THE BROWN UNIVERSITY SIMULATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS - BUSUN

THE BROWN UNIVERSITY
SIMULATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

THE NINETEENTH ANNUAL SESSION

BACKGROUND GUIDE
COMMISSION ON SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT

BUSUN XIX BROWN UNIVERSITY

A LETTER FROM THE CHAIRS

Dear Delegates,

Welcome to the Brown University Simulation of the United Nations 2015 and Commission on
Science and Technology for Development (CSTD)! My name is Kana Hamamoto and I will be one of your
chairs for this committee.
I am a rising sophomore, originally from Tokyo, Japan. I also grew up in New Delhi, India for a few years
which got me interested in economic development. As with all of you, I participated in Model UN in high
school, and chaired for a Japanese conference in 2012. This is my first year with BUSUN, and am very
excited to be part of this conference. In addition to Model UN, I am part of Brown International Organiza-
tion, a food blog called Brown Spoon University, and the Brown Language Society.
CSTD plays a critical role when thinking about measures to promote development in the 21st century. The
topics for this committee are broad, including gender inequality and problems that arise as a consequence
of urbanization. During the conference, I hope you think critically about these issues and share well-
thought ideas and opinions. I hope this background guide will give an overview about the topics and help
develop your thoughts. I look forward to meeting you all and having a fruitful discussion!

Sincerely,
Kana Hamamoto

Hello delegates!

Welcome to the Brown University Simulation of the United Nations 2015, and welcome to the
Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD)! My name is Brandon Lê, and I am one
of your co-chairs for the CSTD. I have five years of Model UN experience, acting as the director of the Yu-
goslavia committee for BUSUN 2014 and the chair of the Rise of a Kingdom crisis for BUCS 2015, as well
as attending and chairing many high school conferences.
Here at Brown, I am a sophomore studying Computational Biology. Outside of academics, I am involved
in the Undergraduate Council of Students (our student government), the Brown Vietnamese Students
Association, and the First-Generation College Students at Brown student group. Our topics leave a lot of
room for you to take the debate in different directions. There are many different approaches to the prob-
lems we will face this committee, and there is no single solution that will resolve everything. You should
take the time to explore what you want to discuss in committee while remaining open to discussing other
aspects you may not have considered. With that in mind, your position papers should reflect this thought
in addition to suggesting possible solutions.
Thank you for joining BUSUN 2015 with us, and we look forward to meeting you all!

Sincerely,
Brandon M. Lê

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ADDRESSING THE GROWING GENDER GAP

IN THE SCIENCE computer literacy, where far fewer women has the
knowledge of the use of computers (3). Unlike
Background developed nations that have taken measures to sup-
port women in the sciences, sociocultural norms in
Despite the progress in closing the gender gap in developing nations have affected the attitudes that
education in the recent years, statistics show that women has towards technology such as technopho-
the female population in the fields of science is bia. Discrimination against women in the informa-
lower than that of men’s. The fundamental issue is tion and communication technologies (ICTs) is far
that not much data and statistics are collected about more embedded in cultural norms of developing
the gender inequality in terms of accessibility, re- nations, which leads women believing that tech-
sources, and benefits in the sciences. An assessment nology is something for men. For example, men
undertaken by Women in Global Science Technolo- in West Africa have a tendency to be threatened
gy (WISAT) in 2012 found that many nations fail to when women use the Internet, and believe that it
include women as equal contributors in the knowl- destabilizes relationships, and thus find it inappro-
edge economy. Without this information, more priate for women to go on the Internet without the
than half of the world’s female population may be supervision of men (3). It seems as though the main
overlooked when analyzing the sex-disaggregation barrier in these developing countries is the nega-
in science (1). tive stereotypical view of the use of Internet and a
However, even with the data collected in certain phenomenon known as ‘technophobia,’ or the fear
nations, it still shows that there is a division be- of technology especially prevalent amongst women.
tween men and women in the sciences. According However, some nations have made effort to increase
to a source by the National Science Foundation, the number of women in science. In August, 2011,
US universities and colleges employ far more male China’s State Council issued “The Outline for the
scientists than female scientists, and earn signifi- Development of Chinese Women” which aimed
cantly more in the science work field. Even in devel- to raise the rate of women working in the scienc-
oped nations that have seen an increase in number es to 35%. Leading Women of Africa (LWA) is a
of women studying science, the numbers have not South-African organization focusing on supporting
carried through to the workplace. The assessment women in the scientific field. According to UNE-
by WISAT showed that women make up only 30 SCO, 46% of the researchers and Latin America
percent of graduates in engineering, physics and and the Caribbean are female, 17% higher than the
computer science in most countries (2). Not only is world average of women in science.
the enrollment rates of women in the sciences low,
there are high dropout rates; almost a third of wom- Developed Nations
en who do continue with their scientific research in
universities end up with an unfinished degree. Progress in closing the gender gap in the sciences is
better in developed countries compared to develop-
Developing Nations ing nations. In the United States, the Office of Sci-
ence and Technology Policy, in collaboration with
As stated above, comprehensive data on gender in- the White House Council on Women and Girls is
equality in science and technology is lacking, espe- working towards increasing the number of women
cially in developing countries. Many are unaware of in the sciences. In Korea, the Act on Fostering and
the implications of gender issues, and furthermore, Supporting Women in Science and Technology was
in some nations, sociocultural norms do not regard enacted by the Ministry of Science and Technolo-
such issues as legitimate. In general, the gender gy in 2002. Even in nations where gender gaps in
gap in science and technology education is main- access to technological resources are not as appar-
ly caused by the inequality in access to resources ent of an issue, the lack of women’s inclusion in the
in the information society (3). When a country’s sciences still remains.
Internet adoption as a whole remains low and only Beyond access, a comparison of the level of train-
concentrated in urban areas, women’s access to In- ing and skill that men undergo and women un-
ternet is likely to be lower than the national average dergo highlights gender inequality in professional
(3). In almost all developing countries, women, development in the sciences. While women are
mostly in low-income and rural areas make up the educated in computer use, many are likely to work
minority group of Internet users. As more women
are illiterate compared to men, the same goes with 3

BUSUN XIX BROWN UNIVERSITY

at entry-level positions that only required basic Questions to Consider
levels of computer skills, but rarely advanced skills
beyond data-entry knowledge. The enrollment rate 1. Can advances in technology and science con-
in schools of women in the sciences do not indi- tribute to gender equality? If so, how?
cate the reality of the female population in a given
scientific academic field. As indicated previously, 2. What are some measures that should be taken
one of the underlying problems is the number of to consideration to eliminate technophobia in
women who drop out after a few years in school. developing countries?
In the Royal Society of Chemistry in London,
while more than 70% of first year female students 3. Does the gender inequality in access to internet
planned careers in research, the number of female correspond to the wealth of your country?
students having the same goal by their third year
of training dropped to 37% (3). Although there are 4. What are the solutions to decrease the dropout
many reasons for this marked dropout rate, one of rate of women in the sciences?
the clearest explanations is the difference in family
values between men and women. As a consequence 5. How can we solve gender bias?
of the hectic schedule of academic research, female
faculty in astronomy, physics and biology tend to Endnotes
have fewer children than average, and fewer chil-
dren than women desire (4). 1. Shen, Helen. “Inequality Quantified: Mind the
Beyond the gender gap in educational research, Gender Gap.” Nature - International Weekly
gender inequality can be seen in careers. US Na- Journal of Science. March 6, 2013. Accessed
tional Science Foundation shows that women earn April 1, 2015.
82% of what male scientists make, and even worse
in Europe. The gap is large particularly in physics 2. Sophia, Huyer, and Hafkin Nancy. “The Right
and astronomy, where women earn 40% less than Policies Can Fill the Gender Gap in Science.”
men in the United States. In the European Union, SciDevNet. May 12, 2012. Accessed April 1,
female scientists earned 30% less than male sci- 2015.
entists on average in the public sector in 2006 (5).
However, in the engineering field, the National 3. Information and Communications Technology
Research Council found that the pay difference and Gender Equality: New Opportunities and
between men and women workers are only 8% in Challenges for Public Administration to Imple-
the United States. ment the Internationally Agreed Development
Although unlike developing countries, most de- Goals, including the Millennium Development
veloped nations tend to respect gender equality in Goals.” January 19, 2010. Accessed April 1,
sociocultural norms, the gender bias has not fully 2015.
faded away. The American Association for the
Advancement of Science reported that in their 4. Hafkin, Nancy J., and Sophia Huyer. “Wom-
survey, 52% of the women has encounter gender en and Gender in ICT Statistics and Indica-
bias while working in the scientific field, whereas tors for Development.” 41. Accessed April 1,
only 2% of men felt the same way. These numbers 2015. http://itidjournal.org/itid/article/view-
highlight the gap in the level of awareness between File/254/124.Gender and ICT Network, 2006,
genders about this issue. p. 56.
As the United Nations work towards the Sustain-
able Development Goals (SDGs), science-based 5. Shen, Helen. “Inequality Quantified: Mind the
knowledge and innovation is crucial in accomplish- Gender Gap.” Nature - International Weekly-
ing these tasks. The importance of having both men Journal of Science. March 6, 2013. Accessed
and women contributing to sustainable develop- April 1, 2015.
ment cannot be stressed enough. This calls atten-
tion to understanding gender differences regarding 4
capabilities and priorities, and creating a safe and
supportive environment in the sciences for the
female population.

BUSUN XIX BROWN UNIVERSITY

Helpful Resources

1. Women in Global Science and Technology -
http://wisat.org/home/.

2. UNCTAD: Applying a Gender Lens to Science,
Technology and Innovation - http://unctad.org/
en/Docs/dtlstict2011d5_en.pdf.

3. Women in STEM: an untapped resource -
http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/women-en-
gineering-untapped-resource.

4. UNESCO: Gender and Science - http://www.
unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/priori-
ty-areas/gender-and-science/.

5. Higher Education: Where Are the Women in
STEM? - http://higheredtoday.org/2015/03/03/
where-are-the-women-in-stem/.

6. UNESCO: Regional and Country Profiles -
http://www.uis.unesco.org/DataCentre/Pages/
regions.aspx?SPSLanguage=EN.

5

BUSUN XIX BROWN UNIVERSITY

INCREASING CONNECTIVITY AND PROMOTING IT IN
THE DEVELOPING WORLD

Background The Need for Information Technology

Access to information is now one of the top pri- As stated in the introduction, information tech-
orities concerning development in the modern nologies have become so integrated with our lives
world. The Internet is an aggregation of humanity’s that we do not notice the majority of them in our
knowledge, a network-of-networks meant to be ac- day-to-day proceedings. However, these technol-
cessed and expanded on a continuous basis through ogies are what have allowed us to technologically
information technology. In most modern countries, progress into the current-day, making humanity
information technology coexists alongside hu- more efficient at producing food, generating energy,
mans, from their internet-enabled mobile devices, preserving the environment, utilizing transporta-
databases that manage banking information, and tion, and providing health services. These services
computers that run automobiles, to satellites that can be severely inadequate in infrastructurally-un-
communicate GPS coordinates, public transit sys- derdeveloped areas.
tems that record traffic with every swipe of a ticket For example, basic medical information is hard
or credit card, and programs at power stations that to convey across wide distances in a town with no
can detect fluctuations in load and adjust electricity phone lines whatsoever. In developing nations,
output accordingly. basic information like how to prevent malaria or
In most developed countries, people access infor- disinfect water is limited to places that have had the
mation on the internet and use information tech- fortune of organizations physically sending people
nology on a daily basis, even if they are unaware to teach the residents of a town how to do so. Not
of it as described by the examples above. However, only is this time-ineffective when time may be a
these technologies are lacking or non-existent to priority in preserving lives, it is also cost-ineffective,
people in developing countries. According to the spending what could be unnecessarily-large sums
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) (a of money on education projects that could be as
specialized agency of the United Nations), in 2014, simple as video-calling in to a town.
the global fixed-broadband (high-speed wired in- The need for information technology is so urgent
ternet access) penetration rate was estimated to be in that its benefits can be realized almost instanta-
10%, whereas in 2010 that rate was 8%. neously. Take the example of providing basic health
The ITU also estimates that at the end of 2014, 78% information - when simple but critical services are
of households in developed countries were con- provided, improvements will immediately follow:
nected to the internet while only 31% of households Pierre Omadjela, Director of Communications
in developing countries were connected (1). This and Development for the Central Congo Annual
leaves a lot of room for improvement in access and Conference of The United Methodist Church, is us-
connectivity. While the main question is how we ing FrontlineSMS to share health information and
are going to provide internet access in developing increase awareness about malaria prevention. Using
countries, there is no simple solution. Information automated messages to mobile phones, Omadjela
technology and internet infrastructure are com- says they have already realized a 5 percent decrease
posed of many parts, and all of them have to be from the work they are doing teaching people in
present and functioning in order to provide inter- the Democratic Republic of Congo ways to prevent
net access. malaria (2).
Please note that for this topic, you won’t be required Another example of simple but life-changing infor-
to know the details of how exactly the Internet mation technologies manifests in agriculture:
works. That in of itself is a complicated network of Access to information is also giving people the
internet service providers (ISPs), packet switching, means to have more control over their circum-
servers, routers, and transmission control and inter- stances. In Kenya, I watched as two women used a
net protocols, among other components. We will teacup-sized satellite receiver plugged into a boom
only be focusing on the policy and mechanisms on box get audio digital information that was then
how to provide safe and reliable information access. translated into text, allowing them to check the

6

BUSUN XIX BROWN UNIVERSITY

market price of beans so they could negotiate a fair Efforts to Provide Access
price for their own crop. No longer must they rely
solely on the price quoted by a distributor (2). One of the primary mechanisms through which
Theoretically, the more information a person has, national and international governments can help
the better choices that person can make regarding improve information technology in developing
health, business, and other areas, which will lead countries is through financial assistance. In 1996,
to an improvement in life quality. This concept is the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC)
easily validated as demonstrated by the examples initiative was launched by the International Mone-
above. Even if the technology itself isn’t specifically tary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (3). This was
internet access, having access to outside informa- supplemented by the Multilateral Debt Relief Initia-
tion is invaluable. Information technology exists tive (MDRI) in 2005 which allows 100% debt relief
to solve these problems, to make data storage and for HIPCs meeting certain guidelines, freeing up
transmission more efficient, and in the context of financial resources to combat poverty (4). Providing
developing worlds, to expand access to information financial assistance is critical, as the countries and
over the entire globe. people that need information technology resources
In order to move information, many points must be most often don’t have the finances to obtain them.
considered: In general, non-governmental organizations
1. Exactly what kinds of information do we want (NGOs) and their use of information technology
is devoted primarily to humanitarian assistance in
to provide? Medical, agricultural, and econom- times of disaster. Information exchange consists
ic, among other kinds? of weather data, political developments, medical
2. How much “access” is “enough access”, bearing statistics, other NGO activity, population demo-
in mind durability and cost-effectiveness? graphics, and logistics to aid the current disaster
3. Is texting enough to convey sanitation tech- (5). While very few, if any NGOs, are focused
niques, or is complete internet access required? around setting up information and communication
4. Which technologies are we going to use to technologies for sustainable development, NGOs do
move that information? Will countries help represent a possible avenue through which to pro-
lay down telecommunication wires from city vide these technologies. They consist of volunteers
to city, will satellites be deployed to provide who quickly mobilize into places to help the local
coverage to distant areas, or will companies/ residents, and coupling information technologies
organizations produce portable devices that can with these organizers has the potential to be very
automatically connect to existing networks? effective.
5. Which areas should be prioritized, if any at Efforts to bring internet connectivity have extended
all? Should densely-populated cities with poor into the private sector. In 2013, Facebook collabo-
information technologies take priority to im- rated with multinational telecommunications com-
prove a greater number of lives, or should rural panies to create Internet.org, a grouping of individ-
villages with no information technologies take ual projects aimed at developing both hardware and
priority where the quality of life is lowest? software (6). Also in 2013, Google started Project
6. How are we going to generate sustainable Loon, a project that utilizes balloons floating in the
energy to power these devices? Solar power is stratosphere to provide LTE wireless internet access
very convenient, but comes at a very high cost. (7). Other companies like Ushahidi are also devel-
Building transmission towers and power lines oping technologies like BRCK, a portable device
is simple, but is limited by distance to power that is meant to be durable in areas with poor IT
plants and cities. infrastructure (8). Private sector initiatives like
These questions, and others you may encounter in these have the advantage of bypassing governmen-
your research, must be addressed when suggesting tal proceedings and being more efficient in produc-
solutions. ing solutions, but are hindered by underlying goals
to be successful, profitable companies which may
impact the end users.

Conclusion

There is no magic solution to providing internet
access to the developing world. Feasible solutions
may have some form of the following components

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(but are not limited to): internet-enabled devices of 4. International Monetary Fund. “Factsheet -- The
some sort, sustainable sources of energy to power Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative.” Factsheet --
them, organizations/companies willing to provide The Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative. May 29,
internet connectivity, and the physical infrastruc- 2015. Accessed July 17, 2015. https://www.imf.
ture to support them (telephone cable for broad- org/external/np/exr/facts/mdri.htm.
band connectivity, satellites for satellite internet,
etc.). In some places, there is a lack of basic infra- 5. Barrigan, Cynthia, and Ben Hemingway. “NGO
structure that makes it difficult to even provide the Use of Information and Communications
energy to run electrical devices, which is why all Technology.” Center for Disaster and Human-
aspects of this issue must be considered. itarian Assistance Medicine. Accessed July 17,
Many obstacles need to be overcome to yield solu- 2015. http://www.cdham.org/wp-content/up-
tions, but as shown in this guide, it is not impossi- loads/2011/11/chapter-16.-ngo-use-of-informa-
ble. There are already a lot of resources and tech- tion-and-communications-technology.pdf.
nologies to work with; it is just a matter of creating
long-term plans to permanently turn on the flow of 6. Facebook. “Internet.org by Facebook.” Accessed
information to information-deprived areas. July 17, 2015. https://internet.org/about.

Questions to Consider 7. Google. “Project Loon.” Accessed June 17, 2015,
from http://www.google.com/loon/how/.

1. How do we provide information to the 60% 8. “BRCK | Rugged, Portable WiFi Hotspot & Bat-
of the world that doesn’t have access to the tery Extender.” BRCK. Accessed July 17, 2015.
internet? http://www.brck.com/.

2. What information resources do developing Helpful Resources
countries need?
1. ITU website - www.itu.int.
3. What kinds of resources are needed to convey 2. ITU ICT Facts & Figures – http://www.itu.int/
information in infrastructurally-underdevel-
oped areas? en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICT-
FactsFigures2015.pdf.
4. Who should be involved in information tech- 3. 2012 Information and Communications for De-
nology? velopment report: Maximizing Mobile - http://
siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTINFORMA-
5. How does information technology interact with TIONANDCOMMUNICATIONANDTECH-
other aspects of a country’s development? NOLOGIES/Resources/IC4D-2012-Report.pdf.
4. UNESCO: ICT in Education website - http://
Endnotes www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/themes/icts/.
5. NGO Use of Information and Communi-
1. United Nations International Telecommunica- cations Technology - http://www.cdham.
tion Union. “ITU Releases 2014 ICT Figures.” org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/chap-
ITU. 2014. Accessed July 17, 2015. https://www. ter-16.-ngo-use-of-information-and-communi-
itu.int/net/pressoffice/press_releases/2014/23. cations-technology.pdf.
aspx.

2. Hollon, Larry. “The Astounding Impact of In-
novative Technology in the Developing World.”
The Huffington Post. August 15, 2013. Accessed
July 17, 2015. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/
rev-larry-hollon/developing-world-technolo-
gy_b_3764553.html.

3. “Debt Relief Under the Heavily Indebted Poor
Countries (HIPC) Initiative.” IMF. May 29,
2015. Accessed July 17, 2015. https://www.imf.
org/external/np/exr/facts/hipc.htm.

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BUSUN XIX BROWN UNIVERSITY

MEASURES TO PROMOTE URBAN PLANNING

Background 2% of that energy being hydroelectricity (about
2,767 TWh). However, despite what this seems to
While there are many factors that must be consid- indicate, hydroelectricity is a critical power source
ered when planning cities and developing urban in many countries. In Iceland, Nepal, and Mozam-
environments, this topic will focus specifically on bique, hydroelectricity accounts for over 50% of all
three areas: renewable energy, mass transit, and electricity generated. In China, a population of 1.35
waste treatment. These aspects of urban planning billion people requires a lot of energy to function.
were chosen to give our committee clear directions In 2011, China generated 714,000 gigawatt hours
to progress through, and does not reflect a compre- (GWh) of hydroelectricity, more than the next two
hensive coverage of urban planning in general. countries (Brazil and the United States) combined.
Another renewable source of energy is a vastly un-
Renewable Energy derutilized source, compared to how much of that
energy blankets the Earth daily: solar energy. The
The attention that must be paid to energy usage in world has a predicted energy generating capacity
urban environments is reflected in two situations: of 5 petawatts (PW), but if only 0.01% of the solar
total energy consumption and environmental energy that reaches the Earth could be utilized, it
pollution. Urban areas need large, constant flows would have an energy generating capacity of 20
of electricity to provide power to what could be PW (1). Within just these two renewable energies,
millions of residents. On the other hand, producing there is a practically infinite source of power for the
energy can emit hazardous pollutants that can harm Earth. The problem is that we need to encourage
not only the environment, but also human lives. In more countries to utilize these energies instead of
order to provide massive amounts of non-polluting relying on limited fossil fuels.
energy, renewable resources need to be utilized. So- The use of non-renewable energies contributes
lar power, wind energy, geothermal energy, hydro- immensely to environmental pollution. The World
electricity, and biomass are all potential sources of Health Organization (WHO) reported in 2014 that
renewable energy that could be used in urban areas. only 12% of people lived in cities where the air
Any discussion of renewable energy must start with quality complied with WHO guidelines. This statis-
the non-renewable sources that power our current tic is reinforced by a 2012 estimate that worldwide
world. In 2011, it was estimated that the world pro- outdoor air pollution caused 3.7 million premature
duced 14,092 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe). deaths (4). As one would expect, people face higher
82% of this energy was composed of fossil fuels health risks living in urban areas where factories,
(coal, petroleum, and natural gas), 11% renewable automobiles, and combustion activities (of agricul-
energy (other than large hydroenergy), 5% nuclear tural waste, open fires / traditional stoves, etc.) are
energy, and 2% hydroenergy (1). concentrated, causing more pollutants to occupy
The World Energy Council also estimated that in the air.
2020, the world would have produced 17,208 Mtoe, Major pollutants include:
76% of which is composed of fossil fuels. While this 1. Sulfur dioxide - produces acid rain, and is
outlook is promising, it is a long way from almost
completely removing our dependency on fossil created mainly from volcanic eruptions and
fuels. We cannot expect fossil fuels to last forever, burning sulfur-containing coal and oil (most
and the ever-increasing population of the human often in power plants)
race only exacerbates this issue. It is estimated that 2. Nitrogen dioxide - generated from internal
oil reserves will be depleted in 25 years (2040), gas combustion engines, toxic to humans through
reserves will be depleted in 27 years (2042), and reduced lung function
coal reserves will last for another 97 years (2112) 3. Particulate matter - a suspension of dust, dirt,
(2). While that may seem like a long time into the soot, and smoke generated from roadways,
future, if we do not focus to reduce our dependency dusty factories, and burning objects, can cause
today, we will be unprepared when they do finally haze and reduced lung function
run out. Technologies already exist to reduce the quantities
In 2012, the world consumed 153,591 terawatt
hours (TWh) of energy (3), with approximately 9

BUSUN XIX BROWN UNIVERSITY

of these pollutants, but more effort is needed to re- However, it can be difficult at times to implement a
verse the trend of increasing pollution in the Earth’s mass transit system in an already heavily-urbanized
atmosphere. While it might be difficult to remove area. Take for example the city of Arlington, Texas:
the pollutants that already exist, we can do more With a population of 375,000 people, it is the largest
to stem the pollutants that escape into the air on a city in the United States to not have an established
daily basis. public transportation system. It currently has a bus
Power plants and automobiles contribute greatly system, but that is set to expire by the end of 2015,
to pollution, but there are existing technologies due to its residents saying that it is unnecessary
that reduce the pollutants they emit. Power plants (5). Even if a city’s residents were convinced that
can be equipped with sulfur dioxide scrubbers that it would be useful, take the case of Jarkata, Indo-
remove SO2 from the exhausts of coal plants, and nesia: with a population of 9 million people (for
automobiles have catalytic converters that remove comparison: higher than New York City), a second
carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. Howev- system of mass transit (besides a bus system) was
er, these technologies are not universal: not all needed. However, ever since starting the massive
coal-fired power plants have scrubbers, nor do all project in 2013, the entire project is scheduled to
automobiles in the world have catalytic converters. be completed by 2030, already beset by multiple
This is one area that could potentially be improved. delays. Engineers working in the city have to deal
Another set of solutions would be to convert direct- with acquiring the land to build in and removing
ly to renewable energies. For example, a percentage existing buildings such as bus stops and electricity
of all new power plants and new automobiles could substations (6).
be required to utilize renewable energies. Howev- In most modern cities, public transportation has
er, the world is still very dependent on fossil fuels; been optimized to target densely-populated areas,
making the change to renewable fuels is not going so as to be cost-efficient. In planning new cities
to happen in a short time-frame. Possible solutions however, there exists the opportunity to build cities
will need to take into account both sides, modifying around transportation systems. Such a method of
the power sources and technologies we have now, planning is termed “transit-oriented development”
while also guiding the future to use as much renew- (TOD), and it consists of building neighborhoods
able energy as possible. around transit stations, such as bus stops and metro
stations. People are then able to walk from their
Mass Transit homes to these stations, where they will commute
to work or run errands around the city. This kind of
A critical component of urban planning is mass development is able to reduce people’s need for per-
transit. As a method of transporting large volumes sonal automobiles, freeing up road space for other
of people in fewer vehicles compared to individual vehicles and reducing overall urban pollution.
commuting, it promotes city growth in that people While the technologies we have now might be
can access every sector of a city, which promotes suitable, there are always ongoing initiatives to
businesses to develop, allowing the city to expand. improve mass transit. For instance, SpaceX is host-
It is also a way to conserve energy, but with cur- ing a competition to develop the first “Hyperloop”
rent reserves of oil, coal, and natural gas depleting system, a high-speed transportation system that can
rapidly, the future of mass transit will be forced to transport passengers at around 960 kilometers per
rely on renewable energies. Transportation systems hour (7). Systems like these are suited for inter-city
in cities can take the form of buses, subways, taxis, commuting, so while they may not be applica-
trams, light rail, cable-propelled transit, or any ble within the context of a single city, it might be
combination of those systems. worthwhile to consider how a city’s public trans-
Automobile pollution is one of the largest contrib- portation system interacts with neighboring urban
uting factors to urban pollution. The exhaust emit- conglomerations, if applicable.
ted from millions of motor vehicles fills the air with
chemicals that contribute to human disease, urban Waste Treatment
smog, and overall decreased air quality. It should
be a key point in urban planning to reduce as much The world has experienced a great deal of change
as possible the amount of pollution generated, and and development as a result of urbanization. Im-
mass transit serves to fulfill this goal. By expending provements have been made towards the Millenni-
relatively small amounts of energy on moving large um Development Goals (MDGs), mainly, poverty
amounts of people, less pollution is generated. reduction. According to the World Health Organi-
zation (WHO), about 60% of the world’s population

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is estimated to be living in urban areas, and 70% by Uncontrolled solid waste is a major issue and health
2050. While the immense progress of urbanization risk for populations in growing cities. Amount of
has improved people’s standard of living in some solid waste are increasing rapidly in developing
nations, the world has faced challenges as a con- countries in East Asia, Eastern Europe and the
sequence of rapid development and urbanization. Middle East (8).
Among the many challenges, environmental degra- Integrated Solid Waste Management, is a waste
dation, such as global warming, climate change, and management approach that reduces the amount of
pollution has become an important issue (8). Unit- waste treatment by reducing, reusing and recycling
ed Nations Conference on Trade and Development the material. The method is already in practice, and
(UNCTAD) have announced that cities will take up might be the solution to the issue of poor waste
more than two thirds of the world’s global energy management (11).
and an 80% rise in greenhouse gas emissions. While In 1961 in Kalundborg, Denmark, industrial com-
developed countries have faced this challenge by panies made business by selling waste products as
increasing the use of renewable energies and new raw materials to one another. As the network grew,
eco-friendly technology, developing nations are left this method of waste management enabled waste to
behind in this aspect (9). In addition, peri-urban- be recycled and used efficiently, reducing the eco-
ization, urban growth in areas that lie between cities logical footprint of industrial companies (11).
and rural zones, suffer from unplanned urbaniza- In Sao Paulo, a Clean Development Mechanism
tion, and end up facing environmental pollution Project was approved by the United Nations
and social inequality (10). Framework Convention on Climate Change that
In India, despite its rapid economic growth, water renovated two solid waste landfills. The landfills
treatment and resources is a lying issue. Inhabitants were improved so that Methane-rich biogas was
in 114 cities and factories dump untreated sewage used to generate electric power, which supplied
into the Ganges River every day. This is not uncom- energy to 7% of households in the city. This method
mon in India, where thousands of tons of untreated decreased the amount of methane released into the
wastes are thrown into the river, which leads to site, and contributed greatly to energy reuse, and
diseases related to air and water pollution, includ- is now being implemented in other cities and areas
ing pneumonia and bronchitis (9). (11).
China is struggling with the externality of high These examples show that Integrated Solid Waste
level of air pollution. According to UN documents, Management is a method that maintains sustain-
lung cancer mortality in cities is four to seven times ability, by establishing a circular economy by using
higher than in the nation as a whole. The concen- waste as an energy source. This approach minimizes
tration of air pollution in urban areas is a crucial the less-preferred waste in landfills, and leaves less
issue that continues to threaten the nation (9). damage to the environment, and less risk to people’s
Klang Valley, Malaysia, an urbanized area, has health.
pollution levels that are two to three times com-
pared to major cities in the United States. Industries Questions to Consider
have contaminated the Klang River, which is now
filled with agricultural and industrial effluents and 1. How can we reduce the world’s dependency on
sewage (9). fossil fuels?
As the majority of the world population move into
cities, the role of technological development have 2. What renewable energies can we utilize effec-
become essential to promote urban planning to cre- tively in urban environments?
ate a healthy environment. The underdevelopment
of public utility and infrastructure can risk people’s 3. How can we reduce environmental pollution in
health and quality of living (8). In the light of this urban environments?
problem, sustainable urbanization has become a
popular topic when discussing the development of 4. What systems of mass transit are suitable for
nations. Alongside renewable energy and the avail- urban environments?
ability of mass transit, waste management is one
of the many indicators that nations must take into 5. How can we reduce the dependency of mass
account in the developing world. transit on fossil fuels?

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BUSUN XIX BROWN UNIVERSITY

6. How can we design cities to effectively utilize 8. “Healthy Urban Planning.” World Health
systems of mass transit? Organization. Accessed June 5, 2015. http://
www.who.int/kobe_centre/interventions/ur-
7. What are ways to reduce the inequality of pub- ban_planning/en/.
lic utility and resources due to rapid urbaniza-
tion? How can methods and programmes be 9. “UN Documents Gathering a Body of Global
implemented even in peri-urbanized areas? Agreements.” Our Common Future, Chapter 9:
The Urban Challenge. Accessed June 5, 2015.
8. What are certain waste management systems http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-09.htm.
that can be applied in your country and why?
10. Fortune, Addis. “Ethiopia: Urban Agriculture -
9. Are there specific ways the government can Worthy, but Not Trendy.” All Africa. February
persuade private sectors and companies to 24, 2015. Accessed July 14, 2015. http://allafri-
gradually increase the use of eco-friendly re- ca.com/stories/201502241253.html.
sources?
11. “SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNO-
Endnotes VATION FOR SUSTAINABLE URBANIZA-
TION.” UNCTAD Current Studies on Science,
1. World Energy Council. “World Energy Re- Technology and Innovation. 2013. Accessed
sources 2013 Survey.” Accessed June 19, 2015. May 29, 2015. http://unctad.org/en/Publica-
https://www.worldenergy.org/wp-content/up- tionsLibrary/dtlstict2014d2_en.pdf.
loads/2013/09/Complete_WER_2013_Survey.
pdf. Helpful Resources

2. Shafiee, Shahriar, and Erkan Topal. “When Will 1. Sustainable Urban Energy Planning guidebook
Fossil Fuel Reserves Be Diminished?” Energy - http://www.unep.org/urban_environment/
Policy 37, no. 1 (2009): 181-89. doi:10.1016/j. PDFs/Sustainable_Energy_Handbook.pdf.
enpol.2008.08.016.
2. World Energy Resources 2013 Survey (link in
3. U.S. Energy Information Administra- Works Cited).
tion. “International Energy Statistics.” EIA.
2012. Accessed June 24, 2015. http://www. 3. WHO Outdoor Air Quality and Health fact-
eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/iedindex3. sheet (link in Works Cited).
cfm?tid=44&pid=44&aid=2&cid=ww,&sy-
id=2012&eyid=2012&unit=QBTU. 4. UNSD Energy Statistics Database - http://data.
un.org/Explorer.aspx?d=EDATA.
4. World Health Organization. “Ambient (out-
door) Air Quality and Health.” WHO. March 1, 5. International Energy Agency Statistics - http://
2014. Accessed June 22, 2015. http://www.who. www.iea.org/statistics.
int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/.
6. WHO 2014 Ambient Air Pollution in Cities da-
5. Barry, Keith. “Biggest American Town Without tabase - http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/
Public Transportation Finally Catches the Bus.” outdoorair/databases/cities/en/.
Wired.com. August 27, 2013. Accessed June 25,
2015. http://www.wired.com/2013/08/arling- 7. UN AGECC 2010 Report - http://www.un.org/
ton-texas-bus/. wcm/webdav/site/climatechange/shared/
Documents/AGECC%20summary%20re-
6. Webb, Chris. “Japanese Contractors Tack- port%5B1%5D.pdf.
le Jakarta’s $1.8-Billion Mass Transit Pro-
gram.” Engineering News-Record. April 29, 8. ESMAP: Toward Sustainable and Energy
2015. Accessed June 25, 2015. http://enr. Efficient Urban Transport - http://www.esmap.
construction.com/infrastructure/transporta- org/sites/esmap.org/files/DocumentLibrary/ES-
tion/2015/0429-japanese-contractors-tackle-ja- MAP_CEETI_MayoralNote-Transport_4.pdf.
kartas-18billion-mass-transit-program.asp.
9. World Bank: Formulating an Urban Transport
7. “Hyperloop.” SpaceX. Accessed June 24, 2015. Policy guidebook - https://openknowledge.
http://www.spacex.com/hyperloop. worldbank.org/handle/10986/20950.
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10. Center for Transit-Oriented Development:

Transit Corridors and TOD - http://ctod.org/
pdfs/tod203.pdf.
11. UNChronicle: Addressing the Sustainable
Urbanization Challenge - http://unchronicle.
un.org/article/addressing-sustainable-urbaniza-
tion-challenge/.
12. UNEP: Global Partnership on Waste Man-
agement - http://www.unep.org/gpwm/Back-
ground/tabid/56401/Default.aspx.
13. Citylab: With Urbanization Comes Moun-
tains of Trash - http://www.citylab.com/
work/2012/06/urbanization-comes-moun-
tains-trash/2273/.
14. Urbanization and Solid Waste Management in
India: Present Practices and Future Challenges
- http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/S1877042812007884.

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