6545 JClin Bodies recovered from personal approach and ...

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6545 JClin Pathol 1992;45:654-659

Bodies recovered from water: a personal
approach and consideration of difficulties

W Lawler

Department of Introduction It has been reported that about 85-95% of
Pathological Sciences, those dying from water inhalation present
The Medical School, For the pathologist providing a routine nec- features of drowning,59 although in most, not
Stopford Building, ropsy service to the local coroner, examination all the typical features are seen9; the remainder
Oxford Road, of bodies recovered from water can generate die from vagal inhibition (sometimes, inaccu-
Manchester M13 9PT the most difficult of interpretational problems, rately, known as "dry drowning", and once
W Lawler and this is probably the prime context where designated "hydrocution"), or the post
immersion syndrome; perhaps, rarely, laryn-
Correspondence to: appropriate historical and circumstantial evi- geal spasm may be important.
Dr W Lawler dence is vital to interpretation and overall
At this stage, it is worth remembering that
Accepted for publication conclusions,' 2 although such collateral evi- hypothermia can supervene very quickly in
20 December 1991 individuals swimming or trying to remain
dence should always be available before any afloat in cold water, and that it may be an
important factor contributing to their
coroner's necropsy is undertaken.3
It must be appreciated, at the outset, that death'0 "; indeed, hypothermia may be the

not all persons whose bodies are recovered main cause of death after shipwreck in the
from water will have died from its inhalation,
although they may show features reflecting open sea.1 12
immersion in water. Such bodies should there-
fore be particularly carefully examined, both DROWNING
externally and internally, to catalogue (and
subsequently to explain satisfactorily) all inju- Mechanisms for death from drowning are
ries present, to determine whether death multiple, complex, and, in part, still incom-
indeed followed immersion in the water, and to pletely understood. Although drowning is
see whether any natural disease, such as much more than simple asphyxia following
ischaemic heart disease, cerebrovascular dis- mechanical airway obstruction by water, this
ease, and hypertension, may have contributed process probably does at least contribute.
to, precipitated, or even caused death. It is also Major factors, however, seem to be osmotic
important to determine whether the deceased and perhaps also hydrostatic effects of the
was under the influence of alcohol or other inhaled fluid once it reaches alveolar spaces
drugs at the time of death (although inter- and gains access to semipermeable alveolar
pretation of laboratory results should be influ- membranes; here, water and electrolyte
enced by the knowledge that, as discussed exchanges take place, the nature of which is
below, classic fresh water drowning may influenced by the tonicity of the inhaled fluid-
increase the blood volume by as much as fresh or salt water.
30-35%). Finally, the pathologist has a vital
role in determining, from all pathological and Fresh water This is hypotonic relative to
circumstantial evidence available, whether the plasma. Therefore, when present in alveoli, it is
overall findings are consistent with, or even rapidly absorbed into the pulmonary circula-
point directly towards accident, suicide, or tion; this causes pronounced haemodilution
homicide. (the blood volume may be increased by up to
30-35%) which, in turn, soon produces local
Unfortunately many bodies recovered from haemolysis. Although haemodilution will lead
water will have been there for several days, and to hyponatraemia, circulatory overload, and,
decomposition may have obscured or ultimately, high output cardiac failure, hae-
destroyed features of drowning; nevertheless, molysis is probably more important, as it
careful examination may elicit sufficient pos- causes hyperkalaemia and consequent cardiac
itive or negative findings to allow reasonable arrhythmias, particularly with concomitant
conclusions to be drawn. generalised hypoxia. These changes can
develop very rapidly-over a few minutes,
For the pathologist to interpret accurately supporting the view that drowning in fresh
the necropsy findings, it is necessary briefly to water tends to occur more quickly than in sea
consider the mechanisms of death after sub-
mersion in water and to appreciate the results water.5 6
of immersion in water, including artefactual
injuries.

Mechanisms of death after submersion Salt water is hypertonic relative to plasma.
in water Therefore, when present in alveoli, it attracts
These are well documented in several water into the airways from the pulmonary
standard textbooks of forensic medicine and circulation, causing local haemoconcentration
pathology.48 and severe pulmonary oedema. Haemocon-
centration increases blood viscosity and pro-

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Bodies recovered from water: a personial approach anid cotisideratioon of difficullies

duces acute hypernatraemia, while severe Findings and interpretations in deaths
pulmonary oedema causes clinically import- after submersion in water
ant hypoxia/hypercapnoea; all these factors It is important to distinguish changes directly
adversely affect the heart, with bradycardia attributable to death following submersion
and, ultimately, asystole. (discussed here) from those which purely
reflect immersion (discussed later). The chan-
"VAGAL INHIBITION" ("REFLEX CARDIAC ARREST") ges described here, which are well documented
in standard textbooks4 ' and review art-
This is a well recognised and accepted mech- icles,'8 20 are those encountered in fresh bod-
anism, particularly since Simpson's widely ies-that is, those removed from the water
quoted review. '3 Vagus nerve branches may be before decomposition becomes established;
stimulated in several ways, with a direct and once a lengthy delay has occurred, positive
perhaps almost instantaneously fatal cardiac diagnosis may be difficult.
inhibition. Following submersion, it may be
initiated by the sudden and unexpected entry DROWNING
of water into the larynx, nose, or naso-
pharynx4 4 16; concurrent emotional states Externally, although a range of changes may be
may act as a contributing sensitising factor.'6 identified, there may be nothing specific to
Vagal inhibition seems to be more common drowning. Sometimes, however, firm, tena-
when the submersion is total and unantici- cious foam is present at the mouth or nostrils.
pated, when the victim is under the influence Typically, it is white or blood tinged, and
of alcohol and/or other drugs, when the water reappears after wiping away. It is thought to
is cold, and when the individual enters it feet represent an admixture of air, fluid, mucus and
first. surfactant, and therefore an ante mortem
phenomenon.
LARYNGEAL SPASM Internally, the foam, even if not apparent
externally, is often found in major airways or
This probably occurs, at least to some extent, secondary bronchi and bronchioles. The air-
in most individuals following submersion, as it ways may also contain water and such extrinsic
presumably represents a normal reflex to fluid materials as silt, weeds, or sand. Similar
entering the larynx.6 15 In most, however, it substances (particularly water) may be swal-
seems to be transient, and a true asphyxial lowed and thus identified within the stomach.
death from laryngeal spasm, if it occurs at all, Pulmonary changes vary according to the
is probably extremely rare. Gardner reports drowning fluid, although they are often not as
having seen only one fatal case-in a boy aged distinct as suggested by differences in causative
8 who sank into water immediately after mechanisms and as implied in some text-
jumping in, and whose body showed asphyxial books.
changes and no features of drowning. '5 This
mechanism is discussed by Polson, Gee, and Fresh water
Knight,6 who quote Gardner's case but do not Typically, the lungs are almost twice their
offer any of their own; they do, however, state normal weight, and present an appearance
that laryngeal spasm is "a rare mode of death sometimes still designated "emphysema aquo-
from submersion." Several reviews9 12 16 do sum"-they are bulky and overdistended (such
not mention it at all; some, illogically, link it that they may well overlap the pericardial sac
with vagal inhibition as a mechanism for and meet in the midline), with a very charac-
almost instantaneous death, and do not refer to teristic doughy texture which causes them to
asphyxial features.4 My views, and, I believe, pit on digital pressure and sometimes to show
those of many colleagues involved in forensic prominent rib markings. Classic petechial
pathology, are well summarised by Donald, 7 haemorrhages are uncommon, but larger sub-
who says "previous literature would suggest pleural and intrapulmonary haemorrhages may
that a number of human beings are drowned be identified. Section releases frothy, often
with dry lungs owing to glottic spasm, but little blood tinged fluid. Elsewhere, haemodilution
convincing evidence has been produced". causes the blood to appear rather "watery";
Recently, Knight has stated "another mechan- haemolysis may produce intimal staining of
ism that is often postulated as a cause of non- major vessels.
drowning immersion death is 'laryngeal
spasm', leading to a hypoxic death from Salt water
closure of the airway.8 The evidence for such a Typically, the lungs are slightly, but not always
condition is tenuous, as such closure would significantly, heavier than in fresh water
have to operate for a considerable time for
hypoxia to kill, all the time keeping the larynx drowning,2' and although overdistended, clas-
closed to prevent entry of water."
sic emphysema aquosum is less pronounced;
POST IMMERSION SYNDROME (SECONDARY on section, greater quantities of frothy fluid
tend to be released. Pleural effusions may also
DROWNING) be present.

Occasionally, individuals survive the immer- VAGAL INHIBITION
sion and are recovered alive from the water,
only to die later from delayed effects or other This is really a diagnosis of exclusion based not
complications. Such deaths are usually pulmo- only on negative pathological and toxicological
nary, reflecting surfactant loss following fluid findings, but also on appropriate circum-
inhalation; some represent prolonged, pro- stantial evidence; necropsy shows no foam in
found hypoxia.'8"1 the airways, no emphysema aquosum, no

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65L6 66wler

petechial haemorrhages and no clinically rele- diatomologists undertake taxonomic analyses
vant natural disease.6 ' and comparisons of test and control

LAYRNGEAL SPASM samples.26 27

Here, presuming the existence of this entity, ELECTROLYTES
the features are those of classic mechanical
asphyxia, including cyanosis, congestion, and The haemodilution of fresh water drowning or
widespread petechial haemorrhages; there is the haemoconcentration of salt water drowning
little or no water in the airways (although some may be reflected in different electrolyte (partic-
may be present in the stomach), no or minimal ularly chloride ion) concentrations and plasma
osmolarity or specific gravity between the
airway froth, and no emphysema aquosum.' 5 different sides of the heart,28 29 although most
Such findings indicate the possibility of an workers find these tests unreliable and quite
unhelpful2 8 12 16 30; furthermore, as both are
asphyxial death before entry into the water invalidated by decomposition, they can only be
which must be actively and seriously con- of any possible value in bodies recovered soon
sidered, as this mechanism for death following after death.4 6 22
submersion is extremely rare, if it exists at
all.

POST IMMERSION SYNDROME (SECONDARY Effects of immersion in water
These, reviewed in standard texts,459 are
DROWNING) obviously influenced by duration and water

With short term survival, lungs develop haem- temperature, but other factors, such as
orrhagic, desquamative bronchopneumonia, whether the water is still or flowing, fresh or
with intra-alveolar hyaline membranes; later,
abscesses may develop, and granulomatous salt, clean or polluted, are also relevant.
reactions to inhaled foreign particles may be
identified.'8 19 Simultaneously, there may be Immersion modifies most changes after
hypoxic damage elsewhere, particularly in cer-
ebrum, brain stem, and renal tubules. death. Body cooling will relate directly to the

"Confirmatory" tests for drowning water temperature. In the United Kingdom
Two are often quoted as providing evidence for
drowning. In practice, both are difficult to cooling in water is roughly twice that in air, and
perform and to interpret, with many false is accelerated in flowing rivers and streams.
positive and false negative results.2
Onset and duration of rigor mortis are also
DIATOMS affected by water temperature: in cold water
onset is delayed and duration prolonged.
This subject has generated much debate and Drowning is a well recognised context in which
controversy, with strong arguments in favour of cadaveric spasm (instantaneous rigor) may be
and against diatom identification as a helpful
diagnostic test; review articles are avail- encountered ("the drowning man clutching at
able,22 25 26 and the subject has been discussed straws"). As most submerged bodies float
in standard textbooks.' 5 8 Diatoms (Bacillar- prone, with arms and legs hanging downwards,
iophyceae) are unicellular algae with hard silica- hypostasis (lividity) is usually maximal on face,
ceous exoskeletons resistant to decomposition, neck, upper anterior chest, forearms, hands,
heat, and acids strong enough to destroy soft lower legs and feet. In Caucasians it may be
tissues. Over 10 000 species and types exist, appreciably pink, perhaps because immersion
about half in fresh water and half in brackish or facilitates oxygenation through the wet skin
sea water; unfortunately, they are not found in after death,7 9 12 or perhaps merely the result of
substantial numbers all year round, the peaks cold.8 With fast flowing water, the constant
being spring and autumn. In theory, drowning movement may impair, if not inhibit com-
should allow diatoms to enter not only the pletely, development of hypostasis.
lungs, but also, via the circulation, other
organs. Therefore, in the drowned, diatoms Decomposition (putrefaction) is also influ-
should be extractable, after tissue digestion in enced by water temperature. In the United
strong acids, from such remote sites as bone Kingdom time intervals associated with the
marrow, liver, brain and kidneys. Unfortu- various standard changes are about twice as
nately, two main problems exist: first, there long as those in air, but may be prolonged
may be insufficient or even no diatoms in the further in flowing water and reduced in heavy
drowning fluid-from seasonal variations as pollution. In tropical waters decomposition
noted above or following pollution by efflu- may be established by 24 hours, whereas none
ent-second, when identified, they may repre- may be apparent after several weeks in water
sent "contamination", such as during nec- constantly below 40°F (5°C). With advancing
ropsy, from tap water, from reagents, from decomposition, gas formation increases buoy-
food via the deceased's gastrointestinal tract or ancy until ultimately (in the United Kingdom
even from the atmosphere. At best, despite after about three to 14 days, depending on the
strict, proper techniques and appropriate con- season),9 and providing it is free to do so, the
trols23 27 the diatom test can only provide body will float, often, because of intestinal
supportive evidence of drowning.25 Such reser- putrefactive gases, belly upwards.4 Inter-
vations probably apply even when experienced estingly, once a submerged body is exposed to
air after recovery, decomposition often pro-
ceeds very rapidly, and this may well continue
despite apparently adequate refrigera-
tion.469'2 With prolonged immersion, adipo-
cere will form.

Maceration, the skin change which charac-
terises immersion, is due to water absorp-

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Bodies recovered from water: a personal approach and consideration of difficulties

tion.6 ' ' It first appears on finger tips, and then deceased's swimming ability-are known by
involves the palm followed by the back of the the pathologist before starting the necropsy.
hand; similar changes soon affect feet and skin Indeed, most experienced pathologists would
elsewhere. The skin becomes whitened, sod- agree that this is one of the few areas where
den, thickened and wrinkled (an appearance collateral evidence can be vital when trying to
sometimes designated "washerwoman's skin"). reach the most appropriate conclusions.
With time, the epidermis becomes loose and
peels; finally, nails and hair become detached. I believe that four groups of questions must
Maceration is accelerated in warm water be addressed and answered by the patholo-
(where it may appear within minutes), but, in gist:
general, it takes about eight to 24 hours for (1) What injuries are present on and within
early changes to become apparent outdoors in the body? How can each be explained satisfac-
temperate climes. By about seven to 10 days, torily? Consideration needs to be given to the
epidermal separation may have started, and by possibility of artefactual injuries as discussed
about three to four weeks, the skin and nails above. The likelihood that some, most, or even
may be sufficiently loose to allow removal like all the injuries identified were deliberately
a glove. Clothing, including footwear, delays inflicted by an assailant must always be borne
maceration, perhaps by up to 50%. in mind, and may need appropriate investiga-
tion and active exclusion.
Following the above observations and com- (2) What natural diseases are present? May
ments, it is obvious that considerable variation they have produced sudden collapse and thus
exists between the different changes; conse- either caused death or precipitated drowning?
quently, it is extremely difficult to estimate the Here, not only obvious structural abnormal-
duration of immersion, and great care needs to ities, such as ischaemic heart disease, cerebro-
be exercised when trying to draw reasonable vascular disease, and hypertension, but also
conclusions.4 functional disorders, the existence of which is
only apparent from the deceased's medical
Artefactual injuries during immersion history, such as epilepsy, hypoglycaemia and
in water cardiac arrhythmias, should be considered.
These are common, and may provide inter- (3) What was the cause of death? Although
pretational difficulties. ' 4 7-9 As most sub- most bodies recovered from water have died
merged bodies float prone, with arms and legs from its inhalation, the individual could have
hanging downwards, contact with the rough fallen into it after collapse and death from
bed of the stream, river, lake or sea will natural causes. The possibility of death from
produce abrasions maximal over forehead, the actions of an assailant followed by immer-
backs of hands, knees and toes. Tides or sion ("dumping") in water as a means of
currents may crush the body against fixed disposal must always be considered.
objects, such as rocks, bridges, quays, weirs, (4) Could the deceased's actions before enter-
wharfs and piers or ships; propellers may also ing the water or once in it have been modified
inflict considerable damage. by the influence of alcohol or other drugs?
Here, the case for requesting routine toxico-
Exposed skin may be bitten or chewed by logical analyses is strong-if only to facilitate
fish, shellfish, and other marine life including interpretation of circumstances surrounding
aquatic mammals, and some creatures are able the death.
to gain access to skin below loose clothing.
Occasionally, such large marine animals as Death certification
sharks cause extensive lesions. Once the questions considered above have
been answered satisfactorily by the pathologist,
Although not always artefactual, serious formal death certification is required. This may
injuries may be sustained either before the be straightforward (Ia drowning; or Ia vagal
water was reached (on projecting rocks, pier inhibition, due to lb submersion in water; or
pilings, bridge supports and quaysides) or when death resulted entirely from natural
while entering the water, especially after falling causes). But when drowning is associated with
or jumping from a considerable height. The natural diseases or drugs it may be difficult,
force generated by the latter may be sufficient and the pathologist needs to appreciate the
to rupture internal organs. implications of using the standard death certif-
icate format.3' If it is thought that death from
A personal approach to pathological submersion in water was the direct result of
conclusions natural disease or intoxication by drugs it
As stated earlier, the pathological examination should be so certified (Ia drowning, due to Ib
of a body recovered from water and the intracerebral haemorrhage, due to Ic essential
drawing of reasonable and justifiable infer- hypertension). But if the pathologist believes
ences from the findings can be difficult.2 Each that, given all pathological and circumstantial
case has to be considered on merit, but it is evidence available, death from submersion
essential that all circumstances-how and occurred regardless of any natural disease or
where the body was found, whether there were intoxication present, then only the mechanism
any local factors preventing the deceased responsible for death should appear on the
extricating himself from the area involved, the certificate.2 It must be remembered firstly that
mental and physical state of the deceased when individuals can die with and not necessarily
last seen alive, the deceased's background from diseases and conditions found at post
medical history and even, perhaps, the

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658

mortem examination. Secondly, at present, the Deaths in the bath
death certificate used in the United Kingdom These may present particular problems, and
does not allow for the inclusion of conditions always require adequate explanation.4 1241 43
which have not caused or contributed signifi-
cantly to death.3' Such deaths may, of course, be unrelated to

If the pathological findings are negative, inhalation of bath water-for example from
ambiguous, or obscured by advanced decom- natural causes, overdose of drugs or, occasion-
position certification as "unascertained" (a
term understood and accepted by coroners32) ally, electrocution. When water inhalation is
may be honest, accurate and entirely appro- considered relevant by the pathologist, the
priate.3' The qualification "appearances here
are entirely consistent with drowning" or death may, as discussed above, be accidental,
"appearances here are entirely consistent with
death following immersion in water" may be suicidal, or homicidal. Precipitation into the
helpful and appreciated by the investigating water by natural disease should always be
authorities. considered, as should the influence of poison-
ing, not only by alcohol or drugs, but also by
Circumstances: accident, suicide or
homicide? carbon monoxide from faulty water heaters.
In practice, almost all deaths after submersion
in water are either accidental or suicidal; only a With apparently accidental deaths, many
few are homicidal. These questions have been pathologists would agree with Cameron that "a

addressed elsewhere' 47 '9 but are worth con- normal healthy conscious person does not

sidering briefly here. Sometimes the question drown accidentally and that the possibility of
is more complicated in theory than in practice, such an accident occurring from falling asleep
as strong collateral evidence may render med- is a convenient, but virtually unsubstantiated,
ical data of secondary importance.9 myth." 2
Accidental deaths predominate, and occur
under a wide range of circumstances.4 In a Some authors believe that adult deaths in the
substantial minority, perhaps 20% or even
more, particularly among the young adult age bath are most likely to be suicidal4 42; others
groups, the victim is under the influence of consider suicide by self immersion to be rare. 12
drugs, especially alcohol4733 38 ("Bacchus In infancy and early childhood, although most
hath drowned more men than Nepture"35). deaths are accidental and reflect inadequate
Here, sudden cooling of skin which is warmer adult supervision, deliberate immersion is well
than normal because of vasodilatation may be documented, and should always be considered
an important factor in deaths both from and investigated accordingly.44 45
drowning and from vagal inhibition. In many
of the remainder precipitation by clinically 1 Knight B. The Coroner's autopsy. A guide to non-criminal
important natural disease may be relevant. autopsies for the general pathologist. Edinburgh: Churchill
Suicidal deaths are probably commoner than is Livingstone, 1983:251-68.
appreciated or acknowledged,4 39but returning
a verdict of suicide in the absence of confirma- 2 Davis JH. Bodies found in the water. An investigative
tory or good circumstantial evidence is obvi- approach. Am Jf Forens Med Pathol 1986;7:291-7.
ously inappropriate and unfair to surviving
relatives. It is worth remembering that individ- 3 Lawler W The negative coroner's necropsy: a personal
uals who commit suicide may first resort to approach and consideration of difficulties. J7 Clin Pathol
alcohol or other drugs for "courage" and that 1990;40:977-80.
suicides may have substantial natural dis-
4 Giertsen JC. In: Tedeschi CG, Eckert WG, Tedeschi LG,
eases. eds. Forensic medicine. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co,
Homicidal deaths are uncommon40 as it 1977:1317-33.

requires a considerable physical disparity 5 Pullar P. In: Mant AK, ed. Taylor's principles and practice of
between the assailant and the victim, or for the medical jurisprudence. 13th ed. Edinburgh: Churchill
victim to be incapacitated by disease, drink, or Livingstone, 1984:292-303.
drugs, or for the victim to be taken by
surprise.6 Nevertheless, the pathologist must 6 Polson CJ, Gee DJ, Knight B. The essentials of forensic
actively consider and positively exclude this medicine. 4th ed. Oxford: Pergammon Press, 1985:
possibility in every body recovered from water; 421-48.
only then will missed homicides be minimised,
although without evidence of violence, the 7 Gordon I, Shapiro HA, Berson SD. Forensic medicine. A
presumption must be that death was accidental guide to principles. 3rd edn. Edinburgh: Churchill Living-
or suicidal.6 Therefore, it is essential that all stone, 1988:115-25.
injuries on and within the body are docu-
mented and subsequently explained to the 8 Knight B. Forensic pathology. London: Edward Arnold,
complete satisfaction of all parties-patholo- 1991:360-74.
gists, investigating police officers and Coroner/
procurator fiscal. When any doubts exist, it is 9 Simpson K. In: Simpson K, ed. Taylor's principles and practice
wise to engage a specialist forensic pathologist of medical jurisprudence. 12th edn. London: Churchill,
at an early stage. 1965:368-83.

10 Keatinge WR, Prys-Roberts C, Cooper KE, Honour AJ,
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15 Gardner E. Mechanism of certain forms of sudden death in
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Bodies recovered from water: a personal
approach and consideration of difficulties.

W Lawler
J Clin Pathol 1992 45: 654-659

doi: 10.1136/jcp.45.8.654

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