoms together,
afford his voyage that led to the Muslims who had recently converted ‘Joanna the mad’ for her mental although they maintained elements
discovery of the New World, which to Christianity were keeping to their instability. However, her daughter of independence. Before their union
brought wealth and new lands to new faith. She also commanded that Catherine of Aragon went on to a prenuptial was signed saying they
Spain. When Native Americans were all Jews and Muslims in Spain who become the first wife of Henry VIII, would share power under the saying
brought back as slaves Isabella refused to convert to Christianity be making Isabella the grandmother of ‘tanto monta, monta tanto’ – ‘equal
demanded they be set free. immediately exiled. Queen Mary I of England. opposites in balance.’
18
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Kings & Queens
How do we know this?
There is a good range of historical
information available on castles – not least
castles themselves, many of which have
stood the test of time and are still available
to view. Castle: A History Of The Buildings
That Shaped Medieval Britain by Marc Morris
is an enlightening read while Castles: Their
Construction And History is a more scholarly
book but still enjoyable.
MEDIEVAL
CASTLE
A KING’S HOME AND PROTECTION
AGAINST HIS ENEMIES, 13TH
CENTURY, BRITAIN
Homage tower
This is the main tower and
normally serves as the residence
of the king and his family. The
quarters here are the castle’s most
lavish; the king’s valuables and
money are often kept in the lower
part of the tower.
Circular towers
Castles are frequently
designed with circular
Drawbridge towers, which can absorb
Most castles are surrounded by a moat more impact than straight
walls, so are therefore
filled with water, which adds an extra harder to topple. These
layer of defence. Those wanting to exit towers are designed to
or enter the castle must do so over provide a good view of the
the drawbridge, which can be located countryside and are high so
next to a gatehouse for added security. that any approaching army
The water in the moat is not very can be spotted from afar.
appetising – the waste from the castle
toilets is tipped straight in.
20
Kings & Queens
astles were fortified mansions for kings, strategically built on high ground or next to a
nobility and feudal lords and were natural defensive barrier like water. The castles
first built in Britain after the Norman were designed to be able to withstand attacks
conquest of 1066. The first castles built andsieges,whichmeanthighandstrongwalls,
Bailey
This is a narrow slit Cwere of a type called Motte and Bailey, andbeing largeenoughtokeepgoodsupplies
placed on the wall where whichconsistedofawoodenfortontopof offoodandwater.Theruralcommunityof
sentinels are allowed a man-made mound (the motte) with an thefeudwouldalsotakerefugeinthemwhen
to guard. If the outer enclosed surrounding area (the bailey) where a under attack. As weaponry advanced and
curtain wall is breached smallcommunitywouldlive. cannons and other artillery developed, castles
the defenders group
together here. ManystonecastleswerebuiltinBritain lost their usefulness for the
duringthe12thcentury.Justlike monarchy. However, new
with the Motte and Bailey version, castleswerestillbuiltasa
location was everything – they were sign of power and status.
Recreation
A king’s home is his
castle so while there he
regularly partakes in
leisurely pursuits. These
include hunting outside,
hosting banquets and Weapons courtyard
bird hunting with their The central space of the castle, from where
tame hawks. access to every other room is granted. The
courtyard is where the chapel, the barn
and the armoury are located and is often
the castle’s busiest part.
Wall
This castle has a ‘curtain wall’ – a wall
that goes around the castle, meaning the
structure has two walls. These can be very
thick – the curtain wall of Caerphilly Castle
in Wales was more than 2m (6.6ft) thick. The
Bread oven wall has holes through which the defenders
can fire arrows or throw other projectiles at
This is located inside the castle to ensure
any attackers.
the supply of bread in the event of an
attack – if the enemy can’t enter by force
they often surround the castle and attempt
to starve those inside. The longest siege
in recorded history occurred in 1644 in
Candia (now Heraklion) in Crete; it lasted
for 21 years.
© Sol 90 Images
21
Kings & Queens
How to
MANAGEFEUDALBARONS
ARRANGING A FEUDAL MARRIAGE
RULE A UNITED LAND OF LOYAL Politics not love Bride
FOLLOWERS, ENGLAND, MIDDLE AGES If a baron died and left an unmarried The female daughter of a
heir, the king could sell the heir in baron hadnosayinher
marriage for the price of his estates. marriage and could be married
When William the Conqueror successfully invaded England and became Daughters and widows could also be sold as young as 12 years old. Once
king in 1066 he completely changed the way the country was run. Before in marriage, and the king would arrange married, she was not allowed
William was crowned the land was divided between earls who were free the marriage of all female heirs. to divorce her husband.
to govern in whatever way they saw fit, which could result in tyrannical
rules and general anarchy. Instead, William allocated each section of land
to tenants-in-chief known as barons. The barons were still subservient to
thekingandhadtoprovidehimwithmoneyandknightswhenneeded.
Ifhewasunabletoprovidethese,hewouldberemovedfromhisposition.
Thesystemhandedmorecontroltothemonarch,butkeepingsomany
ambitious and wealthy men in check was a difficult and time-consuming
task that could mean the difference between a mighty united nation and
adisjointedlandripeforthepicking…
5 TYPES OF Groom
ROYAL TITLES to further a baron’s wealth, land
The aim of marriage was either
orstatus,ortoendrivalries
DUKE/DUCHESS between families and increase
their political influence. The
The highest-ranking peers of the
king would sometimes marry
king, they also served as peers of
his siblings into powerful
the realm. The first dukes were
houses to increase his power.
instated by Edward III.
MARQUESS/
MARCHIONESS
The marquess are below the
dukes in title, and owned land on
the border of the country they
were trusted with defending.
EARL
Earls had authority over a region
and collected fines and taxes.
They were also responsible for
leading the king’s armies in war.
VISCOUNT/
VICOUNTESS
Viscounts would assist with
the running of provinces and
were heavily involved with Choose your barons Summon your barons to court
administrating the courts.
When William the Conqueror claimed England he picked Baronswouldattendafeudalcourt, an early incarnation
KNIGHT 01 hisbaronsfromhisfinestwarriors.Uponabaron’sdeath 02 ofaparliament.Thereisnosetschedule, so you’ll have
Knights were a rung below theirlandispasseddowntotheirheir.Toensuretheirloyalty tosendoutpersonalwritsto allthebaronsyou wish to appear
barons, but were still part of the toyou,allbaronswillneedtoswearanoathofloyaltybefore at your council. The barons will provide you with advice, but
nobility. They were expected to reapingthebenefits.Thechosenmenwillkneelbeforeyouata it’s also an opportunity for you to bring up the tricky subject of
adhere to a code of chivalry. ceremony and proclaim: “Sire, I have become your man.” funding; after all, ruling a kingdom is expensive.
22
Kings & Queens
4 FEUDAL
How not to…
manage your barons REVOLTS
When King John of England suffered a string of defeats overseas he was
forced to demand more money from his barons to fund his army. In 1204 REBELLION OF
John lost his land in Northern France, so in order to recover from this
crushing failure he raised taxes without consulting his barons – common GYÖRGY DÓZSA
practice at the time. However, when John was defeated again at the Battle
of Bouvines many England barons lost their possessions in Normandy. 1514, KINGDOM OF HUNGARY
Thousands of the gentry were
On top of this, John returned and demanded yet more money from taxes.
killed and castles burned when
This blatant disregard for feudal law was the final straw for the barons,
peasants in Hungary led a mass
who led a mass rebellion against the king, managing to capture London.
revolt against their overlords.
By the spring of 1215 John was forced into negotiations with the barons
and the end result of this was the Magna Carta – a document that placed
limitations on the king’s power and protected some of the barons’ rights.
PEASANTS’ REVOLT
1381, ENGLAND
Over a thousand English rebels
rose up to protest taxing and
unpaid labour, destroying many
buildings in London and killing
high-ranking officials.
Send out a call for arms Collect taxes
As a king you’re going to need an ample supply of Conquering is expensive business, so if your barons are
03 soldiers to defend your borders and vanquish your 04unable to provide knights they need to pay you ‘scutage’
enemies. You will have to send out requests to your barons to so you can hire mercenaries instead. You also need to collect the
provide you with knights. Each baron has a different set quota of taxes your barons have amassed from their own tenants, as well IVAYLO REBELLION
knights they must supply you with for up to 40 days at a time; as the baron’s own rent for his land. There is also feudal relief, a
1277-1280, BULGARIA
make sure their equipment is up to scratch and use them wisely. one-off tax the heir of an estate pays when a baron dies. The swine herder Ivaylo led an
uprising against Tsar Constantine I,
who was overthrown, with Ivaylo
put in his place.
FLANDERS PEASANT
REVOLT
1323-1328, FLANDERS
Due to a steep rise in taxes, a
series of scattered rural riots
broke out and slowly escalated
into a five-year rebellion.
Enjoy free lodgings Maintain control
You will need to travel around the country a lot, so it’s The trouble with giving people great expanses of land
05 just as well that your barons have a duty to provide free 06 is that they can become powerful and sometimes
food and lodging. Kings tend to travel with quite the entourage, rebellious, like the French and German barons who began to
so this can be very costly to the barons; William’s household once govern their lands as independent states. The best way to prevent
consumed 6,000 chickens, 1,000 rabbits, 200 geese, 90 boars, 50 this is to provide strict but fair leadership. If that fails, you can
peacocks and hundreds of casks of wine during a Christmas visit. always relieve the troublemakers of their position (or their life).
23
Kings & Queens
Day in the life How do we know this?
Many books deal with the role of the lady in waiting
during this period using and there are also primary
sources available. Anne Somerset’s Ladies In Waiting
uses a wide array of sources in her chronicle, dealing
ALADYINWAITING with individual stories to provide an intimate
glimpse into this secret world. Ladies-In-Waiting:
Women Who Served At The Tudor Court by Victoria
Evans draws upon manuscripts, firsthand accounts
and personal letters to give a day-to-day account of
famous ladies in waiting who rose through the ranks.
INTIMATE COMPANIONS TO THE MOST
POWERFUL WOMEN IN THE WORLD,
ENGLAND, 1485-1603
Throughout history, specialised personal assistants with a wide variety
of roles, depending on the time period, country and mistress in question,
have attended royal and noble women. In England during the Tudor
and Elizabethan eras the lady in waiting became a vitally important
role, with some ladies in waiting, such as Jane Seymour, even rising
through the ranks to become queens themselves. Chosen from
high society by the queen herself, a lady in waiting was
not a slave or a servant, but a much-needed, trusted
companion in the brutal and often cutthroat
world of the Royal court.
GET DRESSED
There were very strict clothing laws for Elizabethan
women, and ladies in waiting could not wear just
anything. The colour and materials used in clothes
helped to immediately identify the woman’s rank,
keeping the strict class divide in place. Ladies in
waiting were permitted to wear velvets and furs in
crimson or black.
ENTERTAIN THE QUEEN
A key part of a lady in waiting’s job was to ensure
that the queen was entertained at all times. She
would provide company to her mistress and join in
with her pastimes. Embroidery, painting and riding
were all popular forms of entertainment. As ladies
in waiting spent so much time with
the queen she would often select them Although queens were frequently in
the public eye, it was only to their
from her own family. ladies that they were able to reveal
their true selves
PRACTISE SKILLS
Not only was a lady in waiting
expected to be perfectly trained
in the art of etiquette, but she
also had to ensure she kept up
to date with the most popular
dances at court, be proficient
in playing several musical
instruments, an adept horse
rider and be fluent in several
languages. She would spend time
every day perfecting these skills.
24
Kings & Queens
ACCOMPANY THE QUEEN
In the Tudor era having a large entourage was a
sign of power, and ladies in waiting were often
chosen to add glamour and beauty. She would
accompany the queen wherever she went and
would also serve as a buffer between the queen
and talkative or irritating nobles who tended to
monopolise the conversation. A good lady in
waiting could immediately tell when her mistress
needed ‘rescuing.’
CATCH UP ON
CORRESPONDENCE
Far more than simply a best friend to the queen,
a lady in waiting fulfilled a variety of duties in the
household. They would read letters to the monarch
and also write on her behalf, often penning
politically important letters and thus staying in the
loop with the latest news. The court companions
ensured smooth running of the palace by keeping
a tight watch on the servants and maintaining the
royal wardrobe.
GOSSIP
Ladies in waiting were a queen’s most loyal and
trusted companions, and the monarch could talk
to them on a level of trust unlike anyone else,
even her own husband. Ladies in waiting would
frequently keep the queen up to date with the
latest gossip going around court and, because of
this uniquely close relationship with the monarch,
many ladies in waiting became embroiled in
serious royal scandals.
Anne Boleyn and Catherine
Howard’s lady in waiting, Jane ATTEND A MASQUE
Rochford, played a part in
bringing about their executions A lady in waiting was an integral and important
part of a royal court and her presence would
be expected at balls and masques (courtly
entertainment that involved music and dancing).
This was also an opportunity for the royal
companion herself to form powerful links and
make an impression on the English nobility. It was
during a court masque that Anne Boleyn made her
first documented appearance.
GO TO BED
The personal assistants provided company to the
queen in every aspect of her life, including the
bedroom. A lady in waiting would frequently sleep
in the same room as the queen, either in the same
bed or on a smaller bed beside her. This wasn’t
considered scandalous at all, as the queen lived a
Lady in waiting was an enviable life of constant threat, so it was essential for her
position, and noble families © Getty Images; Alamy; Cambridge University Press
would train their children in the to have company at all hours. Queen Elizabeth I’s
courtly arts to secure such a role ladies would even soothe her to sleep with singing
or reading.
25
Kings & Queens
HEADDRESS
DRESSEDTOIMPRESS
Zulu kings and warriors wore elaborate headdresses
to identify different regiments in battle. The hair was
stiffened with clay and otter skin was the foundation
for various ostrich, crane and finch plumes. Ear
coverswerefashionedfromjackalormonkey skin.
NECKLACE
THE ZULU BADGE OF HONOUR
Jewellerywasasourceofprideandhonour
forZuluwarriors.Craftedfromanimal
horns and wood, they were bestowed
upon warriors who had shown
skill in battle, with Zulu kings
such as Shaka and Dingane MUSCLES
wearing a necklace of
lion teeth.
THE STRENGTH TO RULE
Thekingwasnotexempt
fromtheZuluwarriormind-
set. Zulu kings commanded
the army personally and were
SPEAR involved in all battles. Physical
strength was of paramount
A THRUST IN THE RIGHT DIRECTION importance to serve as an example
to his warriors, and his fighting
The iklwa was named for
prowess ensured an advantage over
the gruesome sound it made
when removed from victims. rivals as well as would-be assassins
At 60cm (2ft) long, it was among his own people.
shorter than those used
by opponents, but it had
a large 30cm (1ft)-long
blade. The iklwa SHIELD
could be used at close
quarters and was perfect SYMBOL OF PEACE AND PROTECTION
for hand-to-hand combat. Made from cowhide and 150cm (5ft) long,
This weapon was heavily the shield was essential in the Zulu fighting
used as the Zulus technique of hooking the foe’s shield and
started to conquer exposing their ribs. Their colours indicated
other tribes and different regiments: young fighters would carry
develop an empire in black shields while the older warriors would fight
the early-19th century. with white shields. All shields were the property of
the king, and when they were not in use he stored
them in structures specially designed to protect them
from vermin.
LOINCLOTH
MINIMAL COVERAGE FOR THE
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY Anatomy
Fighting in the hot, humid
African weather, most warriors
would only wear a loincloth of
fashioned from animal skins,
with rare animal skin like
leopard normally reserved
for the king. Zulu warriors
specialised in hand-to-hand
combat, so swift, quick ZULUWARRIORKING
movement was essential. The
lack of heavy armour or bulky
uniforms ensured this.
BAREFEET
MIGHTY ZULU KING DECIMATING
A HARD SOLE FOR A STRONG WARRIOR
The feet of the barefoot Zulu warriors were toughened by forced marches ENEMIES AND EXPANDING HIS TERRITORY,
over hot, stony terrain littered with bush branches and thorns. Some accounts ZULU EMPIRE, 1820
report that Shaka’s marches covered a distance of over 80km (50mi) a day
© Kevin McGivern when they were fighting against other tribes in what is now South Africa.
26
Eye Witness
FALL OF THE BERLIN WALL, GERMANY, 9 NOVEMBER 1989
Written by Dom Reseigh-Lincoln
‘‘ As we made our way
ANDREAS RAMOS
Born in Colombia
andraisedinthe
USA, Ramos lived into West Germany we
in West Germany
for seven years
before moving
to Denmark. He’s authored ten could all sense that the
books, including a number of
best-selling titles. He’s also a
lecturer in Digital Marketing
at the Silicon Valley Business
School. He remains an whole continent was about
outspoken commentator on
the fall of the Berlin Wall and
hopes future generations will
remember its importance. to change forever ’’
or 28 years, the Berlin Wall stood resolute, an years and then went to Denmark to work on a doctoral
imposing symbol of the Soviet Union’s cast-iron dissertation. I’d been to Berlin many times and had
hold over much of Eastern Europe. For almost three friends there. From the edge of the Wall we watched
decades, the citizens of the Wall’s Eastern side lived everything, and when the East Germans began to tear
Funder the watchful eye of the German Democratic down the wall, we joined them.”
Republic, a semi-autonomous government laid in place A month prior, the first metaphorical cracks in the
by its Soviet masters in Moscow. Heavily guarded and Soviet Union’s hold on Eastern Europe started to show.
laced with barbed wire, the 155-kilometre (96-mile)-long, Communication between Moscow and the German
3.6-metre (11.8-foot)-high structure ensured the German Democratic Republic (GDR) government led by hardline
capital remained divided through the fearful years of party leader Erich Honecker had broken down as the
the Cold War. No East German was permitted to cross Motherland struggled to contain its rapidly unravelling
the border into the West; the sights and sounds of a free vision for a united socialist future. Up until this point,
Berlin a few hundred yards away a constant reminder the borders of the Eastern Bloc remained intact, but the
of how fractured Europe had become in the decades growing pressure from refugees attempting to flee the
following the end of World War II. But as the 1980s drew failing communist system became too much for the
to a close, this symbol of division became the breaking neighbouring Hungarian government to ignore. On 19
point in European socialism. Based in Denmark at the August 1989, Hungary effectively opened its physical
time, science and technology student Andreas Ramos borders and allowed over 13,000 East Germans to surge
travelled to Berlin to witness first-hand the frustrations across the border into Austria. As the refugees sought
of a continent boil over in the streets of a divided city. sanctuary in the West German embassy, it sent a shock
“When I went to study at Heidelberg (in southwest wave through the infrastructure of the Eastern Bloc. A
Germany) in 1978 no one in government, academia or wave that would reach all the way to Berlin and beyond.
the general public could imagine the Berlin Wall would Back in the capital, the streets were more alive than
ever fall or the Soviet Union could collapse”, explains ever. A previously morose and subdued city was now
Ramos. “NATO was built on the premise of eternal bustling as its citizens took up arms in peaceful protests.
conflict with the USSR. But by the mid-1980s, after the East Berliners could sense the government was starting
USSR’s failure in Afghanistan, it was clear the Soviet to unravel. The resignation of Erich Honecker, the
Union had to change. But collapse? They simply hadn’t staunch idealist who had stated only months before
planned for change. It all happened on the streets, not that the Berlin Wall would stand tall for a century to
within the government. I was in Germany for seven come, had galvanised the nation’s hope for change. The
28
Eye Witness
FALL OF THE BERLIN WALL
East Germans gathered at the
Berlin Wall in November 1989, with
sledges and axes to tear it down
29
Eye Witness
FALL OF THE BERLIN WALL
Timeline of a
nation uniting
CST
O Prior to the Wall’s physical
19 August
collapse, the political
1989
landscape regarding it is
already falling apart. The
opening of Hungary’s borders
with Austria can be seen as
the initial catalyst.
O Peaceful protest
4 September
Following a similar influx of
refugees into a now-open
Czechoslovakia, a series of
peaceful protests are organised
across East Berlin.
O East German leader Erick
18 October
Honecker is forced to resign
by his own party following his
refusal to change the city’s
immigration policies.
O We are the people
4 November
With Erick Honecker and his
‘shoot to kill’ edict removed,
the Peaceful Revolution of 1989
reaches its height. The chant,
“We are the people!” echoes
through the streets of East
German cities.
Regardless of age, class or background, chipping away at the With the sun still high in the sky, citizens from both East
28year-oldWallwasasymbolicactionthatunitedanation and West Berlin clamber on top of the Wall
O Crowds begin to gather all
9.30am
along the Berlin Wall as ‘PeacefulRevolution’,asitcametobeknown,reached demandingtoletthroughintoWestBerlin.To
9 November
rumours of a policy change
run amok. its height on 4 November 1989, an event that attracted Colombian-born Ramos, it was utter chaos, but it was
Ramos and many others to Berlin. Arriving on the chaos charged by hope rather than anger. “It was
afternoon of 9 November, Ramos could sense an air of November and it was extremely cold that night, but
O The GDR holds a press
1.00pm tension, but also one of burgeoning hope. “The build- in the excitement everyone was milling around in
conference where it
announces all GDR citizens up wasn’t just in Germany; it was the whole year of anticipation. Restaurants and bars, which by law were
are permitted to cross over to revolutions across Eastern Europe. The Soviet Bloc was meant to close, were all open well into the early hours.
West Berlin. disintegrating, one nation after another”, comments Laws became meaningless that night,” he recalls. “People
Ramos. “As we made our way into West Germany we came from all over Europe: we spoke in many languages.
could all sense that the whole continent was about to There were British, French, Spaniards, Italians, Greeks
O The first few East Berliners
5.05pm
make their way into the West change forever.” and many Scandinavians, plus, of course, the Germans.
as guards quickly lose control That evening the inevitable finally became a reality. That night, Berlin was Europe. Remember; at the time,
of the situation.
In the weeks since Honecker’s forced resignation, his there were no cell phones, no video, no Twitter, no
successors had attempted to rejuvenate the party’s Facebook, no selfies, so remarkably, there aren’t that
O Media announcement reputation by holding a series of press conferences that many photos of that night. Today, of course, there would
8.00pm
Huge crowds gather at the Berlin promised radical changes to national policies. Shortly be billions of photos.”
Wall, hacking it to pieces as
the media televises the scenes before that day’s official press conference, GDR’s official As Ramos and his friends approached the Wall itself,
around the world. and unofficial spokesman Günter Schabowski was the air seemed alight with a mixture of confusion,
handed a small note that confirmed all East Berliners frustration and apprehension. “As the news of the law
were now allowed to cross the border into the West with changing spread it became a massive sense of relief,
O Despite multiple breaches in
22 December the proper identification. However, without any other of ‘it’s over’, of excitement. After decades of baseless
the Wall, the Brandenburg
Gate is officially opened for explanation to help him digest this news, Schabowski promises from politicians and pointless dreams of
all Berliners to pass through. was thrust in front of a ravenous media. One garbled and uniting of families, it suddenly became possible in a
mostly improvised statement later and it was official: the delirious joy”, he says. “Someone wrote it was the world’s
once impenetrable gates of East Germany were opening. largest street party, and it was. 5 million people in one
O With the Wall itself almost
3 October
completely demolished, The problem was, this news wasn’t communicated down city. East Germans flooded across the borders and went
1990
East and West Germany are to the guards and officials manning the many guard visiting throughout all of Germany. The cities declared
united in a formal ceremony.
The US, British and French posts along the wall. With frustration building among free bus and streetcar tickets for them, free museums
governments relinquish the crowds of East Berliners, the situation was a powder and zoos, free everything for the visiting East Germans.
stewardship of West Berlin keg waiting to explode. It was an incredible time.”
into the hands of a new
united and democratic As the news started to flood across East Berlin, The Wall was suddenly no longer the impenetrable
German government. hundreds of people began to gather at each checkpoint barrier to another world. East Berliners were flooding
30
Eye Witness
FALL OF THE BERLIN WALL
Where it
happened
Imposing structure
Built on 31 August 1961, the wall
dividing West and East Germany,
surrounding West Berlin, was
155km(96mi)longwith an
French sector averageheightof3.6m (12ft).
Berlin (West) Berlin (OST)
Brandenburg Gate
Breaking through
Once thegovernmenthad Well guarded
broadcast the edict that all East Checkpoint Charlie The structure had a total of
Berlinerscouldtravelfreelyinto English sector 302 watchtowers, alongside
West Germany, large crowds aseriesofsixcheckpoints,
passed overwithlittleorno Checkpoint Charlie being the
identity checks. most famous.
American sector
Russian sector
A city divided
West Berlin was divided into
three separate sectors, with
the United States, the United
Kingdom and France sharing
administrative responsibilities
between them.
“ From the edge of the Wall we watched
everything, and when the East Germans
began to tear down the wall, we joined them”
into the other side of the city while others started withhammers,buttoopenthewallsolargenumbers
attacking the wall with any tool they could find. The of people could pass, industrial machinery was needed.
military looked on dumbfounded. Some of them even Somehow, West German construction companies
joinedinthedemolitionjob.“Itwasclearthatboth showed up with jackhammers and cranes which broke
governments, East and West German, plus the US apart the slabs and lifted them out of the way.” Origins and
military, had lost control”, comments Ramos. “They In the months that followed, Germany was unified aftermath
stood by helplessly, watching everyone bustle around. as a single, free nation for the first time since the final
ItalkedwithEastGermansoldierswhotoldmetheir shots of the Second World War and Europe – and the FollowingtheendofWorldWarIIin1945,
rifles were empty. No bullets. They looked forward to world – was changed forever. Germany would go on Germany was split into four distinct zones,
comingacrosstheborder.WestGermanpolice,whoare to become an economic superpower, but that chilly with each one administered by each of the
main Allied forces. Berlin itself was divided
always so orderly and authoritative, just watched. They evening in Berlin has remained an iconic image of in two, with West Berlin existing as a free
didn’tknowwhattodo;thishadneverbeenplanned.” social and political upheaval. “It was one of the most cityandEastBerlinabsorbedintothe
He adds, “many of us pushed through the wall and went astonishingeventsofmylife.Itwas25yearsagoandI increasing Soviet grip on Eastern Europe.
totheEastBerlinside.Itwasmutual:WestGermans still remember so many moments, especially the mood”, In 1961, the semi-autonomous communist
andEastGermanstoredownthewalltogethertounite recalls Ramos on that historic day. “The fall of the Berlin government the German Democratic
Republic – under direction from the
themselves once more.” WallendedachapterofEuropeanhistoryreachingback Kremlin – decreed that a new wall would be
Breakingdownthewallitselfwasnoeasytask,butit more than a hundred years. However, it also opened
erectedtophysicallydividethecityintwo,
becameacatharticcomingtogetherofanationsuddenly anewchapter,andsofar,wedon’tyetknowwhatit’s effectively cutting East Berliners off from
reunited in matter of hours. Citizens from East and West goingtobeorwhereit’sgoingtolead.” therestoftheWesternworld.For28years,
gathered on each side to start hacking away, pulling theBerlinWallsignifiedacityevolvingin
away chunks and lofting them on high, like mementos Have you witnessed a two very different directions. When the first
fromafundayout.Ramoshimselfwasrightinthe landmark event in history? East Berlin citizens passed the guard patrols
into the free West Berlin, it was the start
middleofthecrowdstearingintothewallthatevening. of the breaking up of the Eastern Bloc and
“OpeningtheWallwentonforhours”,heremarks.“It Tellusaboutitat… the first steps toward a unified Germany
wasmadeofthickslabsofconcrete,nineortwelve that would see it become one of the most
feet (three or four metres) high. Small holes were made [email protected] robust economic powers in Europe. ©Alamy
31
Bluffer’sGuide AMERICA, 1773
TheBoston Tea Party
What was it?
The Boston Tea Party was a
protest that set America on
the road to revolution and
independence. Demonstrators
boarded British ships in Boston
Harbour and threw their
cargo of tea into the water, in
response to the Tea Act of 1773,
When was it? which stated that colonists
TheTeaPartytookplaceontheeveningof would still have to pay tax on
16 December 1773. Demonstrators streamed the drink. The response of the
outofapublicmeeting,whereoneof
America’s Founding Fathers, Samuel Adams, British government was harsh.
was the main speaker, and made the short Tensions escalated, leading to
trip to Boston Harbour. The underlying
problems that led to the protest had been rebellion and war.
simmeringfornearlyadecade.
Who was involved?
The protesters were known as the Sons of Liberty, a secret society
formed to protect the rights of American colonists against the
British government. It was not a coherent group, rather a loose
label for anybody who opposed the excesses of British rule and The Boston Tea Party
was prepared to do something about it. would eventually lead to
American independence
32
Bluffer’s Guide
THE TEA PARTY
Key events
Townshend
Revenue Act
29 June 1767
This placed new taxes on a
numberofgoodsbut,by1770,
allexceptteawererepealed.
Tea Act
10 May 1773
Designed to aid the struggling
East India Company, the Tea Act
also firmly established the right
The protesters’ choice of
disguisewasadeliberateone to tax colonists.
In disguise Philadelphia Tea Party Dartmouth arrives
in Boston
Some protesters wore Native American costumes, Shipments of tea arrived in Philadelphia, New York 27 November 1773
The first ship to arrive in
dressing up as Mohawk warriors. They wanted to and Charleston at the same time as Boston. In these
Boston, its cargo had to be
disguise their identity, but their choice of disguise cities, the cargo was prevented from being unloaded or claimed and unloaded within
was also symbolic. The Sons of Liberty were seized by customs officials because it was unclaimed. 20 days.
identifying themselves with the American tribes That didn’t happen in Boston because Governor
rather than as subjects of the British crown. Hutchinson refused to back down to the protesters. Public meeting
29 November 1773
Sons of Liberty urged the
Why Boston? Dartmouth to leave Boston, but
Governor Hutchinson refused to
Boston was the capital of Massachusetts, let it leave the colony.
oneof13separatecoloniesinNorth Dumping the tea
16 December 1773
America. It was the third-largest city Protesters boarded the ships in
onthecontinent,behindPhiladelphia the harbour and dumped 342
chests of tea in the water.
andNewYork.Italsohadareputation
for political radicalism, with firebrand Key figures
leaderswhippingupanti-Britishandpro-
Samuel Adams was one of the Thomas Hutchinson
colonial sentiment. Massachusetts radicals 1711-1780
The governor of Massachusetts
No taxation without Intolerable Acts was unpopular in the colony
and seen as a supporter of
representation The Tea Party might have remained a small- British taxes.
SinceAmericancolonistscouldnotvoteinBritish scaleprotesthadtheBritishgovernmentdecided Samuel Adams
elections, they believed the British Parliament had no to negotiate. Instead, they passed the Coercive 1722-1803
authority to tax them – it violated their fundamental Acts – known in America as the Intolerable Acts The politician was also the
right to ‘no taxation without representation.’ This was a –designedtopunishMassachusettsbyremoving leader of the Sons of Liberty
central grievance of the Sons of Liberty and had already powers of self-government. It simply served to and publicised and defended the
ledtoprotestsovertheStampandRevenueActs. increase opposition to Britain. Boston Tea Party.
The traitor’s drink Lord North
1732-1792
FollowingtheBostonTeaParty,tea British prime minister, reluctant
to compromise, he spearheaded
becamesynonymouswithBritainand the Coercive Acts.
manyAmericansconsidereddrinking John Adams
it to be unpatriotic. John Adams wrote 1735-1826
Local politician, second cousin
that “tea must be universally of Samuel Adams. He became
cond president of the USA.
renounced.” Tea
George Robert
drinking declined, Twelves Hewes
resultinginalasting 1742-1840
One of the last survivors of
preference in the USA fo the incident, who helped ©Alamy;Look&Learn
Tea became a symbol of British abuses against ecord and popularise the Tea
the colonists its alternative, coffee. rty in his memoirs.
33
James erring on the side
of caution
Although James II was an experienced
soldier with extensive combat experience
in battles across Europe, he was
occasionally unsure of himself and overly
cautious – as his withdrawal in this battle
testifies, despite his troops incurring only
William’s narrow escape minimal losses.
The battle was nearly over before it had
even started, when William of Orange was
shot at while surveying the battle site.
Reports of his death proved to be greatly
exaggerated; the bullet merely grazed his
shoulder, resulting in a flesh wound.
Here comes the cavalry
Both sides employed extensive use of men
on horseback, which influenced the course
of the battle, first in that the two armies
remained bogged down in a relatively
narrow location, and as they played a large
role in covering the Jacobites’ retreat and
preventing further bloodshed.
Few casualties
The battle was pivotal in British and Irish
history, but it wasn’t an especially bloody
one – it is estimated that James’s Jacobite
forces suffered 1,500 casualties and William’s
troops only 750. The main reason for these low
figures was the ordered retreat of the Jacobites,
as in battles most of the casualties often occur
when a force retreats without discipline.
34
Greatest Battles
Continental force
Both sides’ ranks were bolstered by
soldiers from across Europe – the only
theme separating them was their religious
denomination. Further muddying the
waters, the Pope came out in support of
William instead of the Catholic James.
BATTLE OF
THE BOYNE
NEAR DROGHEDA, IRELAND 1 JULY 1690
he Battle of the Boyne has gone down conquest of 1649 to 1653, they saw James as a
in folklore as one of the most important means of gaining autonomy.
ever hosted on the British Isles. Pitching By contrast, William (who was married to
William of Orange against the former James James’s daughter Anne), saw James as a threat
T II of England, it pitted sovereign against to Protestant rule. Coupled with his alliance with
sovereign – the last time two British monarchs Louis – whose domination of Europe William had
ever faced each other in battle. Its significance sought to end – he knew James needed to be dealt
varies depending on which side you’re on: with decisively. To this end, he raised a huge army,
for the so-called Jacobites (the name given to comprising a wide array of nationalities. They
James’s supporters), the attraction was the idea included French Huguenots (forced to abandon
of pursuing much-wanted religious freedom. For France due to the repeal of the Edict of Nantes,
their opponents, it was about staving off defeat which granted them religious freedom), Ulster-
against an outside threat in the form of James based Irish Protestants and troops from England,
and Catholicism and preventing a return to the Scotland, Denmark and the Netherlands. William’s
bloodshed of events like the 1641 Irish Rebellion. army totalled around 36,000.
Having effectively abandoned the throne during Upon landing at the port of Carrickfergus near
the events of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, Belfast, William’s forces marched toward Dublin.
James had fled to France, with Dutch Protestant In response, James ordered his forces to meet
William of Orange being invited to become king them at the River Boyne, 50 kilometres (30 miles)
in his place. However, James still harboured away from the city – the city’s last natural obstacle.
ambitions of regaining the throne, although being a Having reached there on 29 June, the battle
staunch Catholic, he knew any attempts to invade commenced two days later on 1 July after William
the predominantly Protestant England would be led his army across the Boyne, upon which fighting
problematic. Instead, he chose Ireland as the route ensued. After four hours of battle, characterised by
through which he would regain power; being counter-attack after counter-attack, the Jacobites
predominantly Catholic, it was a place where he retreated, although major losses were prevented by
could expect to gain support. the cavalry covering their withdrawal.
The Irish Catholics duly backed James in Although the losses for both sides were low for
numbers; having landed at Ulster on 14 June 1690 a battle of such size and importance, there was to
with around 6,000 French soldiers provided by be no rematch. James returned to exile in France
James’ cousin Louis XIV, by the time the battle where he would live for the rest of his life, leaving
commenced his army had been bolstered to William free to march on Dublin, where the Treaty
around 23,500. The Jacobites supported him of Limerick – marking the re-conquest of Ireland –
due to his apparent desire for religious freedom was signed in 1691. William had secured the throne
for all denominations, as characterised by his for himself and his wife Mary in the last time two
1687 Declaration of Indulgence. Having suffered British monarchs have faced each other in battle,
persecution during Oliver Cromwell’s famous and Britain was once again united.
35
Greatest Battles
William makes his
Williamites 01landing 04
On 14 June, William and his men reach the
port of Carrickfergus, about 18km (11mi)
from Belfast. The king announces that he
TROOPS 36,000
hascometoensureIrelandwouldbe‘settled
CAVALRY 4,000
in a lasting peace’, and having joined up his
16,000-strong army with the 20,000 troops
ARTILLERY 30
belonging to his second-in-command, the
Duke of Schomberg (a professional soldier),
05
he begins the march south toward Dublin.
James’s forces
02 arrive
Lying around 50km (30mi) north
of Dublin, the River Boyne is the
last natural barrier between the
WILLIAMOFORANGE Williamites and the city. For this
reason, James chooses this as
the location for the battle, and
LEADER
subsequently moves the Jacobite
The ruling monarch of England, he
forces to wait for William, arriving
wasdeterminedtoendtheCatholic
on 29 June.
threat once and for all.
Strength Superior numbers and a
goodlevelofbattleexperience.
Weakness Physically weak; he was William
asthmatic and already suffering from 03 reaches
a wound. the Boyne
William and his
troops arrive the Jacobites
next morning, after
which the king
begins to scout
potential crossing
points on the river.
He is subsequently
INFANTRY shot at by enemy
soldiers – which are
initially reported
KEY UNIT
A large contingent of William’s army to have killed him,
were professional soldiers recruited although the shot
from the Netherlands and Denmark. merely grazes his
Strength Well trained and armed
with state-of-the-art weaponry. shoulder.
Weakness Vulnerable to attacks by
cavalry and artillery.
04 William
calls a council 05 On 1 July, the battle
Flanking manoeuvre
of war commences. William’s plan is to use
his superior numbers to trap James
At9amon30June,William between two forces, the first stage
CANNON callsacouncilofwarwithhis of which is to send the Duke of
Schomberg’s son, Count Meinhard,
KEY WEAPON generals. Having become tired west with around 10,000 men toward
Various types of artillery were used Roughrange, where they are to cross
ofwaitingforJamestomake the river. In response, James sends
depending on the troops’ nationality.
Strength Long range and
potentially devastating. a move, he gives the order to around 17,000 men. Both sides
Weakness Took a long time discover a deep ravine once they get
between loading and firing. attacktheverynextmorning. there that prevents them from fighting.
36
Greatest Battles
James’s retreat covered
01
10by cavalry Jacobites
Williamites William’s forces initially give chase, but are held
backafterasuccessfulrear-guardactionbyJames’s
cavalry–lenttohimbyLouisXIV–coversthe
TROOPS 23,500
retreat. The Jacobites fall back to Dublin, and to
Limerick two days later after William’s forces reach
CAVALRY 6,000
thecity.JameshimselffleessouthtoDuncannon,
after which he leaves for France, never to return.
Despite suffering fairly modest casualties, the battle ARTILLERY 16
03
is over, and William has halted James’s attempt to
winbackthethroneatthefirsthurdle.
James
09falls back
06 to Donore
With Oldbridge captured
and William fast
approaching on the flank, JAMESII
James orders his forces
LEADER
to fall back to Donore.
08 The deposed monarch saw invading
Afteraround30minutes Ireland as a means of retaking the
of battle, James becomes throne he had fled.
Strength Extensive battle
weary; despite having
experienceandthesupportofthe
not committed much
Irish nation.
ofhismainforce,heis
02 Weakness Indecisive and prone to
07 aware that Meinhard’s being overly cautious.
forces are on their way
to flank him in the
south and decides
to retreat in good
order before his
escape route is
09
cut off.
10
FRENCHCAVALRY
KEY UNIT
Theseunits,providedbyJames’s
ally Louis XIV, successfully covered
his retreat at the Boyne.
Strength Extremely efficient and
effective against infantry.
Weakness Vulnerable in close-
quarters combat.
06 Crossing James William makes
the Boyne 07counter- 08the crossing SCYTHE
attacks
About 1.6km (1mi) down the river
William’s remaining men, led In an effort to block the at Drybridge, William himself KEY WEAPON
The Jacobite army
Williamite advance, the makes the crossing, struggling included a large
by his Dutch Blue Guards, Jacobites begin a series of ashore despite not being able to number of peasants
cross the Boyne. Despite counter-attacksonenemy use his right arm. The fighting who had been forced
into service, many
positions. After his poorly becomes particularly fierce here,
coming under heavy fire, trained infantry proves with William suffering a few near with only the most
basic weaponry.
they manage to make the ineffective, James instead misses when he is nearly shot in Strength Long
sends his cavalry in. While theleg,andoneofhisownmen reach and useful
crossing and subsequently they drive back some of nearly fires on him before realising against cavalry.
capture the nearby small William’s forces, highly his own mistake. Others are not so Weakness
Especially ineffective
efficient Blue Guards manage lucky, however, with Schomberg against muskets
village of Oldridge. to hold the line. losing his life. and artillery.
© NicolleRFuller
37
Through Histor
TORTURE D
Humanity’s penchant for ingenious cruelty is no
better visualised than in its tools of torture, horrific
devices honed to break mind and body
SICILIAN BULL 570 BCE
A torture and execution
CRUCIFIXION 600 BCE
Despite being made A traditional
device rolled into one, Medieval
famous as a capital
this was one of ancient immurement coffin
punishment, notably
Greece’s most terrible
in the crucifixion of
penalties. The device
Jesus, the practice
consisted of a huge bronze
of crucifixion is
bull, with its insides hollow
one of the earliest
and a latched door on one
recorded forms of
side of its stomach. The
torture. Developed
victim was stripped naked
by the ancient and put inside before a fire
Crucifixion is one of the Persians, Seleucids The Sicilian bull literally was light underneath. The
roasted its victim alive
oldest forms of torture and Carthaginians
metal would heat up and slowly roast the contained
inthe6thcenturyBCE,crucifixion entailed
person to death. Its nostrils were even designed to
whipping a victim, often forcing them to
transform the victim’s screams into the sound
drag a large wooden crossbeam to their place
ofabullcallingout.
of punishment and then be either bound or
nailed to it, with the beam then hoisted up Vlad III of
a vertical shaft to a height of three metres Wallachia
(ten feet). This would levy an intense and 1431-1477 ROMANIAN
Theterrorofamanwho may have
prolonged quantity of pain on the crucified,
spawned the Dracula fiction, Vlad III was
which if unchecked, would lead to death by renowned for his bloodlust. One of his
exhaustion or heart failure. most infamous torture techniques was
to impale victims on large spikes, which
saw the victim die slowly by blood
loss, heart failure or shock. One
of Vlad’s nicknames was
‘Vlad the Impaler.’
THE STOCKS 50 BCE
A form of torture and public humiliation
rolled into one, the stocks incapacitated
a person by securing their feet or hands
between two large, hinged wooden
planks. The stocks were located in a
public place, such as a market square, The second Statute of COFFIN IMMUREMENT 900
and other people were encouraged to Labourers (1350) ordered that Anotherinfamoustorturetechniquefrom
throw stones and other paraphernalia at stocks be made in every town theMiddleAges,thisentailedencasing
the purported criminal. As the stocks and village in England a victim within a metal cage roughly
were located outside, the victim theshapeofahumanbody,withlarger
was also subject to the effects Jean- individuals often forcibly stuffed into cages
of the weather both day and Baptiste Carrier that were too small for them. The cage
night. Providing the victim 1756-1794 FRENCH wasthenhungfromatreeorgallowsand
was left for only a couple Carrier specialised in mentally and left out day and night, exposed to the
physically breaking his enemies in
of days, the survival rate barbaric ways. One of his techniques was elements. Passers-by were encouraged
was high, however if left the ‘republican marriage’, which entailed to throw rocks and other hard objects
for more than a week whipping and beating a naked male and at the trapped victim and, if the death
female couple, before tying them
or in particularly harsh together, skewering them with a penalty had been levied, the slowly
conditions, they would sword and then throwing dying victim was left up long enough
usually die from hyperthermia them in a river. for birds and other animals to start
or heat exhaustion. eating them alive.
38
Through History
With the heretic’s fork
attached, even the slightest
movement of the head
would cause pain
THUMBSCREW 1250 BAMBOO TORTURE 1941
Also known as ‘the pillywinks’, this was a simple HERETIC’S F One of the East’s most ingenious and
vice-like device that allowed a victim’s thumbs An early example of s horrific torture techniques, bamboo
to be slowly crushed or dislocated. The the heretic’s fork force torture entailed tying a victim up with
instrument worked by trapping th cious at all times ropes above a patch of bamboo – often
victim’s thumbs beneath a metal a double-ended t on a wooden frame – before leaving
which was then slowly squeezed pped around the victim’s neck, with one them to be impaled by the plant’s
down by a butterfly clamp. ork placed on the throat and the other sharp and incredibly fast-growing
Despite being invented fork placed on the breastbone. The shoots. The shoots would first puncture
in Medieval Europe, the victim was then hung from the ceiling the victim’s skin and then penetrate
thumbscrew remained such preventing them from lying down. A ically skewering them
a popular torture implement such, the victim was forced to rem hem bleed to death. This
that it was still being used by conscious, and as soon as their he que was reportedly used
the 19th century, with records ropped from fatigue they would imp oldiers during WWII, but
indicating it was often used to themselves. This torture tool was a the technique was also
punish slaves for relatively favourite of the Spanish Inquisitio na and Malaysia prior to
minor indiscretions.
The iron maiden
SPIKED ROL
is one of history’s
best-known torture Elizabeth Cylindrical wooden d
devices, despite Báthory with a number of sh
questionable spikes, spiked rolle
authenticity 1560-1614 HUNGARIAN
Báthorywasacountessfromthe used to slowly di
renowned Hungarian Báthory family a victim. Firstly
who, with four accomplices, tortured and
killed hundreds of girls, with the peasants as an additional
lured to her castle with the promise of the rack, with th
well-paid jobs. They were tortured, stretched across
imprisoned and then left to die. their limbs were d
Báthory is known as the
Blood Countess. and then in a mobi
form, this torture tool
increasingly popular t
the Medieval and Ren
periods, only falling o
with the termination
Spanish Inquisition in
19th century. Due to t
damage the spikes
did to human flesh,
IRON MAIDEN 1793
Theironmaidenwasa anyone subjected to
The sharpened ends of
torture device in which a any form of spiked bamboo can easily pierce
victim was encased within a roller had little human flesh
spiked coffin. Historians today chance of survival.
believe that despite the device
being often associated with
theMiddleAges,itwasinfact
alatercreation,withnorecord
WATERBOARDING2002
of it found earlier than the While waterboarding has been in use for
late-18th century. Regardless centuries,itsmostmodernincarnation
of its origin, the iron maiden was introduced by the USA following
wasafearsometool,capable the11Septemberattacksin2001.The
of wounding or killing with method involves pouring water into
ease.Today,manyhistorians the nose and mouth of a victim who
believe the device was used is forced to lie on their back on an
more as a mental torture tool, inclined platform. This simulates the
withvictimsthreatenedwith feeling of drowning and can cause brain
its use rather than actually damage through oxygen deprivation.
encased within it. This practice was not considered torture
An early form of waterboarding was used according the US Department of Justice,
by the Spanish in the 16th century – it with it licencing the Central Intelligence
involved putting a cloth into someone’s Agency (CIA) to use the technique
© Thinkstock; Alamy
mouth and forcing them to ingest water
againstanysuspectedterrorist.
39
Heroes & Villains
SIGMUND FREUD
Freud was
obsessed with the
number 51 and was
convinced he would
die at that age, but he
lived until 83
“ Freud set up a private practice in 1886,
specialising in ‘nervous disorders.’ This
was a lucrative business”
40
Heroes & Villains
SIGMUND FREUD
Heroes & Villains
Sigmund
Freud Life in the
A group photo in front of Clark University
including Freud (bottom left) and Carl Jung
(bottom right)
time of Freud
Responsible for changing the face of modern Human evolution is
explained
psychology,Freudwasviewedasbothageniusand While Freud’s work offered – for the first time
– an understanding into the inner workings
a charlatan obsessed with sexuality of the mind, elsewhere Charles Darwin was
providing an explanation for all of life as we
know it, publishing The Origin Of The Species
Written by Rachel England in 1859. The book got a hostile reception and
sparked widespread debate.
Communication evolved
by leaps and bounds
addy issues, phallic symbols, defence some have even suggested that his understanding The face of communications changed rapidly,
with Alexander Graham Bell patenting the
mechanisms,Freudianslips;theseare of human psychology stems from William telephone in 1875 and the sending of the first
allcommonphrasesthrownaroundin Shakespeare’s plays.
commercial wireless telegraph in 1898. It took
everyday conversation, a psychological Despite his fondness for the arts and his some time for these developments to reach
Dshorthandthatpointstowardthedeeper, achievements in this area, Freud joined the Europe, but both played a pivotal role in the
unconscious thought processes that Sigmund University of Vienna’s medical facility aged 17, but forthcoming war.
Freud, father of psychoanalysis, brought to life he never felt at home in the medical profession. Planes, trains and
in the late-19th century. His ideas have been Reportsfromfriends,aswellasFreud’sown
met with both fierce criticism and avid support. letters, suggest he was less diligent about his automobiles
For Freud, sometimes a cigar was just a studiesthanhecouldhavebeen,instead This period also saw a boom in transport
cigar, sometimes it was anything choosing to focus on scientific innovation. The first ‘safety bicycle’ was
invented in 1874, and in 1885 Carl Benz
but – a contradictory ideology that research. Interestingly, some of his and Gottlieb Daimler constructed the first
propelled him to celebrity during Despite his earlyresearchinvolvedstudying motorcar. In 1903, the Wright brothers
his lifetime and into psychology understanding of thesexualorgansofeels–an completed a successful first powered flight.
textbooksforalltime. psychology, he was amusing foreshadowing of the
LittleisknownofFreud’s never able to quit his theories he would create more The entertainment
early life, as he destroyed his than two decades later. industry is born
personal papers at least twice, tobacco habit, and after After graduating and While the concept of ‘Hollywood’ as we know
once in 1885 and again in 1907, 34 operations died of subsequently spending a few it today didn’t come into being until around
and a great deal of his personal mouth and jaw yearsworkinginthefieldof 1912, the entertainment industry in Europe
was already well on its way, as 1895 saw
correspondence and unpublished cerebral anatomy at the Vienna the first public cinema performance in Paris.
papers were embargoed by cancer General Hospital, Freud set up a Charlie Chaplin’s first film was made in 1913,
his daughter after his death. But privatepracticein1886,specialising and in 1921 the BBC was founded.
through his ground-breaking work and in ‘nervous disorders.’ This was a lucrative
relationships with other prominent figures, it’s business, given the Victorians’ tendency to tar The Great Depression
possible to paint a picture of the man who changed almost every ‘invisible’ illness with this brush. This takes hold
the face of modern psychology. was, after all, a time when women could be forcibly Despite these advances, the Great Depression
Born in 1856 to Jewish parents in the Moravian committed to asylums because of ‘hysteria’, which swept the globe in 1929 following the
town of Příbor, now part of the Czech Republic, was often nothing more sinister than menstrual Wall Street Crash. In Germany and Austria,
Sigismund Schlomo Freud was the oldest of eight cramps or generalised anxiety. unemployment rocketed and astonishing rates
of inflation saw shoppers paying for loaves
children. Despite his family’s financial struggles, Here, Freud would meet a patient – pseudonym of bread with wheelbarrows of essentially
he received a good education, proving himself to ‘Anna-O’ – who would help set in motion the worthless money. This gave the Nazi Party a
be an apt pupil and mastering no less than eight wheels of his career, as well as modern psychology foothold, as they promised a way out of the
languages, including Latin. He loved literature and as we know it. She came to the practice with a dire economic situation.
41
Heroes & Villains
SIGMUND FREUD
In hysterics severe cough, paralysis, Freud later wrote that, “the study
hallucinations and impaired
on coca was an allotrion” (an idle
Victorian beliefs about speech, and was invited to pursuit that distracts from more
‘the ladies’ disease’ talk about her symptoms serious responsibilities).
while under hypnosis. In the During this self-analysis, he
A common diagnosis during the Victorian period, course of this ‘talking cure’ also confirmed that he recalled
‘hysteria’, according to one physician in 1859, (a phrase coined by Anna-O childhood sexual feelings for his
affected a quarter of all women, while another
made a 75-page list of supposed ‘hysteria herself), her symptoms mother, seemingly giving credence
indicators’ and still called it incomplete. Symptoms appeared to improve, leading to his controversial Oedipal theory,
ranged wildly, from fainting, anxiety, irritability, Freud to believe that illness which he began exploring in 1897.
increase in sexual desire and loss of sexual desire, couldbealleviatedbysimple Freud initially seemed obsessed
to increased and decreased appetite, cramps, and, ‘free association’; talking with the idea that most of his
according to historian Rachel Maines, “a tendency freely about whatever ideas patients had suffered sexual
to cause trouble.”
While Ancient Greeks believed the condition was or memories occurred to the trauma at some point in their lives
the result of a ‘wandering womb’, or the retention patient to uncover repressed – and those who were reluctant
of poisonous female semen not released through thoughts and unmet needs. Freud to talk about this alleged abuse
regular intercourse, the Victorians simply believed Freud developed this idea further, once treated were displaying signs of ‘resistance.’
it to be a ‘women’s issue’, often treating it through claiming that dreams too were He later changed his mind (as he
cold, high-pressure showers or, in particularly representative of the unconscious the famous Czech was liable to do) and decided that,
extreme cases, forcibly admitting women into composer Gustav
asylums and giving them hysterectomies – the term mind.By1896,Freudhad in fact, these were just fantasies –
hysteria stemming from the Greek word for uterus. abandoned hypnosis and used Mahler for ‘infantile wishes’ as described in his
A more common treatment was pelvic massage, theterm‘psychoanalysis’torefer impotency notorious Oedipus theory. The gist of
where doctors would administer a ‘hysterical to his style of work. that theory is that young boys harbour
paroxysm’, or orgasm, which was something of a But despite this ‘talking cure’, Anna- repressed desires to possess their mothers
money-maker for the medical establishment during O’ssymptomseventuallyworsened,so and replace their fathers, while girls feel desire
the Victorian era. Freud deduced that her illness was the result of for their fathers and jealousy toward their mothers.
With so many – and often contradictory –
possible symptoms, hysteria was considered a repressed resentment she felt over her father’s This is compounded by the boy’s alleged castration
catch-all diagnosis, but today we know its causes illness. Like the many women locked up for anxiety, and the girl’s supposed penis envy.
range from premenstrual cramps and anxiety hysteria, Anna-O was also institutionalised. Sadly It’s surprising this theory didn’t meet more
through to epilepsy and more serious mental health for her, many doctors today agree that she was opposition, and Freud could count some of society’s
issues such as schizophrenia. And while the term actuallyexhibitingsignsofepilepsy. most respectable figures among his followers,
may sound antiquated – if not preposterous – ItwasalsoaroundthistimethatFreudappeared giving him authority with the masses. Marie
today, the American Psychiatric Association didn’t
drop the expression until the 1950s. togiveupwhathadbeena12-year-longcocaine Bonaparte (a great-grand-niece of Napoleon), for
addiction, having extolled the virtues of the drug example, helped to establish his theories in France.
–“amagicalsubstance”–in1884inapapercalled It seems that at some point she gave serious
‘Uber Coca.’ Curiously, this was also the year that consideration to sleeping with her son and wrote
Freud’s father died. Around three decades later to Freud for his advice. “It’s not always harmful,” he
he himself underwent treatment for an array of replied. Although whether that was his true belief,
psychosomatic disorders where he came to realise or he was driven by a desire to keep a wealthy
the strong hostility he had felt towards his father. and influential follower happy, is up for debate.
Defi ning moment
Josef Breuer and ‘Anna-O’ 1880
In November 1880 Breuer, a respected Austrian physician,
began working with a patient known as ‘Anna-O’, who was
suffering from “paralysis of her limbs, and anaesthesias, as
well as disturbances of vision and speech.” Breuer found
that when she spoke to him about her problems some of her
symptoms decreased – when Freud, his protégé, heard of the
work he was extremely interested and began working on the
case. The belief that talking about problems could cure some
physical aliments was a ground-breaking one that would be
Timeline published in the pair’s 1895 book, Studies On Hysteria.
1856
O Freudisborn O The family separates O An apt pupil O University O A fatal addiction O In defence of drugs O Marriage
The future psychiatrist Freud is separated Nine-year-old Freud Freud begins studying Freud begins smoking He publishes a paper After a four-year
is born with a caul, from his beloved joins a prominent medicine at the tobacco aged 24, called ‘Uber Coca’, in courtship and more
a harmless piece of playmate and high school and University of Vienna; quickly moving on which he extols the than 900 love
membrane covering older half-brother excels in languages because of his interest to cigars, believing it virtues of cocaine as letters, Freud marries
his face, which occurs John, as his half- including Hebrew, in neurophysiological helps him work better. an anti-depressant and the Jewish Martha
in fewer than one in brothers emigrate to Latin, English and research and philosophy He was soon smoking anaesthetic. He himself is Bernays. The couple
80,000 births. His Manchester. The rest Greek, eventually it takes him a full nine 20 cigars a day and an avid user of the drug, go on to have six
mother sees this as a of the family moves to graduating with years to complete his would never be able but eventually gives it up children in their
positive omen. Leipzig, Germany. honours in 1873. studies at the university. to fully quit the habit. in 1896. 53-year marriage.
1856 1859 1865 1873 1880 1884 1886
42
Heroes & Villains
SIGMUND FREUD
Sigmund Freud has been “ Freud could count
coined the father of the
divisive field of psychoanalysis
some of society’s
most respectable
figures among his
followers”
theory that promised every individual the key to
their own hidden secrets, not to mention, for the
first time ever, a theory of human nature, and at
the centre of his work was the most intriguing
and thrilling of all taboos: sex. As Karl Kraus put it
many years ago, psychoanalysis itself became the
poison it purports to cure.
While many of his more questionable
theories have been widely discredited,
Freud’s work has nonetheless played
a crucial role in our understanding
Freud believed of the human mind. While he
didn’t invent the concept of the
jokes let out repressed
‘unconsciousness’, he did bring
Nonetheless, Freud’s work had attracted thoughts, but claimed in its importance to the fore, and
the attention of the wider psychology a book that not everyone had Freud been around today he
community,andin1906psychologist is capable of humour would likely take great interest
Carl Jung reached out to Freud when in the work of contemporary
hefoundhiswordassociationtests neuroscience, since it provides
provided evidence for Freud’s theory of repression. candles on the Sabbath, claiming compelling evidence for unconscious
Thepairmetayearlaterandallegedlytalkedfor religion was “mere superstition.” mental processing.
13hoursstraight.Theirswasatrickyrelationship, Objectively, it would be easy to Unorthodox as his ideas were, Freud
though,withJungoncewritingtoFreud:“Letme dismiss Freud as something of a quack. Speculation has been recognised as a catalyst for a greater
enjoy your friendship not as one between equals, abounds that he fudged his experiments, his curiosity about the nature of human personality –
butasthatoffatherandson”,whichcausedalarm datawasdrawnfromasmallgroupofViennese something even he couldn’t fully master. In 1939,
fortheelderpsychologistwhosetheoriesorbited women and his own ‘self-analysis’ and, perhaps he died of cancer, having been unable to gain
around the sinister Oedipal theory. most crucially, none of his theories were ever control of his tobacco smoking – a typical ‘oral
Despite an otherwise fulfilling relationship, peerreviewed–norcouldtheybe,sincehis fixation’, the theory of which, ironically, formed the
tensionsbetweenJungandFreudpersisted.Jung methodology rested on speculation and subjective cornerstone of his life’s work.
believed Freud’s theories to be too reductionist, insights.Hetappedintothehugeattractionofa
and was unable to accept that the main drive in
life was sexual. Freud was dismissive of Jung’s Defining moment
broaderapproach,andscepticalofhisinterestin His health deteriorates 1923
paranormal and psychic phenomena, while Jung
Freudfindsalumpinhismouth,markingthestartofa
wastroubledbythethoughtthatFreudplacedhis lengthybattlewithcancer,whichheloses.Doctorsadvise
personalauthorityabovethequestfortruth.Itwas himtoquitsmoking,butappeartoplaydownthegrowth’s
clearthatFreudhadlittletoleranceforcolleagues seriousness–DrFelixDeutschlatersayshedidn’ttellFreud
whodivergedfromhispsychoanalyticdoctrines, he had cancer because he feared he might kill himself. Freud
thengoesthrough34surgeries,includinganunnecessary
andin1913therelationshipbetweenthetwocame cosmetic surgery during which he nearly bleeds to death. He
to an end. This stubbornness was also apparent oncestoppedsmokingforsevenweeksbutthenwrotetoa
inhisattitudestowardreligion;Freudallegedly doctor,“sincethefirstfewcigars,Iwasabletoworkandwas
forbade his Jewish wife Martha from lighting themasterofmymood;beforethatlifewasunbearable.”
1939
O The start of a O Love rat? O Major work O The ego O Hitler’s regime O A planned death
movement After the death of published In his work, The When the Gestapo In terrible pain
Freud first uses the her finance, Martha’s Freud publishes The Ego And The Id, interrogates his daughter caused by his cancer,
term ‘psychoanalysis’, sister Minna comes to Interpretation Of Freud states that Freud realises his family Freud chooses to
marking the live with the Freuds. Dreams – a book that the human psyche must leave Vienna. They “make an end of it”,
beginnings of Despite Freud’s dim outlines the secret can be divided into receive immigration and asks his doctor
a sweeping view of promiscuity, meaning of dreams three parts: Id, ego permits for England, and friend Max Schur
phenomenon on rumours abound that as subconscious and super-ego. This apart from his four to administer doses
the landscape of he and Minna begin methods of ‘wish- theory is still in use in elderly sisters who die in of morphine, which
psychology. an affair. fulfilment.’ some practices today. concentration camps. result in his death. © Alamy; Corbis
1896 1896 1899 1923 1938 1939
43
What if…
The Aztecs hadn’t
been conquered?
MEXICO, 1519
Written by Jack Griffiths
What would have happened if the Aztecs hadn’t been the effects of disease – a fatal legacy of Cortés’s expedition –
MATTHEW RESTALL conquered by the Spanish? they would probably have won through in the end, although
Matthew Restall
is a professor Helen Cowie: It’s easy to imagine that the conquest of the possibly at a much higher cost. Whether they would have
of Colonial Aztecs was inevitable thanks to the superiority of the weapons been able to attract indigenous allies as easily as Cortés did
Latin American used by the Spanish conquistadors (steel swords, crossbows, in the wake of his defeat is another question. The Spanish
History at Penn
State University. harquebuses and cannons against obsidian swords, slings attracted [indigenous] supporters because they appeared to
His areas of specialisation and bows and arrows). If we look in detail at the events of the be a successful fighting force, capable of standing up to their
are Yucatán and Mexico, conquest, however, it becomes clear that Cortés’s victory was Aztec enemies. Had Cortés been defeated or killed, this aura of
Guatemala and Belize, Maya
history, the Spanish conquest by no means certain, and that his expedition could quite easily invincibility would have been lost, making indigenous backing
and Africans in Spanish have ended in failure. On several occasions the Spanish stared harder to find.
America. He has co-authored
four books published in 2011 defeat in the face – most dramatically during the so-called
and 2012 including 2012 And ‘Noche Triste’, when they were forced to flee Tenochtitlán What would the Aztecs have learnt from the Europeans?
The End Of The World: The after an ill-judged massacre of Aztec nobles. Without the Would they have modernised over time using European
Western Roots Of The Maya
Apocalypse and Latin America continued support of indigenous allies such as the Tlaxcallans, technology such as guns to their advantage?
In Colonial Times. the conquest could not have been achieved. It was also the Restall: Yes, they would certainly would have done so, just
devastating effects of disease, as much as technology and as other indigenous or Native American groups did in later
horses that destabilised Aztec society politically. But for luck at centuries – think of the warriors of the northern plains riding
several critical junctures, Cortés could easily have lost. horses and using rifles, both to great effect. Indeed, during
HELEN COWIE
Helen Cowie Matthew Restall: The invasion campaign led by Hernan the Spanish-Aztec war, Aztecs captured and used Spanish
isalecturer
in History at Cortés came very close to failure. Most of the men who weapons and armour. Had the war turned into a series of
the University crossed to Mexico from the Caribbean in 1519 and 1520 campaigns over years or decades, Spanish conquistadors
of York. She died during the war against the Aztecs, and Cortés himself would surely have ended up facing Aztec warriors with steel
is the author
of Conquering Nature In narrowly escaped death. But if Cortés had perished before the weapons and possibly even guns.
Spain And Its Empire, 1750- Aztec defeat, the final outcome of the war would surely have Cowie: There is evidence the Aztecs were already starting
1850 and Exhibiting Animals been very similar: one of his fellow captains, such as Pedro to learn how to counteract European weaponry and
In Nineteenth-Century
Britain: Empathy, Education, de Alvarado, would have continued the campaign in much tactics during the course of Cortés’s campaign. To avoid
Entertainment. She is currently the same way. Nevertheless, it is also possible that the high the projectiles fired by Spanish cannon and harquebuses,
writing a book on the cultural
history of the alpaca. mortality rate of the conquistadors and their allies, combined for instance, Aztec soldiers moved from side to side while
with the death of key captains and a failure of leadership, marching, rather than in straight lines. To neutralise the
might have forced the survivors to retreat back to Cuba. advantage of Spanish cavalry, they erected barricades in
the streets and avoided combat on flat, open terrain, which
What effect would it have had on future attempts from favoured horses. Had Cortés lost, it is possible the Aztecs
the Old World to conquer the New? might have adapted their military tactics further and become
Cowie: It’s hard to imagine the Spanish would have more capable of defeating European soldiers. They might also
abandoned attempts to conquer the Aztecs had Cortés been have learned something of the Spaniards’ aims and mentality
defeated. Further expeditions would probably have been in war and adopted a more aggressive strategy in dealing with
mounted, perhaps with larger numbers of troops. Assisted by future attempted invasions.
44
If the Aztecs had withstood the
Spanish conquest, they could have
begun to use new weaponry
‘‘ Spanish conquistadors
would surely have ended
up facing Aztec warriors
with steel weapons and
’’
possibly even guns
45
What if…
THE AZTECS HADN’T BEEN CONQUERED?
Would the Aztecs have expanded and conquered the
rest of the continent?
Restall: It is interesting to speculate on how the Aztec
acquisition of horses and Spanish technologies of war might
have allowed them to consolidate and expand their empire.
The Aztecs appeared to have been poised to expand south
into the Maya area by 1519, and [there is] no doubt they would
have been able to achieve that.
Cowie: This is doubtful as the Aztec Empire was quite
loosely structured. Rather than imposing their own systems
of government, language and religion on the people they
conquered, they tended to leave existing leaders in place and
simply extract tribute (a form of taxation) from them. There’s
little reason to imagine this system of government would
have changed following a failed Spanish conquest, though the
Aztecs would probably have exacted punishment on those
former allies who proved disloyal and re-doubled their efforts
to crush the Tlaxcallans. Though they traded across a wide
region for luxury items such as jade, feathers and jaguar pelts,
it seems unlikely the Aztecs would have been able to enforce
a more formal empire of conquest.
Would they have become a trading partner to the
European powers?
Restall: Had the Aztecs been able to fend off the Spaniards
for generations, another factor would have complicated
imperial interaction in the New World: the increased presence
there of the Dutch, French, and English. In later centuries, the
Spanish, French and English used alliances with indigenous
groups to wage war against each other and compete for
territory and colonial control.
Cowie: This seems unlikely. The Aztecs did trade extensively
across Mesoamerica, but it is questionable whether the
Spanish would have settled for a commercial relationship
Fierce fighting broke out in Tenochtitlán during the conquest. Despite having better weaponry, the of this kind. The Spanish wanted vast quantities of gold
Spanish could have been defeated if deadly smallpox hadn’t spread throughout the Aztec nation
and silver, which had to be mined, and souls to convert to
Christianity, neither of which could have been achieved
“The fact the Aztec Empire collapsed without formal conquest.
after two years of warfare has How would a failed invasion have affected Europe?
influenced how we see the Aztecs” Restall: I think a failed Spanish invasion of the 1520s would
have been followed by further Spanish invasions, and that the
Howwoulditbedifferent? O Beginning of the conquest O Cortés arrives in
Tenochtitlán
Cortés lands in Yucatán
The conquistadors arrive in
again after having set sail
from Cuba with 11 ships and the Aztec capital, receive
500 men. He desires to gifts from Aztec leader
O DiscoveryoftheNewWorld claim this part of the New Moctezuma II and take
In search of new land and trading World for himself. residence in his palace.
opportunities, Christopher 4 March 1519 8 November 1519
Columbus becomes the first to
discovertheNewWorld.After
this, many Europeans make the
Realtimeline journey across the Atlantic. Realtimeline
12 October 1492
1428
O Aztecs become the O Severe flooding O Comet spotted
dominant force The Aztec capital A comet is reportedly
With victory over Tenochtitlan is spotted flying across
the Tepanec at ravaged by severe the sky on this date. O First Cortés landing
Azcapotzalco, the flooding. This, in In Aztec culture The Spanish Alternate timeline
Aztecs become the addition to famines they are an omen, Conquistadors arrive
major civilisation and more floods, believed to signify in the Yucatán with a
in Central America weakens the Aztecs impending doom and small force that is easily
with their culture, before the Spanish worried emperor, beaten after clashing
architecture and conquistadors arrive. Montezuma. with natives. They vow to
language dominating 1510 1517 return with a larger force.
the region. 1428 February 1517
46
What if…
THE AZTECS HADN’T BEEN CONQUERED?
impact of epidemic disease and repeated invasions
would have destroyed the Aztec Empire by the end 2. Revenge mission to Totonac
of the decade. However, let us imagine the Aztecs Aztec actions afte Disgusted at their attempt to assist the
Spanish, the Aztecs deliver swift justice to
survive such attacks, borrow Spanish technology, beating Cortés the Totonac and Tlaxcala peoples. Pillaging
and maintain their empire through the 16th century. and looting across the land, the enemy
states of the Aztecs are put to ruin.
That would have drawn intense interest from other
European powers, such as the English. It might seem
like a stretch to imagine the English conquering the 4. European return
Aztecs in the 17th century. But then consider that In the years after Cortés’s initial
the English (later British) did establish a considerable expedition, several Spanish forces land
and attempt to succeed where he failed.
empire in regions to the north, east and south of what They are defeated, but as other imperial
had been Aztec Mexico. Furthermore, the heirs to part nations and Old World diseases take hold,
the Aztec Empire begins to struggle.
of the empire – the United States – conquered and
permanently acquired half of the nation that was the
heir to Aztec Mexico. AZTEC EMPIRE
Cowie: Failure to conquer the Aztecs (and
subsequently the Incas) would have had serious
implications for Spain, which came to rely on
American silver to finance its military campaigns
in Europe. Within the context of the Reformation 1. Rebuilding of Tenochtitlan
and the religious wars then raging in the Old World, After the Spanish are beaten back and
it would also have had a significant impact on the Cortés is killed, the Aztecs rebuild their
capital city, making it more formidable
global spread of Catholicism. to future enemy sieges. The captured 3. The trip south
conquistador weapons are put to good Buoyed by their resistance to
use as the civilisation advances. the Spanish and their new-found
How might we look at the Aztec civilisation European technology, the Aztecs
differently today? expand their empire south and
eastward into Mayan territory
Restall: The fact the Aztec Empire collapsed after and toward the Inca Empire.
two years of warfare has certainly influenced how
we see the Aztecs. The Spaniards justified their
invasion and colonisation of the region by portraying the much more about life in the Aztec world and see it in less Have your say
Aztec civilisation as barbarian and bloody. In particular, they stereotypical terms.
emphasized the Aztec practice of human sacrifice – even Cowie: This is very difficult to say; it depends to a Do you agree with our
though the Spanish, English, and other Europeans also held considerable degree upon whether the Aztecs were expert’s view?
public executions for political and religious reasons – and subsequently conquered by another Spanish expedition or /AllAboutHistory
wrongly accused the Aztecs of practising cannibalism. whether they remained independent into the 19th century,
Although we now have a complex and more balanced when they would likely have become victims of a later wave @AboutHistoryMag
understanding of the Aztecs’ past, the negative stereotypes of European imperialism. Either way, it is likely the negative
propagated by the Spaniards have survived in the popular images of human sacrifice would endure, assuming that at
imagination. But had the Aztecs survived the Spanish least some of the conquistadors survived to communicate
invasions of 1519 to 1521, especially if their empire had lasted them, but we might perhaps have greater respect for the
long enough to establish alliances or diplomatic relationships Aztecs’ military capability and realise the conquest was a
with other European powers, we would probably now know close-run thing.
O Battle of Cempoala O La Noche Triste O Tenochtitlán falls O Birth of Mexico City
Cortés and his forces The two forces assault A combination of Tenochtitlán is rebuilt
briefly leave Tenochtitlán the Aztecs but are driven smallpox, horses and as Mexico City, the
to fight, and eventually back despite the death of Spanish steel defeat new capital of New
defeat, fellow Spaniard Moctezuma. This escape from Tenochtitlán after a Spain. Cuauhetemoc
Diego Velázquez, an old Tenochtitlán results in many three-month siege serves as a puppet
enemy of Cortés. Spanish deaths. as the population is ruler before his
April 1520 July 1520 routed. August 1521 execution. 1522
O Death of Cortés O Cortés allies with Tlazcala O Religious changes O Spread of smallpox O Further expeditions O Death of Cortés
Immediately wary of the Old The Spanish ally with the With Mexico still This Old World disease Further Spanish Hernan Cortés dies
World invaders, Moctezuma sworn enemy of the Aztecs, resisting invasion, the is brought over by the excursions, along with at the age of 62. The
instructs a full-on attack on the Tlaxcala. They want spread of Catholicism European raiders and the introduction of conqueror of the Aztecs,
the Spanish. Surprised and their civilisation to crumble is halted while becomes an epidemic, Old World diseases, he is remembered as a
overwhelmed, Cortés is killed as much as Cortés desires traditional Aztec wiping out swathes of the gradually wears down great explorer but also
and his forces scattered. gold and riches. religion and culture Aztec population. the civilisation. as a man of greed.
8 November 1519 July 1520 flourishes. June 1525 August 1520 1640 1567
O New technology O Financial effects on O Destruction of Tlaxcala O Cancellation of O Further advancements O Fall of the Aztecs
Using trial and error and the Old World As punishment for allying Pizarro conquest Having mastered steel, After repeated
interrogating Spanish Having no Aztec gold with the Spanish, the The planned occupation the Aztecs incorporate Spanish invasions,
prisoners, the Aztecs to speak of, Spain Tlaxcalans are completely of Peru and the Inca other Western continuing disease
gain the knowledge of struggles financially and massacred, ensuring they Empire is cancelled, technology into their and even French and
horse riding, making thus modernises at a will never trouble the as the Spanish cannot military such as musket British involvement, © Illustration by Ian Hinley
steel weapons and using slower rate. Aztecs again. afford it. and cannon. the Aztecs fall.
guns. January 1520 February 1520 April 1520 1532 1781 1819
47
What was it like?
DUBLIN, 1916
Military
With World War I in full swing,
military presence in Ireland at this
time was initially low, allowing the
rebels to quickly and easily seize a
number of strategically important
buildings. It was only the British
forces’ subsequent deployment of
20,000 more soldiers that quelled
the uprising.
World War I might have been
atitsheight,butinDublina
Ireland O
differentkindofconflictwas
Dublin O
taking place…
n1916,theworldwasinthegripofthebloodiest withothergroupsliketheIrishCitizenArmyand
andmostdestructiveconflictithadeverseen Cumann na mBan, and on 24 April 1916 – Easter
intheformofWorldWarI.Manygroupsput Monday – around 1,250 people occupied various
asidepastgrievancesanddifferences–at buildings in Dublin, including the General Post
I least temporarily – in order to fight together. Office and the South Dublin Union. The British
However, others saw the distraction posed by the forces were taken by surprise, with early attempts
GreatWarasanopportunitytofurthertheirown at retaking the capital resulting in heavy losses. It
aims–suchasthoseinIrelandwhowantedself- wasonlywiththearrivalofheavyreinforcements
rule and freedom from England. thattheuprisingwassubdued–atthecostof450
Dublinwastobethetheatreforonesuch lives, with over 2,600 injured. The rebels were
exampleofthis,intheformofthe1916Easter initially jeered when they were paraded through
Rising,whichsawvariousIrishnationalistfactions Dublin, but after the executions of the leaders
uniteinanattempttoforciblyexpeltheBritish they became heroes to many. Their actions set in
fromIrelandandestablishtheirownstate.Tothis motion a chain of events that would lead to the Artillery was used to catastrophic
end, membersoftheIrishVolunteersjoinedup 1919-1921 Irish War of Independence. effect during the Easter Rising
48
What was it like?
DUBLIN, 1916
Government
After the uprising started, its leading
members issued the Proclamation
of the Irish Republic, read by Patrick
Pearse, which they declared as
being issued by the ‘Provisional
Government of the Irish Republic.’
Although it was short-lived, it was Media
the first step in the establishment of
the Irish Free State. The Irish independence cause didn’t
have complete support, even in
the capital. The Irish Independent
newspaper described the Easter
Ireland’s Parliament was abolished in the Rising as “insane and criminal.”
19th century by the British government This tone was in stark contrast to
Belfast-based papers like The Irish
This Dublin house is decorated with
a memorial artwork commemorating News and The Belfast News, which
the events of the Easter Rising were far more sympathetic with the
aims of the rebels.
Art
The events of 1916 prompted
poet WB Yeats to compose
British troops armed with machine
guns and rifles behind a barricade the poem Easter, 1916. Despite
in Dublin during the Easter Rising being a nationalist, Yeats was
opposed to the use of violence
to achieve these aims, and as
Michael Collins, one of the leaders of the
Technology a consequence the poem gives Irish independence movement, was killed in
1922 during the Irish Civil War
mixed thoughts on the Rising,
Much like the rest of Britain, reflecting on how “a terrible
most technology in Dublin at the beauty was born.”
time was coal-powered, meaning
it inevitably suffered due to fuel
shortages during WWI. During
the Rising, the British forces
relied on the use of traditional Industry
artillery to achieve victory, Although Dublin was a port city,
causing massive damage to the it wasn’t home to any particular
city centre. kind of heavy industry. Instead, its
economy was centred more around
administration and commerce, as
well as the transport of agricultural
produce, while World War I saw
many Dubliners recruited to work
in the munitions factories.
© Alamy; Corbis
Dublin was devastated during the Easter
Rising,asthisphotofromApril1916shows
49
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